1. art and entertainment
2. music
3. music genres
4. country music

COVER SHEET
This is the author-version of article published as:
Pike, Steven D (2002) Destination Image Analysis: A Review of 142 Papers from
1973-2000. . Tourism Management 23(5):pp. 541-549.
Accessed from http://eprints.qut.edu.au
Copyright 2002 Elsevier
Destination Image Analysis - A Review of 142 Papers from 1973 to 2000
Steve Pike
Pike, S. (2002). Destination Image Analysis: A Review of 142 Papers from
1973-2000. Tourism Management. 23(5): 541-549.
ABSTRACT
The analysis of destination image is relatively recent. However, in almost
three decades since the first studies emerged, the topic has become one of
the most popular in the tourism research literature. A review of 142 destination
image papers, published in the literature during the period 1973 -2000, was
undertaken to provide destination image researchers with a reference guide to
the context, method and focus of previous studies.
Key words: Destination image. Travel context.
INTRODUCTION
At the 2000 Travel & Tourism Research Association (TTRA)
conference in Los Angeles, John Hunt used the analogy of three peasants
breaking in a new field, to describe the 1970s destination image research
undertaken by himself, Edward Mayo and Clare Gunn. In almost three
decades since this early work, the topic has become one of the most
prevalent in the tourism literature.
Researchers now have a wealth of destination image literature at their
disposal. A review of 142 destination image papers, published in the literature
during the period 1973-2000, was undertaken to produce a synthesis of key
characteristics. It was felt that such a summary would provide destination
marketers with a useful reference guide.
Two significant reviews of the destination image literature have
previously been reported, both of which were a decade ago. Chon’s (1990)
review of twenty-three frequently cited destination image studies, found the
most popular themes were the role and influence of destination image in
traveller buyer behaviour and satisfaction:
The central postulates of the destination image studies are that
a destination image has a crucial role in an individual’s travel
purchase related decision making and that the individual
traveler’s satisfaction/dissatisfaction with a travel purchase
largely depends on a comparison of his expectation about the
destination, or a previously held destination image, and his
perceived performance of the destination. (p. 3)
Echtner and Ritchie (1991) examined the conceptualisation and
operationalization of fifteen previous studies. Their review concluded that
researchers had not yet been successful in operationalizing destination
image. They also found that researchers held a strong preference for
quantitative techniques, with few involving consumers in unstructured
methods.
The current review was limited to the following issues:
• How many studies examined destination image in an explicit travel
context?
• How many studies used a structured approach?
• How many studies utilised qualitative methods in either the
measurement of destination image or in the development of attribute
lists?
• What range of methods was used in the data analysis?
• Apart from measuring destination image, positioning, satisfaction or
attribute importance, what other research foci or moderating variables
have been of interest?
LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of 142 papers in the destination image literature from the
period 1973-2000 was undertaken. Table 1 presents a summary of the
findings, where studies have been presented in chronological order. Due to
the way the data has been summarised, the following explanatory notes are
provided:
Column A lists the number of destinations of interest. Column B lists
the number of attributes used as independent variables in those papers that
used structured methods. Column C uses ‘U’ to denote that unstructured
methods were used, either to measure destination image or in the design of
an attribute list. Column D lists the number of respondents/subjects. Column E
lists the main techniques used to analyse data, which were coded as: analysis
of means (A), ranking/preferences (R), repertory grid (G), mapping (M),
importance-performance analysis (I), conjoint analysis (Q), constant sum (S),
factor analysis (F), t-tests (T), perceptual mapping/multi-dimensional scaling
(P), cluster/discriminant analysis (C), and other (O).
FINDINGS
• Relatively few papers attempted to measure destination image for any
specific travel context. In fact, travel context was explicit in only 23 of
the 142 papers.
• The most popular region for study was North America, which was
included in 58 papers. This was followed by UK/Europe (45), Asia (25),
Australasia (19), Africa (14), Central America/Caribbean (9), South
Pacific (5) and South America (1).
• Over half of the papers (75) measured the perceptions of only one
destination, without a frame of reference to any competing destinations.
• The most popular type of destination of interest was countries, which
were analysed in 56 papers. This was followed by States (27), cities
(26), resort areas (23) and provinces (11).
•
•
•
•
•
The majority of papers (114) used structured techniques to
operationalise the destination image construct.
Less than half of the papers (63) reported the use of qualitative
methods, involving consumers, at any stage of the research.
The most popular data analysis technique was factor analysis, which
was reported in 41 papers. This was followed by t-tests (21), perceptual
mapping (21), analysis of means (20), cluster analysis (14),
importance-performance analysis (9), repertory grid (8), mapping
techniques (3), constant sum (2) and conjoint analysis (1).
A total of 59 papers targeted visitors at destinations, while 55 papers
included consumers at their place of residence. The latter approach
enables the potential capture of previous visitors to the destination(s) of
interest, as well as non-visitors. A number of papers sought the views
of travel trade/experts (20), student samples (15), Destination
Marketing Organisation (DMO) staff (3) and local residents (2).
The papers covered a wide range of range of interests. These were:
the effect of visitation (15), segmentation (12), image differences
between different groups (8), affect (6), the effect of distance from the
destination (6), intermediaries (6), induced images (5), top of mind
awareness (ToMA)/decision sets (5), culture (4), temporal image
change (3), negative images (3), the effect of familiarity with the
destination (3), less developed destinations (3), length of stay (LOS)
(3), event impact (2), scale validity (2), value (2), image formation (2),
and single papers interested in primary image, rural tourism, weather,
traveller confidence, impulse decision-making, travel context, barriers
to positioning, personal holiday photos, motivation, experience,
stereotypes, budget travellers, intent to visit and Destination Marketing
Organisation (DMO) policy.
(INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE)
SUMMARY
A total of 142 destination image papers from the literature during the period
1973-2000 were reviewed. It was felt that a summary of key characteristics
would provide researchers with a useful reference guide to previous studies.
For example, if a researcher was interested in applying a specific technique
such as repertory grid, the table provides eight references to its application in
destination image research.
In terms of operationalising destination image, there has been recurring
criticism of the use of attribute lists (Dann, 1996). It was apparent from the
review however that there is not yet an accepted theory to replace the multiattribute models. While the destination image construct has proven difficult to
measure, consumers’ overall perceptions of a destination may be either
favourable or unfavourable (Milman and Pizam, 1995). Clearly, the volume of
work in this field emphasises the need for destinations to develop favourable
images. The summary provides references to an array of techniques that
destination marketers may use to measure whether they have been
successful in this regard.
Table 1: Summary of Destination Image Studies 1973 - 2000
Author
Mayo
Anderssen & Colberg
Matejka
Gearing, Swart & Var
Hunt
Riley & Palmer
Ehemann
Var, Beck & Loftus
Pearce
Goodrich
Ritchie & Zins
Scott, Schewe & Frederick
Pizam, Neumann & Reichel
Palmer
Crompton
Ferrario
Pearce
Date
1973
1973
1973
1974
1975
1975
1977
1977
1977
1977
1978a
1978b
1979
1978
1978
1978
1978
1979
1979
1982
McLennan & Foushee
Haahti & Yavas
Morello
1983
1983
1983
Jaffe & Nebenzahl
1984
Crompton & Duray
SIlberman
Wee, Hakam & Ong
Witter
Kale & Weir
Dillon, Domzal & Madden
1985
1985
1985
1985
1986
1986
Perdue
Gartner
Shih
Phelps
Gartner & Hunt
Botterill & Crompton
1986
1986
1986
1986
1987
1987
Context
Self drive
Winter
Spring break
Boating
Region
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
Central America
A
8
9
1
65
4
25
1
19
1
9
Type
State
Resort
State
Other
State
Resort
Country
Other
City
State, Country
B
1
8
20
17
20
C
N/A
Nth America
Nth America
UK/Europe
Central America
Africa
UK/Europe, Africa
1
4
1
10
1
1
2
Other
State
City
Other
Country
Country
Country
20
18
32
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America,
UK/Europe
Nth America, Asia
UK/Europe, Africa
Nth America
Nth America
Asia
Nth America
Asia
Nth America
Central America
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
Central America
1
12
8
Country
Country
Country
12
10
12
5
Country
13
1
1
1
1
1
7
State
Resort
Country
Resort
Country
Country, Resort
28
7
14
10
26
20
U
3
4
1
1
4
1
Other
State
State
Resort
State
Country
12
13
37
32
11
U
U
17
10
30
21
13
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
D
670
50
82
1
1262
60
0
60
72
230
E
P
FP
O
O
A
GFC
O
O
M
PCF
Sample
Visitors
Students
Consumers
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Consumers
N/A
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Consumers
Other Focus
Impulse
Segmentation
135
313
685
60
617
5053
97
F
C
F
GP
A
A
G
Culture
Distance
Negative media
LOS. Differences
Segmentation
221
681
66
A
A
O
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Students
Visitors
Visitors,
Consumers
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Students
200
O
Consumers
Scale validity
544
621
218
375
90
80
I
O
T
TF
A
P
Consumers
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors, Local
Students
Students
LOS
Visitation
Differences
Negatives
430
1917
1591
97
1917
1
O
T
A
C
T
G
Consumers
Consumers
Consumers
Visitors
Consumers
Visitors
Distance
Visitation
Negatives
Affect
Temporal
Segmentation
Visitation
Temporal
Personal photos
Fridgen
Davis & Sternquist
Author
Woodside & Carr
Richardson & Crompton
Gartner
Woodside & Lysonski
Teye
Botterill
Calantone et al
Embacher & Buttle
Yau & Chan
Roehl
1987
1987
Date
1988
1988
1989
1989
1989
1989
1989
1989
1990
1990
Stabler
Tang & Rochananond
1990
1990
UK/Europe
Asia
9
32
Resort
Country
13
8
Reilly
Dricoll & Lawson
1990
1990
1
12
State
Country
18
Chon
1
Country
26
Chon, Weaver & Kim
Pizam, Jafari & Milman
1990
1991
1991
1991
Nth America
Nth America, Sth
Pacific, UK/Europe,
Asia, Australasia
Asia
Nth America
UK/Europe
1
1
City
Country
15
33
Bojanic
Ahmed
Fakeye & Crompton
1991
1991
1991
UK/Europe
Nth America
Nth America
1
1
1
Country
State
Province
20
22
32
Echtner & Ritchie
Echtner & Ritchie
Crompton, Fakeye & Lue
1991
1993
1992
UK/Europe, Central
America, Africa, Asia
Nth America
4
Country
35
1
Province
Dadgostar & Isotalo
1992
1995
1992
1992
1992
1992
1993
Nth America
4
Asia
Australasia
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Nth America,
UK/Europe, Asia,
Australasia
1
1
4
1
5
Gartner & Shen
Walmsley & Jenkins
Javalgi, Thomas and Rao
Gronhaug & Heide
Hu & Ritchie
Context
Convention
Foreign travel
Summer
Short break
Winter longstay
Self drive
Education
travel
Nth America
Nth America
Region
N/A
Nth America
Nth America
Australasia
Nth America
Asia
Asia, Sth Pacific
UK/Europe
Asia
Asia
9
1
A
3
2
4
O
1
1
8
2
7
1
Province
Resort
Type
Country
Country
State
Country
State
Country
Country
Country
City
Country
U
10
B
C
U
10
15
12
U
U
U
13
U
31
U
U
U
N/A
306
D
30
624
N/A
92
326
1
363
25
600
80
M
C
E
S
O
P
S
A
G
P
GC
PF
O
Visitors
Visitors
Sample
Consumers
Consumers
Consumers
Students
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Visitors
Trade/Experts
964
339
O
A
1224
1099
A
P
Visitors
Visitors, Trade
Experts
Consumers
Consumers
444
T
Visitors
401
62
I
T
Consumers
Students,
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
Consumers,
Visitors
Students
2000
1782
568
A
FT
FT
U
600
F
32
U
568
F
City
11
U
260
O
Consumers,
Visitors
Consumers
Country
Resort
Other
Country
Country
32
299
115
9000
88
400
M
F
A
T
Consumers
Visitors
Consumers
Students
Consumers
27
22
16
Familiarity
Segmentation
Other Focus
Decision sets
Culture
Decision sets
Intermediaries
Visitation
Event impact.
Intermediaries
Induced
Segmentation
Visitation
Visitation
Induced
Visitation. LOS.
Distance
Distance
Event impact
Stereotypes
Context. Visitation
Ross
Walmsley & Jenkins
1993
1993
Australasia
Australasia
Manrai & Manrai
Author
Gartner & Bachri
Husbands
Driscoll, Lawson & Niven
1993
Date
1994
1994
1994
Amor, Calabug, Abellan &
Montford
King
1994
Sun/beach
UK/Europe
Region
Asia
Africa
Nth America, Sth
Pacific UK/Europe,
Asia, Australasia
UK/Europe
1994
Sun/beach
Australasia, Sth Pacific
Young
1995
Australasia
10
Weber & Mikacic
Milman & Pizam
Mazanec
Illum & Schaefer
1995
1995
1995
1995
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
6
1
26
Oppermann
Ahmed
Dann
Bramwell & Rawding
Waitt
Selby & Morgan
1996
1996
1996
1996
1996
1996
Nth America
Nth America
Central America
UK/Europe
Australasia
UK/Europe
30
1
1
5
1
1
City
State
Country
City
Country
Resort
Mazanec
Andersen, Prentice & Guerin
Court & Lupton
Murphy & Pritchard
Baloglu
Baloglu & Brinberg
Grabler
Grabler
Go & Zhang
Lawton & Page
Pritchard
Mackay & Fesenmaier
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997a
1997b
1997
1997
1997
1997
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Asia
Australasia
Australasia
Nth America
1
1
1
1
11
6
77
1
1
1
1
City
Country
State
City
Country
Country
City
City
City
City
State
Other
Bignon, Hammitt & Norman
Illiewich
1998
1998
Nth America
UK/Europe
1
6
Country
City
Context
Convention
Convention
1
8
Province
Resort
6
U
10
A
1
1
12
Country
Type
Country
Country
Country
30
B
19
10
18
U
C
1
2
400
96
O
GF
U
211
D
51
135
1099
FPT
E
AO
P
T
Province
U
N/A
O
Resort
U
60
U
180
U
750
U
375
U
123
1917
535
U
864
City, Resort,
State, Province
City
Province
City
Other
7
26
18
6
33
15
20
25
23
U
24
4
34
4
12
22
U
13
34
U
U
34
35
O
GF
I
A
P
A
IF
F
O
O
F
O
780
903
10531
330
60
282
40
61
170
200
257
O
O
FT
A
F
FP
FP
O
F
O
I
TF
639
282
FC
F
Visitors
Visitors,
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Sample
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Consumers
Budget travellers
Affect
Visitors,
Trade/Experts
Consumers,
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Barriers
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
DMO staff,
Trade/Experts
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Visitors
DMO staff
Students
Consumers,
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
Visitors
Visitors
Students
Consumers
DMO staff
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers,
Visitors
Consumers
Experience.ToMA
Other Focus
Intermediaries
Scale reliability
Distance
Affect
Familiarity
Temporal
Differences
Familiarity
Visitation
Induced
DMO policy
Segmentation
Culture
Intent
Price-value
Demographics
Affect
Differences
Induced
Hudson & Shephard
Lubbe
Walmsley & Young
1998
1998
1998
Dimanche & Moody
Author
McLennan
1998
Date
1998
van Limburg
Kozak & Nield
1998
1998
Santos
Resort
Country
Country, Other
97
1
A
1
City
Type
Province
30
B
N/A
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
1
1
City
Resort
4
11
1998
Asia
1
Country
Brown
1998
3
Other
53
Tribe & Snaith
Ritchie
Yannopoulos & Rotenberg
Chen & Kersletter
Nickerson & Moisey
Schneider & Sonmez
1998
1998
1999
1999
1999
1999
Central America, Africa,
Sth America
Central America
Australasia
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
Africa
1
1
1
1
1
1
Resort
Other
Province
State
State
Country
56
13
13
48
20
12
Shanka & Frost
1999
Africa
1
Country
Vaughan & Edwards
Lohmann & Kaim
Baloglu & McCleary
1999
1999
1999a
1999b
1999
1999
1999
1999
1999
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
UK/Europe, Africa
2
6
4
4
1
1
1
3
1
Resort, Country
Province
Country
Mohsin & Ryan
Murphy
Young
Dolnicar,Grabler & Mazanec
Botha, Crompton & Kim
Kim, Crompton & Botha
Chaudhary
Murphy, Pritchard & Smith
Uysal, Chen & Williams
Lee
Heung & Qu
Chen & Hsu
Mackay & Fesenmaier
Tapachai & Waryszak
Skiing
Context
Short break
Bicycling
Winter
Summer
Backpacking
UK/Europe
Africa
Nth America, Sth
Pacific UK/Europe,
Asia, Australasia
Nth America
Region
UK/Europe
Australasia
Australasia
Australasia
UK/Europe
Africa
Asia
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
Asia
Asia
Nth America
Nth America, Asia
1
1
16
1
1
10
3
1
1
2
State
Country
Province
City
Resort
Country
City
State
Resort, Country
City
Other
State
Country
U
U
6
C
U
U
U
U
U
17
10
14
14
6
8
20
20
20
16
48
14
31
17
9
16
U
U
U
U
U
U
151
29
82
I
107
D
911
AT
O
45
268
Q
I
Trade/Experts
Sample
Consumers,
Visitors
Consumers
Visitors
36
O
Trade/Experts
2469
F
Consumers
102
321
201
329
5783
65
T
FIT
F
F
C
T
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Students
Visitors
Visitors
O
Students,
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
536
438
7543
356
448
38
383
879
632
302
152
610
1318
458
522
265
10
247
Visitors
Trade/Experts
Consumers
F
E
T
O
FO
A
P
P
FC
P
TF
CF
T
O
I
A
F
AO
P
O
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
Visitors
Consumers
Students
Students
Primary image
Affect
Differences
Other Focus
Visitation
Less developed
destinations
Induced.
Intermediaries
Differences
Distance
Rural
Less developed
destinations
Less developed
destinations
Affect
Weather
Image formation.
Visitation
Intermediaries
Motivation
Decision sets.
Target Markets
Visitation
Value/quality
Cross-culture
Reisenger & Turner
2000
Perdue
Jutla
Andreu, Bigne & Cooper
Chacko & Fenich
Pritchard & Walkup
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
Convention
Nth America,
Australasia
Nth America
Asia
UK/Europe
Nth America
Australasia
2
State, Resort
1
9
7
1
Resort
City
Resort, City
City
State
27
6
12
U
U
U
U
U
663
FT
Visitors
Differences
2869
100
120
291
1284
O
O
C
O
O
Consumers
Visitors, Local
Visitors
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Confidence
Differences
Visitation
Intermediaries
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Table 1: Summary of Destination Image Studies 1973 - 2000
Author
Mayo
Anderssen & Colberg
Matejka
Gearing, Swart & Var
Hunt
Riley & Palmer
Ehemann
Var, Beck & Loftus
Pearce
Goodrich
Ritchie & Zins
Scott, Schewe & Frederick
Pizam, Neumann & Reichel
Palmer
Crompton
Ferrario
Pearce
Date
1973
1973
1973
1974
1975
1975
1977
1977
1977
1977
1978a
1978b
1979
1978
1978
1978
1978
1979
1979
1982
McLennan & Foushee
Haahti & Yavas
Morello
1983
1983
1983
Jaffe & Nebenzahl
1984
Crompton & Duray
SIlberman
Wee, Hakam & Ong
Witter
Kale & Weir
Dillon, Domzal & Madden
1985
1985
1985
1985
1986
1986
Perdue
Gartner
Shih
Phelps
Gartner & Hunt
Botterill & Crompton
Fridgen
Davis & Sternquist
1986
1986
1986
1986
1987
1987
1987
1987
Context
Self drive
Winter
Spring break
Boating
Region
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
Central America
A
8
9
1
65
4
25
1
19
1
9
Type
State
Resort
State
Other
State
Resort
Country
Other
City
State, Country
B
1
8
20
17
20
N/A
Nth America
Nth America
UK/Europe
Central America
Africa
UK/Europe, Africa
1
4
1
10
1
1
2
Other
State
City
Other
Country
Country
Country
20
18
32
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America,
UK/Europe
Nth America, Asia
UK/Europe, Africa
Nth America
Nth America
Asia
Nth America
Asia
Nth America
Central America
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
Central America
Nth America
Nth America
1
12
8
Country
Country
Country
12
10
12
5
Country
13
1
1
1
1
1
7
State
Resort
Country
Resort
Country
Country, Resort
28
7
14
10
26
20
3
4
1
1
4
1
9
1
Other
State
State
Resort
State
Country
Province
Resort
12
13
37
32
11
C
U
17
10
30
21
13
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
10
D
670
50
82
1
1262
60
0
60
72
230
E
P
FP
O
O
A
GFC
O
O
M
PCF
Sample
Visitors
Students
Consumers
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Consumers
N/A
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Consumers
Other Focus
Impulse
Segmentation
135
313
685
60
617
5053
97
F
C
F
GP
A
A
G
Culture
Distance
Negative media
LOS. Differences
Segmentation
221
681
66
A
A
O
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Students
Visitors
Visitors,
Consumers
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Students
200
O
Consumers
Scale validity
544
621
218
375
90
80
I
O
T
TF
A
P
Consumers
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors, Local
Students
Students
LOS
Visitation
Differences
Negatives
430
1917
1591
97
1917
1
N/A
306
O
T
A
C
T
G
M
C
Consumers
Consumers
Consumers
Visitors
Consumers
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Distance
Visitation
Negatives
Affect
Temporal
Segmentation
Visitation
Temporal
Personal photos
Familiarity
Segmentation
Author
Woodside & Carr
Richardson & Crompton
Gartner
Woodside & Lysonski
Teye
Botterill
Calantone et al
Embacher & Buttle
Yau & Chan
Roehl
Date
1988
1988
1989
1989
1989
1989
1989
1989
1990
1990
Stabler
Tang & Rochananond
1990
1990
Reilly
Dricoll & Lawson
1990
1990
Chon
Chon, Weaver & Kim
Pizam, Jafari & Milman
1990
1991
1991
1991
Bojanic
Ahmed
Fakeye & Crompton
Context
Convention
A
3
2
4
O
1
1
8
2
7
1
Type
Country
Country
State
Country
State
Country
Country
Country
City
Country
12
UK/Europe
Asia
9
32
Resort
Country
13
8
Nth America
Nth America, Sth
Pacific, UK/Europe,
Asia, Australasia
Asia
1
12
State
Country
18
1
Country
26
Nth America
UK/Europe
1
1
City
Country
15
33
1991
1991
1991
UK/Europe
Nth America
Nth America
1
1
1
Country
State
Province
20
22
32
Echtner & Ritchie
Echtner & Ritchie
Crompton, Fakeye & Lue
1991
1993
1992
UK/Europe, Central
America, Africa, Asia
Nth America
4
Country
35
U
600
F
1
Province
32
U
568
F
Dadgostar & Isotalo
Nth America
4
City
11
U
260
O
Gartner & Shen
Walmsley & Jenkins
Javalgi, Thomas and Rao
Gronhaug & Heide
Hu & Ritchie
1992
1995
1992
1992
1992
1992
1993
Consumers,
Visitors
Consumers
1
1
4
1
5
Country
Resort
Other
Country
Country
32
27
22
16
299
115
9000
88
400
M
F
A
T
Consumers
Visitors
Consumers
Students
Consumers
Ross
Walmsley & Jenkins
1993
1993
Asia
Australasia
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Nth America,
UK/Europe, Asia,
Australasia
Australasia
Australasia
1
8
Province
Resort
6
U
400
96
O
GF
Manrai & Manrai
1993
UK/Europe
10
Country
30
U
211
FPT
Foreign travel
Summer
Short break
Winter
longstay
Self drive
Education
travel
Region
N/A
Nth America
Nth America
Australasia
Nth America
Asia
Asia, Sth Pacific
UK/Europe
Asia
Asia
B
C
U
10
15
U
U
U
13
U
31
U
U
U
D
30
624
N/A
92
326
1
363
25
600
80
E
S
O
P
S
A
G
P
GC
PF
O
Sample
Consumers
Consumers
Consumers
Students
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Visitors
Trade/Experts
964
339
O
A
1224
1099
A
P
Visitors
Visitors, Trade
Experts
Consumers
Consumers
Segmentation
444
T
Visitors
Visitation
401
62
I
T
Consumers
Students,
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
Consumers,
Visitors
Students
2000
1782
568
A
FT
FT
Visitors
Visitors,
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Other Focus
Decision sets
Culture
Decision sets
Intermediaries
Visitation
Event impact.
Intermediaries
Induced
Visitation
Induced
Visitation. LOS.
Distance
Distance
Event impact
Stereotypes
Context. Visitation
Budget travellers
Affect
Experience.ToMA
Author
Gartner & Bachri
Husbands
Driscoll, Lawson & Niven
Date
1994
1994
1994
Context
Amor, Calabug, Abellan &
Montford
King
1994
Sun/beach
1994
Sun/beach
Young
1995
Australasia, Sth
Pacific
Australasia
Weber & Mikacic
Milman & Pizam
Mazanec
Illum & Schaefer
1995
1995
1995
1995
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
Nth America
6
1
26
Oppermann
Ahmed
Dann
Bramwell & Rawding
Waitt
Selby & Morgan
1996
1996
1996
1996
1996
1996
Nth America
Nth America
Central America
UK/Europe
Australasia
UK/Europe
30
1
1
5
1
1
City
State
Country
City
Country
Resort
Mazanec
Andersen, Prentice & Guerin
Court & Lupton
Murphy & Pritchard
Baloglu
Baloglu & Brinberg
Grabler
Grabler
Go & Zhang
Lawton & Page
Pritchard
Mackay & Fesenmaier
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997a
1997b
1997
1997
1997
1997
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Asia
Australasia
Australasia
Nth America
1
1
1
1
11
6
77
1
1
1
1
City
Country
State
City
Country
Country
City
City
City
City
State
Other
Bignon, Hammitt & Norman
Illiewich
Hudson & Shephard
Lubbe
Walmsley & Young
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1
6
1
1
16
Country
City
Resort
Country
Country, Other
34
35
97
Dimanche & Moody
1998
City
Convention
Convention
Skiing
Region
Asia
Africa
Nth America, Sth
Pacific UK/Europe,
Asia, Australasia
UK/Europe
Nth America
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
Africa
Nth America, Sth
Pacific UK/Europe,
Asia, Australasia
Nth America
A
1
1
12
Type
Country
Country
Country
1
2
10
1
U
D
51
135
1099
E
AO
P
T
Sample
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Consumers
Province
U
N/A
O
Resort
U
60
U
180
Visitors,
Trade/Experts
Consumers,
Trade/Experts
Consumers
U
750
U
375
U
123
1917
535
U
864
City, Resort,
State, Province
City
Province
City
Other
B
19
10
18
7
26
18
6
33
C
15
20
25
23
U
24
4
34
4
12
22
U
13
34
U
U
780
903
10531
330
60
282
40
61
170
200
257
O
GF
I
A
P
A
IF
F
O
O
F
O
O
O
FT
A
F
FP
FP
O
F
O
I
TF
FC
F
I
6
639
282
151
29
82
30
107
U
U
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
DMO staff,
Trade/Experts
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Visitors
DMO staff
Students
Consumers,
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
Visitors
Visitors
Students
Consumers
DMO staff
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers,
Visitors
Other Focus
Intermediaries
Scale reliability
Barriers
Distance
Affect
Familiarity
Temporal
Differences
Familiarity
Visitation
Induced
DMO policy
Segmentation
Culture
Intent
Price-value
Demographics
Affect
Differences
Induced
F
Consumers
Visitors
Trade/Experts
Consumers
Primary image
Affect
AT
Trade/Experts
Differences
Author
McLennan
Date
1998
van Limburg
Kozak & Nield
Context
Short break
Region
UK/Europe
A
1
Type
Province
B
N/A
1998
1998
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
1
1
City
Resort
4
11
Santos
1998
Asia
1
Country
Brown
1998
3
Other
53
Tribe & Snaith
Ritchie
Yannopoulos & Rotenberg
Chen & Kersletter
Nickerson & Moisey
Schneider & Sonmez
1998
1998
1999
1999
1999
1999
Central America,
Africa, Sth America
Central America
Australasia
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
Africa
1
1
1
1
1
1
Resort
Other
Province
State
State
Country
56
13
13
48
20
12
Shanka & Frost
1999
Africa
1
Country
Vaughan & Edwards
Lohmann & Kaim
Baloglu & McCleary
UK/Europe
UK/Europe
UK/Europe, Africa
2
6
4
4
1
1
1
3
1
Resort, Country
Province
Country
Mohsin & Ryan
Murphy
Young
Dolnicar,Grabler & Mazanec
Botha, Crompton & Kim
Kim, Crompton & Botha
Chaudhary
Murphy, Pritchard & Smith
Uysal, Chen & Williams
Lee
Heung & Qu
Chen & Hsu
Mackay & Fesenmaier
Tapachai & Waryszak
Reisenger & Turner
1999
1999
1999a
1999b
1999
1999
1999
1999
1999
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
Perdue
Jutla
Andreu, Bigne & Cooper
Chacko & Fenich
Pritchard & Walkup
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
Bicycling
Winter
Summer
Backpacking
Convention
Australasia
Australasia
Australasia
UK/Europe
Africa
Asia
Nth America
Nth America
Nth America
Asia
Asia
Nth America
Nth America, Asia
Nth America,
Australasia
Nth America
Asia
UK/Europe
Nth America
Australasia
U
U
U
U
U
17
10
14
14
6
8
State
Country
Province
City
Resort
20
20
1
2
2
Country
City
State
Resort, Country
City
Other
State
Country
State, Resort
20
16
48
14
31
17
9
16
27
1
9
7
1
Resort
City
Resort, City
City
State
1
1
10
3
1
C
6
12
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
D
911
O
45
268
Q
I
Sample
Consumers,
Visitors
Consumers
Visitors
36
O
Trade/Experts
2469
F
Consumers
102
321
201
329
5783
65
T
FIT
F
F
C
T
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Students
Visitors
Visitors
O
Students,
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
536
438
7543
356
448
38
383
879
632
302
E
152
610
1318
458
522
265
10
247
663
T
O
FO
A
P
P
FC
P
TF
CF
T
O
I
A
F
AO
P
O
FT
2869
100
120
291
1284
O
O
C
O
O
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Visitors
Consumers
Consumers
Visitors
Consumers
Students
Students
Visitors
Consumers
Visitors, Local
Visitors
Trade/Experts
Visitors
Other Focus
Visitation
Less developed
destinations
Induced.
Intermediaries
Differences
Distance
Rural
Less developed
destinations
Less developed
destinations
Affect
Weather
Image formation.
Visitation
Intermediaries
Motivation
Decision sets.
Target Markets
Visitation
Value/quality
Cross-culture
Differences
Confidence
Differences
Visitation
Intermediaries