Feeds & Feeding 1 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM DPP INDEX TOC Table of Contents Plant Growth & Composition Plant Growth ................................................................................ 6 Plant Composition Plant Carbohydrates ............................................................... 7 Lignin ...................................................................................... 8 Plant Lipids ............................................................................. 9 Plant Proteins ........................................................................ 10 Plant Minerals ....................................................................... 11 Plant Vitamins ....................................................................... 12 Feed Sampling & Analysis Feed Sampling ........................................................................... 13 Sampling Hay ....................................................................... 14 Sampling Silage .................................................................... 15 Sampling Bulk Concentrates ................................................ 16 Sampling Bagged Feeds ....................................................... 18 Feed Analysis & Interpretation .................................................. 19 NIR or Wet Chemistry? ......................................................... 21 Dry Matter and Moisture ...................................................... 22 Microwave Oven Dry Matter Estimation ............................. 23 Acid Detergent Fibre ............................................................ 24 Neutral Detergent Fibre ....................................................... 25 Non-Fibre Carbohydrates .................................................... 26 Energy Estimates ................................................................... 27 Relative Feed Value .............................................................. 29 Relative Feed Quality ........................................................... 30 Crude Protein ....................................................................... 31 Non-Protein Nitrogen ........................................................... 32 Soluble Protein ..................................................................... 33 Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen ...................................... 34 Neutral Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen ................................. 35 Rumen Degradable Protein .................................................. 36 Crude Fat .............................................................................. 37 Minerals ................................................................................ 38 Vitamins ................................................................................ 39 Silage pH .............................................................................. 40 Bulk Density .......................................................................... 41 Particle Size........................................................................... 42 Processing Index ................................................................... 43 Feeds for Dairy Cattle Forages Perennial Grasses .................................................................. 44 Smooth Bromegrass ........................................................ 46 Orchardgrass ................................................................... 47 Perennial Ryegrass .......................................................... 48 Tall Fescue ....................................................................... 49 Timothy ........................................................................... 50 Wheatgrass ...................................................................... 51 Annual Grasses ..................................................................... 52 Grain Crop Forages .............................................................. 53 Legume Forages ................................................................... 54 Alfalfa .............................................................................. 56 Red Clover ...................................................................... 57 Grains Barley Grain .......................................................................... 58 Corn Grain ............................................................................ 59 Oats Grain ............................................................................. 60 Rye Grain .............................................................................. 61 Wheat Grain ......................................................................... 62 Oilseeds & Pulses Canola Seed ......................................................................... 63 Flaxseed (Linseed) ................................................................ 64 Sunflower Seed .................................................................... 65 Peas ....................................................................................... 66 By-products Beet Pulp............................................................................... 67 Blood Meal ........................................................................... 68 Brewer’s Grains .................................................................... 69 Canola Meal .......................................................................... 70 Corn Gluten Meal ................................................................. 71 Distiller’s Grains .................................................................... 72 Fats & Oils............................................................................. 73 Feather Meal ......................................................................... 75 Fish Meal .............................................................................. 76 Soymeal ................................................................................ 77 Mineral Supplements ................................................................. 78 VitaminSupplements .................................................................. 79 Feed Additives ........................................................................... 80 Feed Storage Hay Storage .......................................................................... 81 Silage Storage ....................................................................... 82 Concentrate Storage ............................................................ 85 The Digestion of Feed The Digestive System ................................................................. 86 Carbohydrate Digestion ............................................................. 89 Lipid Digestion ........................................................................... 90 Protein Digestion ........................................................................ 91 Basic Nutrition The Role of Energy in Dairy Cattle Nutrition ............................. 92 The Role of Fibre in Dairy Cattle Nutrition ............................... 93 The Role of Protein in Dairy Cattle Nutrition ............................ 94 The Role of Minerals in Dairy Cattle Nutrition .......................... 96 The Role of Vitamins in Dairy Cattle Nutrition .......................... 99 The Role of Water in Dairy Cattle Nutrition ............................ 101 Feeding Management Calves - Birth to Breeding Growth Targets ................................................................... 102 Monitoring Heifer Growth .................................................. 103 Colostrum ........................................................................... 104 Feeding Milk to Calves ....................................................... 105 Milk Replacers .................................................................... 107 Nutrient Requirements of Calves Fed Milk or Milk Replacer Only ................................................... 109 Calf Starter .......................................................................... 110 Conventional versus ‘Accelerated’ Calf Feeding Programs .................................................. 111 Nutrient Requirements of Calves Fed Milk or Milk Replacer and Starter ......................................... 112 Feeding Hay to Calves ........................................................ 113 Weaning .............................................................................. 115 Feeding Calves from Weaning to Breeding ....................... 116 Nutrient Requirements of Weaned Calves ......................... 117 Bred Heifers Feeding Bred Heifers .......................................................... 119 Nutrient Requirements of Springing Heifers ...................... 121 Lactating Cows Feeding Lactating Cows ..................................................... 122 Total Mixed Rations ............................................................. 124 Lactation Curves ................................................................ 126 Dry Matter Intake by Lactating Cows................................. 127 Condition Score Targets ..................................................... 128 Nutrient Requirements of Early Lactation Cows ............... 130 Nutrient Requirements of Mid LactationCows .................. 131 Dry Cows Feeding Dry Cows .............................................................. 132 Nutrient Requirements of Dry Cows .................................. 133 Nutrition & Health Effects of Nutrition on Health .................................................. 134 Nutritional & Metabolic Disorders Rumen Acidosis .................................................................. 136 Bloat .................................................................................... 137 Displaced Abomasum ........................................................ 138 Fat Cow Syndrome ............................................................. 140 Fatty Liver Syndrome ......................................................... 141 Grass Tetany ........................................................................ 142 Ketosis ................................................................................. 143 Milk Fever ........................................................................... 144 Retained Placenta ............................................................... 146 Udder Edema ..................................................................... 147 Ration Formulation ......................................................... 148 Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds ................. 149 Glossary of Terms ............................................................. 153 Index ................................................................................ 169 Feeds & Feeding 19 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Feed Analysis & Interpretation DPP TOC DPP INDEX The purpose of feed analysis is to estimate its nutritional value for livestock. The methods of analysis and the calculations applied to those analyses have their limitations and, therefore, the results must be interpreted with an understanding of these limitations. A typical feed analysis report is shown on the next page. Each line in the results is linked to an explanation of the method used to derive the values given. Typical analyses of feedstuffs used in western Canadian dairy diets are presented in Appendix A. Lab Number: 99377 Feed Type: ALFALFA SILAGE Producer: ROCKY VIEW Sample Description: August 02 Haylage Workorder Number: 563458 Client Feed Code: Sender Sample Number: 02-2643 Client: Address: Phone: Fax: UNIFEED 5902 - 48 AVENUE OLDS, AB T4H 1V1 Moisture % Dry Matter % Crude Protein % Heat Damaged Protein % Available Protein % Soluble Protein % Percent Soluble % Digestible Protein (est) % Acid Detergent Fiber % Neutral Detergent Fiber % Ether Extract % Net Energy for Lactation Mcal/kg Net Energy for Maintenance Mcal/kg Net Energy for Gain Mcal/kg Digestible Energy Mcal/kg Non-Structural Carbohydrates % Relative Feed Value (RFV) Phosphorus (P) % Calcium (Ca) % Potassium (K) % Magnesium (Mg) % Sodium (Na) % Copper (Cu) ppm Iron (Fe) ppm Manganese (mn) ppm Molybdenum (Mo) ppm Zinc (Zn) ppm Selenium (Se) ppm Sulfur (S) % Nitrate (as KNO3) % Chloride (Cl) % Analyst Date Processed: Sep 14, 2002 Note: As Received 64.5 35.5 6.3 0.4 6.3 3.4 4.3 12.0 16.0 0.9 0.49 0.49 0.24 0.9 9.0 0.08 0.58 0.76 0.12 0.04 2.4 126 14 0.8 10 0.08 0.1 0.18 0.23 Approved 403-556-3395 403-556-8660 Dry Result 0.0 100.0 17.7 1.0 17.7 9.6 54 12.2 33.9 45.0 2.5 1.35 1.39 0.68 2.6 25.3 129 0.23 1.64 2.15 0.33 0.10 6.7 355 39 2.3 27 0.23 0.30 0.50 0.65 Feeds & Feeding 21 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM NIR or Wet Chemistry? DPP TOC DPP INDEX The standard methods of feed analysis described here are primarily based on assays requiring the use of chemical reagents—they are ‘wet chemistry’ methods. Over the past 20 years, an increasing number of analyses have been performed by Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIR or NIRS) which is an indirect method of estimating feed composition. In NIR, a finely ground sample of feed is exposed to a range of wavelengths in the near infrared range of the visible light spectrum. Characteristics of the organic components of the feed sample cause some of that light to be reflected. For example, the unique bond between carbon and nitrogen in proteins reflects light at very specific wavelengths. By detecting the amount of light reflected at a large number of wavelengths, the NIR spectrometer can determine the sample’s chemical composition. To produce analysis results that have meaning for animal nutrition, the NIR method has to be calibrated using samples whose composition has been determined by wet chemistry. For example, to determine Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) levels in alfalfa haylages, NIR has to be calibrated against a set of alfalfa haylage samples with predetermined and widely varying NDF levels. This makes it possible to associate a particular NIR reflectance spectrum with a specific NDF concentration in that type of forage. When properly used, NIR can be an accurate and economical method for analysing feeds. Improperly used, NIR can yield erroneous results having no value. For example, the analysis of red clover silage using an alfalfa calibration is likely to yield incorrect results. And, since NIR measures characteristics of the organic constituents in feed, it is a stretch to assume that mineral levels measured by NIR are reliable. Feeds & Feeding 22 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Dry Matter and Moisture Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX The Dry Matter (DM) content of a feed is determined by weighing a sample before and after complete drying, usually at 70-80°C. For example, if a sample of silage weighs 100 grams before drying and 40 grams after, it contains 40% DM. Since most of the weight lost during drying is water, the original sample contained approximately 60% moisture. Drying may also evaporate other volatile compounds which may have nutritional value, particularly from silages. DM and moisture content of feeds can be measured on-farm using a Koster Crop Tester or microwave oven. Most feed labs report analysis results on both a wet and a dry basis. The wet basis may be referred to by the terms: as is, as fed or as received. The 100% dry basis is usually referred to as: dry, DM, dry basis or dry result. You can convert from one basis to the other using the following formulas: As Fed basis = DM basis x (Dry Matter % / 100) DM basis = The Koster Crop Tester consists of a heater/fan drying unit, a screen-bottomed sample container and a simple spring scale. As Fed basis (Dry Matter % / 100) When diets are formulated for dairy cattle, analysis results quoted on a DM basis are used. Forage quality results are also normally quoted on this basis. However, analysis guarantees on manufactured feeds are stated on an ‘as fed’ basis. If no Moisture % or Dry Matter % is given for the product, it can be assume to be 90% dry matter. Before using manufactured feeds in a ration formulation, their guaranteed analysis levels must be converted to the DM basis using the second formula above. For example, a 16% Dairy Ration will contain 17.8% crude protein [16 / (90/100)] on a DM basis. Feeds & Feeding 23 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Microwave Oven Dry Matter Estimation DPP TOC DPP INDEX Forage dry matter levels can be accurately estimated using an inexpensive microwave oven and a $70-80 electronic postal scale. Mechanical postal scales are generally not accurate enough to indicate gram differences in dry weights. Here’s how it’s done : 1 Weigh a microwave-safe container large enough to hold 100-200 grams of wet forage (a paper bag is a good choice). Record the weight of the container (WC) or, if your scale has a tare adjustment, set the scale at zero (WC = 0). 2 Weigh 100-200 grams of wet forage into the container (WW). The larger the sample, the more accurate your determination can be. idea: put a javascript calculator here 3 Place a drinking glass or glass jar containing 250 ml of water in the back corner of the oven. The water serves as a ‘ballast’ to absorb excess energy, preventing ignition of the sample. If your sample does ignite, turn off the oven, unplug the power but don’t open the door until the sample has burned completely. 4 Heat the forage sample at 80-90% of maximum power for 5 minutes. Re-weigh and record the weight. 5 Repeat step 4 until the weight is less than 5 grams lower than the previous weight. 6 Heat the sample at 30-40% of maximum power for 1 minute. Re-weigh and record the weight. 7 Repeat step 6 until the weight is less than 1 gram lower than the previous weight. This is the dry weight (WD). 8 Calculate Dry Matter (DM) % as follows : DM% = WD - WC x 100 WW - WC Feeds & Feeding 24 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Acid Detergent Fibre DE (Mcal/kg DM) 3.0 DE = 3.575 - 0.0238 x ADF A 2.8 2.6 2.4 25 R2 = 0.5437 B 30 35 40 Acid Detergent Fibre % This graph shows the relationship between acid detergent fibre (ADF) and Digestible Energy (DE) for a set of Alberta grass forage samples. In this example, ADF value accounted for only 54% of the variation in DE values. DPP INDEX For the determination of Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF), feed samples are boiled in a solution containing sulfuric acid and the detergent, Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide. Hemicelluloses and cell wall proteins are dissolved, with the residue containing cellulose, lignin, lignified nitrogen, cutin, silica and some pectins. ADF% is simply the weight of the residue expressed as a percentage of the original sample. Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds 3.2 DPP TOC 45 It is assumed that the digestibility of a feed is inversely proportional to its ADF content and therefore, ADF is used to estimate feed energy values (digestibility). However, the relationship between ADF and digestibility is often poor, ADF usually accounting for less than 65% of the variance in digestibility (r2< 0.65). Feeds & Feeding 25 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Neutral Detergent Fibre Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX For the determination of Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF), feed samples are boiled in a solution containing Sodium Lauryl Sulfate. This detergent extracts lipids, sugars, organic acids and other water soluble components as well as pectin, Nonprotein Nitrogen (NPN) compounds, soluble protein and some of the silica and tannin. NDF is the insoluble residue made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, lignified nitrogen, some protein, minerals and cutin. NDF% is the weight of the residue expressed as a percentage of the original sample. Since it provides the most complete measure of cell wall components, NDF is used to balance fibre requirements in the formulation of dairy diets. A common recommendation is that 75% of the total NDF requirement for lactating cows should be provided as forage. Other schemes, including the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System, attempt to assign an effective NDF value to each feed, based on both its chemical NDF content and the ability of that NDF to provoke chewing and salivation. Feeds & Feeding 26 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Non-Fibre Carbohydrates Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Non-fibre Carbohydrates (NFC) represent feed carbohydrates, including starch, pectin and sugars, which are more rapidly degradable in the rumen relative to the cell wall carbohydrates measured as Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF). NFC content is not measured directly, but is calculated by difference: NFC = 100 - Crude Protein - Crude Fat - NDF - Ash A variation on NFC is Non-structural Carbohydrates (NSC), used in the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System, where: NSC = 100 - Crude Protein - Crude Fat - (NDF - Neutral Detergent Insoluble Protein) - Ash In the NSC equation, the Crude Protein associated with the NDF fraction is subtracted so that it is not accounted for twice; in both CP and NDF fractions. Feeds & Feeding 27 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Energy Estimates Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Most feed labs calculate forage energy estimates from Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) concentrations. Equations vary from lab to lab, so it is important to determine whether differences in reported energy values between labs is due to different ADF values or different equations or both. Typical equations used to calculate Net Energy for Lactation (NEL) are as follows (see table on following page): • for forages which are greater than 75% legume: NEL (Mcal/kg) = 2.302 - 0.0262 x ADF % • for forages which are a mixture of grasses and legumes, with neither making up greater than 75% of the total: NEL (Mcal/kg) = 2.398 - 0.028 x ADF % • for forages which are greater than 75% grass: NEL (Mcal/kg) = 2.392 - 0.0273 x ADF % • for small grain (e.g. Barley) silages and greenfeeds: NEL (Mcal/kg) = 1.75 - 0.0076 x ADF % • for Corn silage: NEL (Mcal/kg) = 2.302 - 0.0273 x ADF % The following equations can be used to convert between energy units: Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN, %) = [(NEL (Mcal/kg) + 0.12) / 0.0245] Digestible Energy (DE, Mcal/kg) = TDN % x 0.04409 Metabolizable Energy (ME, Mcal/kg) = 1.01 x DE (Mcal/kg) - 0.45 Net Energy for Maintenance (NEM, Mcal/kg) = 1.37 x ME - 0.138 x ME2 + 0.0105 x ME3 - 1.12 Net Energy for Gain (NEG, Mcal/kg) = 1.42 x ME - 0.174 x ME2 + 0.0122 x ME3 - 1.65 ... continued Energy Estimates (continued) Appendix A includes a table which can be used to convert energy levels quoted as NEL to NEM, NEG and TDN. Estimates of the energy contributed by concentrate feeds are most commonly based on values published in tables of feed composition. An alternative method of estimating energy values for all feeds was proposed in the 2001 edition of Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, published by the US National Research Council. This method is based on calculating TDN from estimates of the true digestibility of feed fractions. Energy values calculated from forage acid detergent fibre concentrations using the equations on the previous page. ADF % TDN % DE ME NEM NEG NEL --------------------- Mcal/kg ------------------- Forages >75% Legume 25 72.1 3.18 2.76 30 66.8 2.94 2.52 35 61.4 2.71 2.29 40 56.08 2.47 2.05 Mixed Grass/Legume Forages 25 74.2 3.27 2.85 30 68.5 3.02 2.60 35 62.8 2.77 2.35 40 57.06 2.52 2.09 Forages >75% Grass 25 74.7 3.29 2.88 30 69.1 3.05 2.63 35 63.5 2.80 2.38 40 58.0 2.56 2.13 Small Grain Forages 25 68.6 3.02 2.60 30 67.0 2.95 2.53 35 65.5 2.89 2.47 40 63.9 2.82 2.40 Corn Silage 25 71.0 3.13 2.71 30 65.4 2.88 2.46 35 59.9 2.64 2.22 40 54.3 2.39 1.97 1.83 1.63 1.42 1.20 1.20 1.02 0.83 0.63 1.65 1.52 1.39 1.25 1.91 1.69 1.47 1.24 1.27 1.08 0.88 0.67 1.70 1.56 1.42 1.28 1.93 1.72 1.50 1.27 1.28 1.10 0.91 0.70 1.71 1.57 1.44 1.30 1.70 1.64 1.58 1.52 1.08 1.03 0.98 0.92 1.56 1.52 1.48 1.45 1.79 1.57 1.35 1.12 1.16 0.97 0.77 0.56 1.62 1.48 1.35 1.21 Feeds & Feeding 29 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Relative Feed Value Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Relative Feed Value (RFV) is an index of forage quality calculated from Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) % and Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) % using the following formula: RFV = [(88.9 - (0.78 x ADF %)) x (120 / NDF %)] 1.29 Notice that RFV does not account for the Crude Protein % of the forage. It is based only on fibre levels and is, therefore, an index of forage digestibility and potential intake. Feeds & Feeding 30 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Relative Feed Quality Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Relative Feed Quality (RFQ) is a new variation on Relative Feed Value (RFV), designed to account for differences in Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) digestibility between forages. Two forages with the same levels of Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) and NDF will have the same calculated Relative Feed Values. However, if the NDF digestibility of one of these forages is higher , it will have a higher Relative Feed Quality. NDF digestibility values for haylage (for example) can range from less than 30% to greater than 60%. RFQ is a more accurate index of the value of a forage for milk production. Studies at Michigan State University showed that a 1 percentage unit increase in NDF digestibility was associated with a 0.17 kg increase in dry matter intake leading to a 0.23 kg increase in daily 4% fat-corrected milk production. The base equation used to calculate RFQ is: RFQ = (DMI, % of body weight) x (TDN, % of DM) / 1.23 Dry Matter Intake (DMI) is estimated using one of two equations—one for forages containing legumes, a second for grasses. TDN (Total Digestible Nutrients) is calculated according to equations in the 2001 edition of Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, published by the US National Research Council. Feeds & Feeding 31 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Crude Protein Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX The Crude Protein (CP) concentration in feeds is determined using the Kjeldahl procedure. A dried sample is first digested in concentrated sulfuric acid, which converts most of the nitrogen (N) to ammonium sulfate (N present as nitrate is only partially converted). This mixture is cooled, diluted with water and neutralized using sodium hydroxide, resulting in the dissociation of ammonium sulphate. Distillation drives off ammonia and the distillate is titrated with acid to determine its ammonium concentration, from which the N level in the original sample is calculated. Since most feed proteins contain about 16% N, CP% is estimated by multiplying the N concentration in the feed by 6.25 - the inverse of 16% (1 ÷ 0.16 = 6.25). However, some portion of the N in most feeds is found as Non-protein Nitrogen (NPN) and, therefore, the value calculated by multiplying N x 6.25 is referred to as Crude rather than true protein. Feeds & Feeding 32 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Non-Protein Nitrogen Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Crude Protein (CP) is composed of two nitrogen-containing feed fractions: True protein and Non-protein Nitrogen (NPN). To separate these two fractions, True Protein is precipitated out of solution using either tungstic acid or trichloroacetic acid (TCA). The NPN left in solution is measured using the Kjeldahl procedure as described for the determination of CP. NPN, including compounds such as urea, ammonium salts, amino acids, small peptides and nucleic acids, represents the fraction of Crude Protein most rapidly degradable in the rumen. Feeds & Feeding 33 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Soluble Protein Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX The Soluble Protein (SP) content of a feed is estimated by mixing a sample in borate-phosphate buffer solution. Crude Protein (CP) which is soluble in the buffer is measured using the Kjeldahl procedure. SP estimates the amount of CP which will readily dissolve when a feed enters the rumen. It is assumed that this fraction represents CP (both true protein and non-protein nitrogen) which is rapidly degraded by rumen microbes. The CP of most forages is 40-50% soluble. Higher SP levels are often found in silages which are put up very wet (less than 30% dry matter). When this is the case, the Rumen Undegradable Protein (RUP) value of the forage should be discounted. Feeds & Feeding 34 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds Photo of heat damaged haylage. DPP TOC DPP INDEX When silage is put up too dry (greater than 50% dry matter) or hay too wet (less than 85% dry matter), excessive heating may cause some of the protein in the crop to become irreversibly bound to lignin. Heating during the processing of feeds (e.g. pelleting) can have the same effect. The severity of heat damage is estimated in the feed lab by measuring the amount of nitrogen (N) associated with the Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) residue. Depending on the feed lab, this fraction may be reported as Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen (ADIN), Acid Detergent Insoluble Protein (ADIP), Acid Detergent Fibre Nitrogen (ADF-N), Acid Detergent Fibre Protein (ADF-P) or Heat-damaged Protein, expressed as a percentage of either total N, total crude protein or feed dry matter. Nitrogen values are multiplied by 6.25 to convert to Protein values. In most feeds, 3-8% of total CP will be associated with the ADF residue, even in the complete absence of heating. Therefore, most feed labs do not discount the total CP value for heat damage unless ADIN values are excessive. Others assume that a fixed proportion (e.g. 70%) of ADIN is unavailable. Discounted CP (Total CP - ADIP or Total CP - excess ADIP) values are often reported as Adjusted Crude Protein (ACP). Feeds & Feeding 35 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Neutral Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Neutral Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen (NDIN) represents nitrogen associated with the cell wall, measured by subjecting the Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) residue to the Kjeldahl procedure. Neutral Detergent Insoluble Protein (NDIP) is NDIN x 6.25. A fraction of NDIP will be both degradable by rumen microbes and digestible in the small intestine. A second fraction will be completely indigestible. In the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System, it is assumed that the completely indigestible fraction is estimated as Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen x 6.25. The degradable/digestible fraction is, therefore, calculated by difference: [(NDIN - ADIN) x 6.25]. Feeds & Feeding 36 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Rumen Degradable Protein Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Rumen Degradable Protein (RDP) is the fraction of Crude Protein (CP) consumed which is broken down by rumen microbes. In the 1989 edition of Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, RDP was referred to as Degradable Intake Protein (DIP). The degradability of the protein in any particular diet or feed ingredient is dependent upon both the feed itself and the animal to which it is fed. When feed intake is low (e.g., dry cow), passage of feed through the rumen is slower and RDP may be higher because time of exposure to microbial degradation is increased. Conversely, high intakes (e.g., peak lactation cow) accompanied by high feed passage rates result in lower RDP values. RDP is estimated by measuring the disappearance of CP from feed samples incubated in porous nylon bags in the rumen of a fistulated animal such as the one shown on the left. The procedure is labourious and expensive, limiting its use to research facilities. Results obtained with this method have been quite variable both within and between laboratories. A much simpler benchtop method has been proposed, in which feed samples are incubated with a mixture of proteindegrading enzymes extracted from the rumen. Although several commercial labs offer RDP analysis using this method, lack of standardization of both protocols and enzymes makes it difficult to place confidence in results. Soluble Protein and Non-protein Nitrogen (NPN) are crude protein fractions considered to be rapidly and completely degraded in the rumen. Since these two fractions can be readily measured in the feed lab, they have been used as indicators of feed protein degradability. Feeds & Feeding 37 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Crude Fat Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Crude Fat content is estimated by extracting a ground feed sample with diethyl ether. The ether soluble components (ether extract) may include true fats and oils, fatty acid esters, compound lipids and fat-soluble vitamins or provitamins such as the carotenoids, all of which may have nutritional value. However, ether extract may also contain significant concentrations of indigestible waxes, resins and essential oils. The measurement of Crude Fat was an important part of the historical method of proximate analysis where it represented feed components with a caloric value 2.25 times that of carbohydrate or protein. Today it is used to estimate fat content of a feed for formulation of total dietary fat level and for calculation of Non-fibre Carbohydrate (NFC) by difference: NFC = 100 - Crude Protein - Crude Fat - NDF - Ash Feeds & Feeding 38 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Minerals Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX The total mineral content of a feed sample is estimated by burning off the organic matter. The amount of ash remaining is mainly used in other calculations, such as those for Nonfibre Carbohydrates and Non-structural Carbohydrates. Individual minerals are measured using a variety of chemical methods, including: • colorimetry; • atomic absorption spectrophotometry; • inductively coupled plasma spectrophotometry (ICP). Often, the levels of Calcium, Phosphorus, Sodium and Potassium reported by feed analysis labs are estimated by NIR (Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy). The accuracy of mineral analysis results using this method are questionable. Feeds & Feeding 39 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Vitamins Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Vitamin concentrations in feed are measured using a variety of costly chemical and spectral methods. Few labs offer these analyses as part of their standard feed analysis packages. Because of the expense of vitamin analyses and the uncertainty involved in estimating vitamin levels, it is usually assumed that basal dietary ingredients contribute little or nothing to the vitamin requirements of livestock. Supplementation in the form of injection or feed premix is used to assure that the animals receive the vitamins they require. Feeds & Feeding 40 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Silage pH Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX The degree of acidity in silage is measured as pH. Pure distilled water with no dissolved gases or other ions (charged atoms) has a pH of 7. Strong acid will have a pH of 2 to 3; a strong base will have a pH of 11 to 12. Before fermentation begins, the pH of wet forage is usually in the 6.0-6.5 range. As bacteria in the forage ferment soluble sugars to produce acid, pH falls. Ideally, silage will have a pH in the 3.8-5.0 range. At this level of acidity, the silage will not be subject to the growth of moulds which can impair its feed quality. Corn and small cereal silages generally reach a low pH with little difficulty thanks to their high sugar content. Legume silages seldom reach pH levels below 5.0 because of their low sugar content and high buffering capacity (buffers are chemicals that resist pH changes). Grasses have intermediate levels of both sugar and buffers, usually producing silages with pH levels in the upper end of the ideal range. Paper pH test strips can be used to estimate silage pH. Silage pH can be measured relatively easily in the field using either a pH test strip or a portable pH metre. A 100 gram sample of silage is thoroughly mixed with 100 millilitres of water and the liquid is poured into a test vial. The pH metre or test strip is simply dipped into the liquid sample to determine the pH of the silage. Feeds & Feeding 41 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Bulk Density Average Diameter Height Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds 48 37 49 48 51 DPP INDEX Bulk density is the weight of a standard volume of grain. In the past, this was measured as bushel weight but, since adoption of the metric system, kilograms per hectolitre (kg/hL) is used as the standard unit of measure. Although bulk density is a generally accepted measure of grain quality, its relationship to nutritional value is not clear. Most assume that grain of higher density is worth more as a dietary ingredient. To determine bulk density you will need a small pail, a ruler and a scale. The method is as follows: 1 Determine the empty weight of the pail in kg (WE). lbs per kgs per bushel hectolitre Barley Oats Rye Triticale Wheat DPP TOC 62 48 63 62 65 Bulk density standards for western Canadian feed grains. 2 Measure the average diameter and height of the pail in centimetres and calculate its volume in litres using this formula: height (cm) x (avg diameter (cm) ÷ 2)2 volume (litres) = 1000 cubic centimetres per litre For example, if the average diameter of the pail is 30 cm and the height is 20 cm, its volume is: 20 x (30 ÷ 2)2 = 4500 cubic centimetres ÷ 1000 = 4.5 litres 3 Fill the pail with grain. Use the ruler to even off the top of the grain with the top of the pail. 4 Determine the kg weight of the pail filled with grain (WF). 5 Calculate bulk density using the following formula: Bulk Density (kg/hL) = WF (kg) - WE (kg) x 100 litres per hL volume (litres) For example, if the grain weighs 3 kg, the bulk density is 3 kg ÷ 4.5 litres x 100 litres per hL = 66.7 kg/hL. 6 Compare your measured value with the reference values in the table on the left. Feeds & Feeding 42 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Particle Size The Penn State Forage Particle Separator DPP TOC DPP INDEX Fibre has a particularly important role in ruminant nutrition. It is important to distinguish between chemical fibre and physical fibre. Chemical fibre is measured in the feed lab as Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) and Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF). Physical fibre, or structured roughage, stimulates chewing and salivation which keeps the rumen functioning normally. Since long particles require more chewing than short particles, it is useful to estimate the distribution of particle sizes in forages and complete diets. Forage particle size distributions can be estimated using the Penn State Forage Particle Separator shown on the left. The separator consists of three screens with hole sizes decreasing from top to bottom plus a bottom pan. A sample of forage or total mixed ration (TMR) is placed on the top screen, the separator is shaken and the amount of forage remaining in each of the 4 sections is weighed. Recommendations for different forage types vary widely. Guidelines for TMRs fed to high producing dairy cows are: • 2 to 8 percent of the particles in the upper sieve; • 30 to 50 percent in the middle and lower sieves, and; • no more than 20 percent in the bottom pan. Feeds & Feeding 43 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Processing Index DPP TOC DPP INDEX To be efficiently digested by dairy cattle, feed grains need to be processed by either grinding or rolling. This is because the fibrous hull of the whole grain kernel limits access to its starchy core by both microbes in the rumen and digestive enzymes in the lower digestive tract. Conversely, Barley which is finely processed is rapidly digested in the rumen—an advantage in terms of maximizing microbial protein sythesis but a disadvantage due to a higher risk of rumen acidosis. Processing index (PI) is a measure of the degree of grain processing. As grain is rolled more finely, its bulk density decreases. PI is the bulk density of grain after processing expressed as a percentage of its bulk density before processing. For example, if a sample of Barley had a bulk density of 60 kg/hL before rolling and 42 kg/hL after, we would assign the rolled grain a PI of 70% (42/60 x 100%). To put PI values into perspective, steam-rolled Barley samples obtained from 10 southern Alberta feedmills had PI values which varied from 63 to 79%, with most in the 65 to 70% range. In contrast, dry- or temper-rolled samples from 9 feedlots had PI values between 72 and 91%. In a lactating cow study conducted in southern Alberta, Barley rolled to a PI of 64% gave the best results in terms of maximum production with limited risk of acidosis, in diets formulated to contain 22% NDF from forage. Had lower forage diets been fed, optimum PI would likely have been higher. Conversely, a diet containing more forage might have allowed the feeding of Barley with a lower PI without increasing the risk of acidosis. Feeds & Feeding 44 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Perennial Grasses Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds 100 80 % leaves 70 60 % NDF in stems 50 40 DPP INDEX Perennial grasses are fed to dairy animals in the form of pasture, green chop (cut and carried, fed fresh), hay (also referred to as green feed) and silage. When ensiled, perennial grasses and legumes are often called hay-crop silages to differentiate them from grain-crop (cereal) silages. Smooth Bromegrass 90 DPP TOC The intake potential and nutritional quality of grasses are largely dependent on their stage of maturity. As the grass plant matures, the stem elongates, the proportion of leaf to stem decreases, fibre content increases and Crude Protein declines. These relationships are shown in the graphs on the left, where bromegrass is used as an example. % NDF in leaves 30 Perennial grasses commonly used in western Canadian dairy diets include: 20 % CP in leaves Bromegrass: there are two types of bromegrass—a southern type and a northern 0 May June July Aug Sept Oct type. In western Canada, the northern type is Immature Full bloom Mature Dormant more vigorous and has higher seed yields than Early bloom Milk stage Overripe the southern type. It is tolerant of drought and extreme temperatures and can be grown Changes in composition of alone or mixed with other grasses and legumes. smooth bromegrass as plants Bromegrass is the most commonly used companion to mature. alfalfa in mixtures grown on dryland. 10 % CP in stems Orchardgrass is used for pasture, silage and hay. It has a deep, competitive root system and can interfere with nutrient uptake in legumes so the two should not be grown together, especially when heavily fertilized with nitrogen. ...continued Perennial Grasses (continued) Perennial Ryegrass is rarely grown in the prairie provinces although it is very common in south coastal British Columbia. A short-lived bunch grass with a shallow root system, it is very palatable and nutritious when harvested at the correct maturity. Reed Canarygrass is particularly tolerant of low, poorly drained areas. Canarygrass is palatable to cattle as long as it is not allowed to become too mature as it becomes coarse with age. It is often used to stabilize the banks of waterways because of its ability to develop a dense sod. Tall Fescue can grow even on the poorest of soils. It is tolerant of both acidic and alkaline soils and, although it has a low moisture requirement, tall fescue does especially well under moist conditions. It can also be used to control soil erosion. Timothy is used for both pasture and hay; it grows well with legumes; and is easy to harvest. Overmature timothy is very fibrous, limiting intake. Wheatgrass: there are several different types of wheatgrass: crested, intermediate, pubescent, slender, streambank and tall. This plant is persistent, drought resistant, and it can be found throughout the Canadian Prairies. Smooth Bromegrass drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Orchardgrass drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Perennial Ryegrass drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Tall Fescue drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Timothy drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Wheatgrass drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Feeds & Feeding 52 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Annual Grasses Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds Annual (Italian) ryegrass, drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 DPP TOC DPP INDEX Other than the grain crop forages, annual grasses are not commonly used in western Canadian dairy diets. The one exception is Annual (Italian) Ryegrass, a quick growing, highyielding species which establishes easily. Although most commonly used for grazing, Italian Ryegrass makes good quality hay or silage when harvested at the correct stage of maturity. Changes in composition with advancing maturity are similar to those for perennial grasses. Feeds & Feeding 53 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Grain Crop Forages Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX Grain crops (members of the grass family Gramineae) including Barley, Corn, Oats, Rye, Triticale and Wheat are common forage sources in western Canadian dairy diets— primarily fed as silage. Barley grows best in well drained, fertile soils. This plant has also adapted to growth in sandy soils. The disadvantage to using Barley is the presence of awns on the stems which are spiky and decrease palatability. Corn silage is highly palatable and a good source of digestible energy (due to grain content). It is, however, low in digestible protein. Rye is well suited for pasture because of its high productivity. A disadvantage of using Rye as pasture is that it quickly becomes unpalatable as it matures. Oats can be grazed or stored as hay (greenfeed) or silage. Particular varieties (e.g., Foothills) have been bred for use as high quality forages. Triticale is the result of a cross between Wheat and Rye. It has the potential to be higher yielding than Barley but many attempts to feed Triticale silage to lactating cows have been disapppointing due to low intakes. Wheat can be used for pasture, silage or hay. It is a quality crop that is palatable, high in protein and energy and low in fibre. As pasture, these crops can be grazed during winter months (in climates where weather permits) and into early spring without reducing the harvest yields of the grain. When ensiling Barley, Triticale, Rye or Wheat the moisture content should be 62-68 % to avoid excessive air in the stems and a stronger concentration of butyric acid in the silage. Feeds & Feeding 54 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Legume Forages Go To Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds 100 90 % leaves 80 % NDF in stems 60 50 % NDF in leaves 40 30 % CP in leaves 20 10 DPP INDEX Legume forages are primarily fed to dairy animals as hay and silage. They are seldom offered as pasture or as fresh-cut forage because of their potential to cause bloat. When ensiled, perennial grasses and legumes are often called hay-crop silages to differentiate them from grain-crop (cereal) silages. Ladak Alfalfa 70 DPP TOC Like grasses, the intake potential and nutritional quality of legumes are largely dependent on their stage of maturity. As the plants mature, their stems elongate, the proportion of leaf to stem decreases, fibre content increases and Crude Proteindeclines. These relationships are shown in the graphs on the left, where alfalfa is used as an example. In comparison to grasses, legumes are higher in protein, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and copper, but lower in manganese and zinc. % CP in stems The feeding of fresh legumes can pose a significant risk of developing frothy bloat. Due to their high fermentability and protein content, a stable foam is produced during Early bloom Milk stage Overripe rumen fermentation, making it impossible for Changes in composition of the animal to expel excess gas by belching. As a result, gas alfalfa as plants mature. pressure accumulates and the animal appears to be choking. New research in legume genetics is being directed toward making bloat free strains to reduce the incidence of pasture bloat in ruminants. 0 May June July Immature Full bloom Aug Sept Oct Mature Dormant continued... Legume Forages (continued) Common legume crops fed to dairy cattle in western Canada include: Alfalfa is a perennial legume that can survive in both cold and warm climates. Alfalfa can be used for silages, hay or grazing. This plant can not withstand drought for long periods of time nor can it tolerate acidic soil or a high water table. Ingestion of this legume can cause bloat in ruminants. Several companies in western Canada produce high quality dehydrated alfalfa pellets and cubes for animal feeding. Birdsfoot Trefoil is a perennial legume grown in temperate to cold climates. It is tolerant of drought and acidic soils and can be used for hay or pasture. Trefoil is palatable and nutritious but also has the potential to cause bloat. Dehydrated alfalfa pellets. Cicer Milkvetch is a perennial that can grow in cold climates. It is tolerant of salty soil, drought, flooding and acidic and alkaline conditions. Because the crop does not cause bloat, it is commonly used for pasture and less frequently for hay. Red Clover is a perennial that can be grown in moist conditions in cold, warm and acidic soils. It will, however, not tolerate drought. There are two types of red clover: single-cut and double-cut. Single cut varieties flower later, are able to withstand winter better and are larger. Red clover of both types are suitable for pasture and hay. Alfalfa drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Red Clover drawing by Norman Criddle from G.H. Clark and M.O. Malte, Fodder and Pasture Plants, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1923 Feeds & Feeding 86 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM DPP TOC DPP INDEX The Digestive System The main parts of the cow’s digestive system are illustrated in the diagram below. Ingested feed is chewed, mixed with saliva and formed into a bolus before it passes down the esophagus into the reticulum and rumen, the first two rectum dorsal sac of rumen sections of the four compartment anus esophagus ruminant stomach. Later, boluses duodenum (cuds) of feed are regurgitated and further broken down by chewing. omasum cecum Whenever feed is chewed, saliva is reticulum secreted from salivary glands in the abomasum mouth. Over the course of a day, a spiral colon ventral sac of rumen lactating cow will secrete more than small intestine 200 litres of saliva which has three main functions: The main parts of the cow’s • it lubricates feed as it moves down the esophagus; digestive system. • it provides the liquid flow which carries feed particles into the omasum, and; • it contains buffers which prevent rumen pH from falling too Click here to see a video low as microbes produce acids from feed fermentation. about ruminant digestion video clip used with permission of Penn State University STARCH GRANULE Electron photomicrograph of bacteria and protozoa digesting Barley starch granules. BACTERIA PROTOZOA BACTERIA On entering the rumen, an extremely varied population of bacteria, protozoa and fungi attach themselves to feed and begin the breakdown process. Enzymes are secreted onto the feed and into the fluid contents of the rumen. Distinct microbial populations digest specific types of feed. For example, starch digesters are distict from fibre digesters. continued... The Digestive System (continued) The inner lining of the rumen is not unlike pile carpet, having innumerable small, flat projections called papillae. These serve two primary functions. They vastly increase the area for absorption of nutrients and they also provide attachment sites for additional, specific populations of bacteria. For example, the bacteria responsible for digesting urea are mainly found attached to papillae. Continual mixing of rumen contents is essential to efficient fermentation. The muscular walls of the rumen and reticulum produce waves of contraction travelling their combined lengths at about half-minute intervals. This process, in addition to mixing the rumen contents, facilitates both regurgitation for further cud-chewing and eructation, which releases gases produced by fermentation (mainly hydrogen and methane). Under some conditions (e.g., grain overload) these contractions may stop, resulting in rumen stasis and placing the animal at serious risk of bloating. After the feed has been sufficiently chewed and broken down by microbial action, digesta enter the omasum. Flow into this third segment of the stomach is regulated by a small opening called the reticulo-omasal orifice which prevents large particles from leaving the rumen. The omasum is a muscular organ which is thought to have two main functions. The first is the extraction of water from the digesta, yielding a product for further digestion which has a significantly higher proportion of dry matter. Secondly, the omasum serves as a pump, propelling digesta from the rumen and reticulum into the fourth segment of the stomach, the abomasum. The ruminant abomasum is analogous to the true stomach of monogastric animals such as humans, pigs, dogs and cats. The digestion of proteins, fats and oils is initiated by acids and enzymes secreted by the tissue lining the abomasum. As these initial stages progress, the digesta pass to the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. Here, bile from the liver and gall bladder along with digestive enzymes from the pancreas are added. Digestion and absorption of its products progress as the digesta pass through the two lower segments of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum. The Digestive System (continued) Digestion is almost complete by the time the unabsorbed digesta reach the large intestine. One of the main functions of this part of the system is the absorption of water and minerals. In addition, some further breakdown is carried out here by a permanent population of microbes (bacteria and protozoa) with some of the products being absorbed into the blood. Food material which has escaped both enzymatic and microbial digestion is excreted. Feeds & Feeding 89 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Carbohydrate Digestion DPP TOC DPP INDEX Plant carbohydrates are the main source of energy in dairy diets. Bacteria, protozoa and fungi in the rumen and reticulum (rumen microbes) secrete enzymes that degrade carbohydrates to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs)— primarily acetic, propionic and butyric acids. After absorption into the bloodstream, these VFAs are used by body tissues to synthesize protein, fat and other essential carbohydrates such as glucose. When diets containing large amounts of Non-structural Carbohdrates are fed, the rate of VFA production may exceed their rate of removal from the rumen. The resulting accumulation of acid may cause rumen pH to decline, leading to acidosis. Structural Carbohydrates are degraded more slowly, resulting in a much lower rate of VFA production. Carbohydrate degradation rates in the rumen also depend upon the physical structure of feeds. For example, unprocessed grain is poorly digested in the rumen because the starch contained in the grain kernel is inaccessible to microbial attack. Conversely, the starch in finely ground grain is degraded very rapidly (see processing index). Although the differences are not as great, fine chopping and aggressive crushing of forages will also increase rates of degradation. Non-structural Carbohdrates that escape degradation in the rumen may be digested as they pass further down the digestive tract either by animal enzymes secreted into the small intestine or by microbial enzymes in the large intestine. Mammals do not produce enzymes capable of digesting Structural Carbohydrates. Once they pass from the rumen, the only remaining, but limited, opportunity for further digestion of these plant components is in the large intestine. Feeds & Feeding 90 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Lipid Digestion DPP TOC DPP INDEX Unless supplemental fats or oils are added, dairy diets contain low concentrations of lipid—2-3% of dietary dry matter is typical. Because cattle digest lipids very inefficiently, dietary concentrations should never exceed 5-6%. Lipid digestion in the rumen begins with cleavage of glycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids. Glycerol is used by rumen microbes for the synthesis of propionic acid. Unsaturated fatty acids are hydrogenated to make them completely saturated. TRIGLYCERIDE Lipids are composed of fatty acids (FA) in free form (FFA) and as di- and triglycerides. The FA ‘backbone’ is a long chain of 12-22 carbon atoms. A saturated FA has 2 hydrogen (H) atoms attached to each carbon (the end carbon always has 3). When a single pair of H atoms are missing from adjacent carbons, the FA is monounsaturated (MUFA); when more than one pair are missing it is termed polyunsaturated (PUFA). In the diagram on the right, 16:0 is a 16-carbon (C16) FA with zero H atoms missing—it is saturated. 18:2 is a polyunsaturated C18 FA with 2 pairs of H atoms missing. 16:0 FFA The saturated fatty acids then move through the digestive tract to the small intestine where they are mixed with bile salts and pancreatic juices. Once they have been thoroughly emulsified, the fatty acids are absorbed into the lymph system then slowly released into to the bloodstream for delivery to muscles, adipose (fat) tissue, the liver and the mammary gland for further use. 18:1 18:2 12:0 OXYGEN CARBON HYDROGEN MISSING HYDROGEN Feeds & Feeding 91 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Protein Digestion 1 N 0 N N 7 6 17 N N N 1 4 1 7 N N 2 1 17 N N N 16 N 9 13 11 N 1 12 3 N N 16 1 1 N N 20 18 N N DPP INDEX Crude Protein in feed is composed of both true proteins and Non-protein Nitrogen. As illustrated in the diagram below, true proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids. 8 N N N 19 7 N N N 4 11 1 DPP TOC 13 N N N 12 3 True proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids. The chain of each unique protein (e.g., milk casein, blood albumin) is a specific sequence of 20 different amino acids. Each amino acid contains at least one atom of nitrogen. When feed proteins enter the rumen, those that are degradable are broken down by microbial enzymes into shorter chains (peptides), individual amino acids, organic acids and ammonia. Rumen microbes use these breakdown products to manufacture their own microbial protein. As digestion progresses, microbes are carried out of the rumen. In the small intestine, digestive enzymes release amino acids from microbial protein for use by the cow. Undegradable feed proteins pass through the rumen without being digested. Unless they are completely resistant, they will also be digested in the small intestine. The blend of amino acids available to the cow is a combination of those released by intestinal digestion of both microbial and undegraded feed proteins. When the available blend is not exactly what the cow requires, excess amino acids are broken down in the liver, much of the nitrogen (N) being released as urea and excreted. Dietary Non-protein Nitrogen is rapidly and completely degraded to ammonia by rumen microbial enzymes. Feeds & Feeding 92 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM The Role of Energy in Dairy Cattle Nutrition GROSS ENERGY IN FEED 79.8 Mcal DIGESTIBLE ENERGY 63.8 Mcal METABOLIZABLE ENERGY 52.3 Mcal NET ENERGY 33.2 Mcal DPP TOC DPP INDEX When carbohydrates, fats and proteins are digested, energy is released. While a portion of the released energy is lost, much of the remainder is captured, to be used in the growth and maintenance of body tissues and in the synthesis of milk. The diagram on the left illustrates the loss and capture of energy as feed is digested and the products of digestion are used by the animal. Gross Energy can be estimated by burning a sample of feed in an atmosphere of oxygen and measuring the amount of FECES 16 Mcal heat produced. Some of this is unavailable to the animal because it is indigestible, passing right through the digestive tract to be excreted as feces. Of the GASES energy released by digestion (Digestible 12 Mcal URINE Energy), portions are lost from both ends of the digestive tract in the form of gas and some is lost through urinary excretion. HEAT OF PRODUCTION Metabolizable Energy is available to the 19 Mcal animal for maintenance, growth and milk production. These processes result in the loss of heat (Heat of Production) which, when MAINTENANCE ambient temperature is low, serve to keep the 10.3 Mcal body warm. The remaining Net Energy represents GAIN 2.6 Mcal the amount that is actually captured by processes GESTATION 3.1 Mcal which require the synthesis of new organic compounds—carbohydrates, fats, proteins and LACTATION 17.2 Mcal nucleic acids. When describing feed energy values and animal energy requirements, net energy is Partitioning of energy in a 3rd lactation defined by the specific process it supports: Net cow, weighing 650 kg, producing 25 kg/ Energy for Maintenance (NEM), Net Energy for Gain day of 3.5% bf milk, gaining 0.5 kg/day (NE G) or Net Energy for Lactation (NEL). at 300 days in milk, 220 days pregnant. Feeds & Feeding 93 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM The Role of Fibre in Dairy Cattle Nutrition The rumen fibre mat functions as a particle sorting system and stabilizes fermentation by trapping fine, dry particles. DPP TOC DPP INDEX Ruminant animals require physical fibre in their diets to keep the rumen functioning normally. Chewing is required to break down large fibre particles and chewing promotes salivation. A cow producing 30 to 40 kg of milk may secrete as much as 200 litres of saliva daily. This amount of fluid being produced high up in the digestive tract washes feed particles through the rumen into the lower parts of the system. In addition, saliva contains buffers which serve to prevent the contents of the rumen from becoming too acidic. Physical fibre also provides a ‘tickle factor’ which stimulates rumen contractions. These help to keep the rumen contents well mixed and to force fluid and small particles further down the digestive tract. A third function of long forage is the maintenance of a fibre mat which floats in GAS the rumen and functions as a particle sorting ESOPHAGUS FIBRE MAT system. Long particles near the top of the mat are the first to be regurgitated for cud chewing. Chewing subdivides and adds water to the particles. When they re-enter the EXIT FROM RUMEN rumen, they ‘float’ at a lower level than the longer, drier particles they were derived from. A functional mat also stabilizes rumen fermentation by trapping fine particles, slowing their rate of breakdown by reducing exposure to rumen microbes. Feeds & Feeding 94 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM The Role of Protein in Dairy Cattle Nutrition DPP TOC DPP INDEX Dairy cattle manufacture a huge array of different proteins, ranging from milk casein to actin in muscle, hemoglobin which carries oxygen in blood and pepsin which digests dietary protein in the small intestine. To synthesize these proteins, the animal requires amino acids, the basic subunits of all proteins. Of the 20 common amino acids, 10 are essential—they must be available from the digestive tract because animals cannot make them. Ruminant animals do not require dietary amino acids or True Protein to support maintenance or very low levels of production. This is because the animals’ amino requirements are satisfied by digesting microbial protein that passes down UNDEGRADABLE DEGRADABLE INTAKE PROTEIN The high producing dairy cow requires both degradable and undegradable dietary true protein to supply the amino acid requirements of rumen microbes and the cow herself. AMMONIA AMINO ACIDS MICROBIAL PROTEIN INDIGESTIBLE DIGESTIBLE AMINO ACIDS BODY PROTEIN MILK PROTEIN continued... The Role of Protein in Dairy Cattle Nutrition (continued) the digestive tract from the rumen. Rumen bacteria are able to manufacture microbial protein from dietary Non-protein Nitrogen sources that yield ammonia after entering the rumen. For example, urea is broken down to ammonia by bacteria that produce the enzyme urease. To support anything beyond very low production, a few of the essential amino acids are required in the diet to support the efficient processing of forages by rumen microbes. At the very high levels of production expected of today’s lactating dairy cow, high quality protein which is resistant to microbial degradation must also be fed. Such Rumen Undegradable Protein must be digestible in the small intestine and must supply a mixture of amino acids which complements the amino acids provided by microbial protein. C N E S S £ C I N Ø A N E S N Ø S N I I £ A C A I A C S The blend of amino acids available to the cow is a combination of those released by intestinal A digestion of both microbial and undegraded feed proteins. The total amount of protein available to C the animal for metabolism is referred to as £ Metabolizable Protein. When the blend of amino acids available in Metabolizable Protein is not exactly what the cow requires, excess amino acids are broken down in the liver, much of the nitrogen (N) being released as urea and excreted. This process is illustrated in the diagram on the left. £ C I CASEIN S CASEIN I N A Ø In this illustration, letters of the alphabet represent amino acids. Synthesis of milk protein requires equal proportions of the 6 letters that spell the word CASEIN. Here, the letter E is limiting so only two words can be synthesized. The other letters are surplus and cannot be used. Ø Net Protein is that fraction of metabolizable protein which contributes to lean tissue growth and milk production. Another major fraction is required for tissue turnover, a process by which tissues are continually replaced by new tissue. Feeds & Feeding 96 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM The Role of Minerals in Dairy Cattle Nutrition DPP TOC DPP INDEX A number of minerals are essential for maintenance, growth, production and reproduction of dairy animals. Those required in large amounts are referred to as macrominerals and include calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and sulfur. The macrominerals are important structural components of bone and other tissues and serve as important constituents of body fluids. They play vital roles in the maintenance of acid-base balance, osmotic pressure, membrane electric potential and nervous transmission. Minerals required in smaller amounts are referred to as microor trace minerals. . This group includes cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc, and perhaps chromium and fluorine. The trace minerals are present in body tissues in very low concentrations and often serve as components of enzymes and hormones. Specific functions of the essential minerals and signs of their deficiency are as follows: Macrominerals: Calcium (Ca): A component of body fluids, muscle, bone and the blood clotting mechanism. Regulates heart beat, muscle function and nerve impulses. Signs of Deficiency: softened, deformed, bones; Rickets and Osteomalacia. Chlorine (Cl): Responsible for the regulation of fluids and acidbase balance in body systems; secreted as HCl in the abomasum. Signs of Deficiency: unthrifty appearance, rough coat, rapid weight loss. ...continued The Role of Minerals in Dairy Cattle Nutrition (continued) Magnesium (Mg): Has a role in skeletal structure, nerve transmission and enzyme function. Signs of Deficiency: In calves: poor growth and deformed bones. In mature cattle: Grass Tetany. Phosphorus (P): Responsible for bone formation; constituent of body tissues, blood, phospholipids, nucleotides and enzymes. Signs of Deficiency: Rickets, Osteomalacia, eating dirt, reproductive problems. Potassium (K): Maintains fluid balance; responsible for nerve impulses, muscle contraction, oxygen and carbon dioxide transport, acid-base balance and enzyme activation. Signs of Deficiency: Weight loss and decreased appetite Sodium (Na): Regulation of body fluids and acid-base balance; responsible for the active transport of glucose and amino acids throughout the body; involved in muscle contraction and bile function. Signs of Deficiency: Same as for chloride. Sulphur (S): Required in amino acids, vitamins and coenzymes; regulates acid-base balance and carbohydrate and lipid metabolism; found in most body fluids, blood cells and heparin (which regulates blood clotting). Signs of Deficiency: Decreased weight gain. Trace Minerals: Cobalt (Co): Used by rumen microbes to synthesize Vitamin B12. Signs of Deficiency: Rough coat, scales, anestrus, abortion, emaciation, anemia. Copper (Cu): A component of enzyme systems. Signs of Deficiency: Anemia, lack of hair pigment, lesions and hemorrhages. Iron (Fe): Required in hemoglobin in blood and myoglobin in muscles; a component of enzymes. Signs of Deficiency: Anemia. Iodine(I): A component of thyroxine which is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate basal metabolism, growth, reproduction and lactation. Signs of Deficiency: When dams are deficient, newborns will have goitre. ...continued The Role of Minerals in Dairy Cattle Nutrition (continued) Manganese (Mn): Component of bone matrix; responsible for the maintenance of equilibrium; a constituent of enzymes, glycoproteins and transferases; has a role in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism Signs of Deficiency: Enlarged joints, stiffness, twisted legs, general weakness and reduced bone strength. Selenium (Se): Enzyme component; works as an antioxidant along with Vitamin E. Signs of Deficiency: White muscle disease in calves; reproductive problems in adults. Zinc (Zn): constituent of enzymes, particularly those involved in carbohydrate metabolism; has a role in the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid); important role in the synthesis of some proteins, especially keratin (the protein of skin, hoof and horn). Signs of Deficiency: Dermatitis, slowed growth, anorexia, rough coat, bone density, hypogonadism, suppression of secondary sex characteristics, dwarfism, delayed wound healing. Feeds & Feeding 99 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM DPP TOC DPP INDEX The Role of Vitamins in Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Water soluble vitamins include thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), Dairy Cattle Nutrition niacin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, biotin, choline, myoinositol, para-aminobenzoic acid, vitamins B6, B12, and C. These vitamins can all be synthesized either by microbes or within body tissues, so they are not normally supplemented. However, they are not stored in the body and there is some evidence that supplementation of folic acid and vitamin B12 in the diets of high producing cows might be beneficial. Biotin supplementation has been shown to reduce the incidence of some types of hoof lesions and, Niacin is often included in transition diets for fat cows although evidence to support this use is inconclusive. Fat soluble vitamins include A, D, E, and K. These vitamins are transported through the body in association with lipids. They are also absorbed and stored with fat in the body. Vitamin K can be synthesized by rumen microbes and does not need to be supplemented. Vitamins A, D, and E must either be provided in the diet or administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection. Specific functions of the vitamins and signs of their deficiency are as follows: Vitamin A: Essential to the development of the epithelial cells, reproductive success, bone growth and proper vision. Natural sources of Vitamin A include green plants and organ tissues. Signs of Deficiency: Tough skin, reproductive disorders, reduced bone growth, blindness, thinning, diarrhea and nervous behaviour. ...continued The Role of Vitamins in Vitamin D: Prevention of Milk Fever in lactating cows by increasing the absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the Dairy Cattle Nutrition small intestine and mobilization from bone. Vitamin D is (continued) produced in the skin of animals exposed to sunlight. If animals are housed indoors, then Vitamin D must be supplemented. Natural sources of Vitamin D include good quality forages and fish oils. Signs of Deficiency: Rickets, Osteomalacia, Osteoporosis. Vitamin E: In conjunction with selenium, vitamin E is an antioxidant. Natural sources include germ or germ oils of plant seeds and green plants. Signs of Deficiency: White Muscle Disease in newborn calves; reproductive disorders in mature animals. Feeds & Feeding 101 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM The Role of Water in Dairy Cattle Nutrition DPP TOC DPP INDEX Water is the most important nutrient for dairy cattle. It is required for all of life’s processes: • transport of nutrients and other compounds to and from cells; • digestion and metabolism of nutrients; • elimination of waste materials as urine, feces and respiratory water vapour; • removal of excess heat from the body through evaporation; • maintenance of fluid and ion balance, and; • provision of a fluid environment for the developing fetus. The total body water content of dairy cattle is 56 to 81 percent of body weight, depending on physiologic stage and body composition. Cows in early lactation have more body water (69% of body weight) than cows in late lactation (62%). Late gestation dry cows are intermediate in body water content (65%). Fat cows have lower body water content than thin lactating cows and younger, leaner animals have a higher water content than older animals. Body water is divided into intracellular and extracellular compartments. Intracellular (within the cell) water is the largest compartment, accounting for about two-thirds of the water in the body. The extracellular (outside the cell) fluid includes water around cells and connective tissue, water in plasma, and water in the gastrointestinal tract. Intestinal water accounts for 10-35 percent of body weight—in early lactation cows it is about 15%; in pregnant and late lactation cows it is about 10-11%. Feeds & Feeding 102 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Growth Targets Standard curves for weight and hip height growth of US Holsteins. DPP TOC DPP INDEX The ultimate objective of a successful calf and heifer rearing program is to achieve maximum first lactation milk production from an animal who produces her first calf at 24±2 months of age. The two graphs below illustrate standard growth curves for US Holstein females between 1 and 24 months of age. As shown, growth of individual animals will vary, depending upon both genetics and nutrition. 800 700 BodyWeight,kg 600 500 le nti e rce tile erag e v p a n th ce 95 h per t ile 5 7 ent erc ntile p h e 25t perc 5th 400 300 200 First bred TBW = 55% of MSBW 100 0 First post-calving TBW = 82% of MSBW 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Age, months 160 Hip Height, cm Second post-calving TBW = 92% of MSBW The table below gives some examples: 140 tile cen per entile h t 95 perc h ile 75t ercent p le i t h 25t percen h t 5 120 100 ge avera 80 0 Growth targets can be stated with reference to mature shrunk body weight (MSBW) which is the weight of a cow after she delivers her third calf and following an overnight fast without feed or water. The potential MSBW of a heifer can be predicted from the weight of her dam. Target body weights (TBW) are as follows: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Age, months Predicted MSBW, kg 550 600 650 700 750 Target Body Weights, kg First First Second Bred Post-Calf Post-Calf 303 330 358 385 413 451 492 533 574 615 506 552 598 644 690 Feeds & Feeding 103 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM DPP TOC DPP INDEX Monitoring Heifer Growth The success of a heifer-rearing program can be evaluated by monitoring the height and weight of calves and heifers and comparing the results against breed averages for a specific age group. Although most dairy producers, consultants, Proper placement of weigh tape feed industry representatives, and veterinarians can Heart girth Withers recognize underconditioned or overconditioned animals, it is difficult to visually determine whether a heifer’s height or weight is normal for her age. To estimate a dairy animal’s body weight, use a weight tape, which is accurate to within 5 to 7 percent of the actual body weight. Make certain that the animal is standing with her head upright. Pull the weight tape snug, but not too tight, around the heart girth just behind the front legs and shoulder blades. 65” Proper placement of measuring stick When measuring a heifer’s wither height, stand her on a clean, hard, level surface, hold her head upright and make sure that she is standing comfortably without pulling against her halter. Measure at the highest point of the withers. Hip height can be measured with less concern about the orientation of the head. Level Read here Close-up of heifer measuring stick 25” source: J. Heinrichs and B. Lammers, Monitoring Dairy Heifer Growth, Penn State University Feeds & Feeding 104 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Efficiency of Intestinal Immunoglobulin Absorption (%) Colostrum DPP TOC DPP INDEX At birth, the calf has no protection against infectious diseases. She acquires immunity by consuming colostrum, a rich source of both essential nutrients and antibodies which provide immunity to infection. To assure absorption of antibodies, colostrum must be fed immediately after birth. As illustrated in the diagram on the left, the calf’s ability to absorb antibodes declines very rapidly after Maximum Absorption birth. 50 40 Colostrum is the first milk produced by the dam. Once it is removed, subsequent milkings yield secretions which are much lower in nutrients and antibodies than the first. This is shown in the table below. 30 20 Average Absorption 10 0 0 Birth 6 12 18 Hours After Birth Absorption of colostrum through the calf’s intestine declines very rapidly after birth. 24 A 55 kg calf requires 3 litres of colostrum within an hour after birth and another 3 litres within the next 4 hours. Smaller calves should be fed proportionately less. Hand feeding is the only way to assure consumption. 1 Item Milking number (cows milked twice daily) 2 3 4 5 11 Whole Colostrum ---Transitional Milk--- Milk Total solids, % Total protein, % Casein, % Immunoglobulins, % Fat, % Lactose, % Minerals, % Specific gravity 23.9 14.0 4.8 6.0 6.7 2.7 1.11 1.056 17.9 8.4 4.3 4.2 5.4 3.9 0.95 1.040 14.1 5.1 3.8 2.4 3.9 4.4 0.87 1.035 13.9 4.2 3.2 0.2 4.4 4.6 0.82 1.033 13.6 12.9 4.1 4.0 2.9 2.5 0.1 0.09 4.3 4.0 4.7 4.9 0.81 0.74 1.033 1.032 Feeds & Feeding 105 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Feeding Milk to Calves DPP TOC DPP INDEX Four to six litres of colostrum must be fed within the first few hours after birth for the calf to absorb the antibodies which will provide passive immunity for the first few months of life. After these initial feedings, colostrum and transition milk should be fed as long as they are available—usually for 3 to 4 days. Both contain significantly higher concentrations of nutrients than the milk which is secreted later. After receiving colostrum and transition milk for the first few days of life, calves are fed either milk or milk replacer until weaning. The majority of calves on western Canadian dairy farms receive ‘hospital’ milk—milk which is unsuitable for shipping due to its poor quality or because the cow from which it is taken has been treated with antibiotics. Marketable (in-quota) milk may be fed when insufficient hospital milk is available but its high value compared to milk replacer makes it too expensive to feed routinely. There are risks inherent in feeding hospital milk: • It may contain infectious organisms that can cause disease in the calves. Johne’s Disease, Mycoplasma, E. coli, Bovine Virus Diarrhea and Pasteurella are of particular concern. • Antibiotic residues can inhibit the development of the bacteria that normally populate the healthy gut. To reduce the risk of passing infection to the calves, some producers pasteurize their hospital milk. Commercial pasteurizers, such as the one shown on the left, are available for this purpose but generally require the feeding of 300+ calves per day to make them economically feasible. continued... Feeding Milk to Calves (continued) When kept with her dam, a week-old calf will nurse about 10 times per day, consuming about 1 litre of milk each time— approximately 10 litres per day. When allowed unlimited consumption of milk from an artificial teat, calves nurse an average of 25 times/day, consuming about 8.5 litres of milk per day at 7 days of age. However, many calves are fed only 2 litres of milk twice per day regardless of their size or the ambient temperature. It is strongly recommended that the amount be increased to 3 litres twice a day for larger calves and when ambient temperatures below -10oC significantly increase maintenance energy requirements. Traditional liquid feeding programs for calves deliberately restrict intake and growth. The rationale for this is that liquid feeds are expensive and that calves will compensate for their slower early growth by growing more quickly after weaning onto solid feeds. In the past several years, there has been increasing interest in ‘accelerated’ growth programs for calves on liquid diets. Feeds & Feeding 107 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Milk Replacers DPP TOC DPP INDEX Although most dairy farms in western Canada rely on ‘hospital’ milk for feeding to their calves, milk replacers are fed in some situations: • when the supply of hospital milk is limited; • when it is recognized that hospital milk poses significant risk to the health of the calves; • when the price of milk replacer is significantly less that the market value of shippable milk. Milk replacers vary in composition and quality. The table on the left compares protein, fat and energy levels in several commercial products with those in whole milk. ‘All-milk’ products contain only milk protein, usually Protein Fat MEa derived from whey. When the price of skim milk Example % % Mcal/kg powder is low, they may also contain milk caseins—the proteins that are used to make A 22 12 4.41 cheese. Less expensive milk replacers may B 22 20 4.80 contain soy- or fish-derived proteins, some of C 18 21 4.78 which are not well digested by young calves. D 20 20 4.78 E 20 20 4.78 Fat content is another important aspect of milk F 28 17 4.75 replacer quality, primarily affecting the energy G 28 15 4.65 value of the product. Both fat and protein quality Whole Milk 25 30 5.33 affect the ease with which milk replacers mix with a ME is Metabolizable Energy water and stay in suspension. Composition comparison of several commercial milk replacers versus wholemilk. In the US, antibiotics are commonly added to milk replacers in an attempt to protect calves from infection. Although permitted, this practice is less common in Canada. continued... Milk Replacers (continued) Milk replacers are typically fed at a daily rate of about 500 grams of powder dissolved in 4 litres of water, split into two equal feedings. It is recommended that this rate be increased by approximately 50% for larger calves and when the ambient temperature falls below -10oC. Increased feeding rates can be achieved either by adding more powder to the same amount of water (e.g., 750 grams in 4 litres) or by feeding more mixed replacer at the usual dilution rate (e.g., 750 grams in 6 litres). Feeds & Feeding 109 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Nutrient Requirements of Calves Fed Milk or Milk Replacer Only Live Daily Weight Gain kg g 25 30 40 45 50 0 200 400 0 200 400 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 DM Intakea kg 0.24 0.32 0.42 0.27 0.36 0.47 0.34 0.43 0.55 0.69 0.37 0.46 0.59 0.74 0.40 0.45 0.63 0.78 DPP TOC DPP INDEX The following table is adapted from the US National Research Council’s ‘Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle’, 7th Revised Edition, published in 2001. --------------- Energy --------------NEM NEG ME DE Mcal Mcal Mcal Mcal 0.96 0.96 0.96 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 0 0.26 0.60 0 0.28 0.65 0 0.31 0.72 1.16 0 0.32 0.75 1.21 0 0.34 0.77 1.26 1.12 1.50 2.00 1.28 1.69 2.22 1.59 2.04 2.63 3.28 1.74 2.21 2.82 3.50 1.88 2.37 3.00 3.70 1.17 1.56 2.08 1.34 1.76 2.31 1.66 2.13 2.74 3.41 1.81 2.30 2.94 3.64 1.96 2.47 3.13 3.86 ---- Protein ---ADP CP g g 18 65 113 21 68 115 26 73 120 168 28 76 123 170 31 78 125 173 20 70 121 23 73 124 28 79 129 180 30 81 132 183 33 84 135 185 Vitamin A IU 2,750 2,750 2,750 3,300 3,300 3,300 4,400 4,400 4,400 4,400 4,950 4,950 4,950 4,950 5,500 5,500 5,500 5,500 a Dry Matter intake necessary to meet ME requirements for calves fed milk or milk replacer containing primarily milk proteins and containing 4.75 Mcal ME/kg of dry matter. Feeds & Feeding 110 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Calf Starter photo of calf starter DPP TOC DPP INDEX Dry feed intake drives rumen development. The sooner the calf is consuming dry feed, the sooner can she be weaned. Palatable, highly nutritious starter along with fresh water should be offered by a week of age. Small quantities, placed in a clean pail should be offered and cleaned out daily. Calves can be weaned when they are regularly consuming 1 kg of starter a day. Starter feeding should continue until the calf is consuming 2 kg daily. Well managed calves in a clean, dry environment will normally consume this amount by about 8 weeks of age. Calf starter should contain 20-22% Crude Protein (dry matter basis). Protein ingredients should be of high quality because, at this stage of development, the calf’s digestive system is similar to that of a single-stomached animal—the rumen is only just starting to become functional. Soymeal is the most common choice of protein ingredients due to its good balance of amino acids and its palatability. Fresh ingredients, textured grains, added flavour and intact pellets with minimal fines will improve palatability and intake. Calf starter should contain a coccidiostat such as Deccox®, Bovatec® or Rumensin® to control coccidia, a parasite that frequently inhabits the gut of young calves. Feeds & Feeding 111 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Conventional versus ‘Accelerated’ Calf Feeding Programs DPP TOC DPP INDEX Traditionally, calves have been fed limited amounts of milk or milk replacer to promote dry feed consumption, rumen development and early weaning. As long as they remain healthy, calves generally exhibit compensatory (‘catch up’) growth after weaning. Under most milk and feed pricing situations, there is an economic advantage to this strategy. In recent years, researchers have proposed programs where calves are offered nutrient intakes which are closer to those they would achieve if left with their dams. Results have been mixed. The photo below illustrates differences in growth of calves reared conventionally versus those on an accelerated program. In some trials, accelerated calves have maintained their growth advantage well beyond weaning. In others, the conventionally fed calves have gained more rapidly after weaning, reducing or eliminating the early growth advantage of the accelerated calves. Calves raised on conventional liquid feeding program (left calf in each photo) compared with calves raised on accelerated program (right calf in each photo) at 8 weeks of age (left photo) and 14 weeks of age (right photo). Feeds & Feeding 112 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM DPP TOC DPP INDEX Nutrient Requirements The following table is adapted from the US National Research Council’s ‘Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle’, 7th Revised of Calves Fed Milk or Milk Replacer and Starter Edition, published in 2001. Live Daily DM Weight Gain Intakea kg g kg 40 45 50 55 60 a 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800 0.40 0.51 0.66 0.83 0.44 0.56 0.71 0.88 0.47 0.60 0.76 0.94 1.13 0.51 0.63 0.80 0.99 1.18 0.54 0.67 0.84 1.04 1.24 --------------- Energy --------------NEM NEG ME DE Mcal Mcal Mcal Mcal 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 0 0.31 0.72 1.16 0 0.32 0.75 1.21 0 0.34 0.77 1.26 1.78 0 0.35 0.80 1.30 1.84 0 0.36 0.83 1.34 1.90 1.66 2.14 2.76 3.44 1.81 2.31 2.96 3.67 1.96 2.48 3.15 3.89 4.69 2.11 2.64 3.33 4.10 4.93 2.25 2.80 3.51 4.31 5.16 1.78 2.29 2.95 3.68 1.94 2.47 3.16 3.93 2.10 2.65 3.37 4.17 5.02 2.25 2.83 3.57 4.39 5.27 2.41 3.00 3.76 4.61 5.52 ---- Protein ---ADP CP g g 25 78 128 178 31 80 130 180 33 83 133 183 233 36 85 135 185 236 38 88 138 188 238 33 90 148 205 36 93 151 209 38 96 154 212 270 41 99 157 215 273 44 102 159 217 275 Vitamin A IU 4,400 4,400 4,400 4,400 4,950 4,950 4,950 4,950 5,500 5,500 5,500 5,500 5,500 6,050 6,050 6,050 6,050 6,050 6,600 6,600 6,600 6,600 6,600 Dry Matter Intake is the total necessary to meet ME requirements for calves fed milk or milk replacer (MR) plus starter assuming milk or MR contains ME at 4.75 Mcal/kg of DM and starter ME at 3.28 Mcal/kg. It is also assumed that MR provides 60 percent and starter 40 percent of dry matter intake; thus, dry matter consumed contained ME at 4.16 Mcal/kg. Feeds & Feeding 113 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Feeding Hay to Calves Differences in development of the rumen in 6 week old calves fed milk only (A), milk and hay (B) or milk and grain (C). A DPP TOC DPP INDEX For many years, it was believed that feeding hay to young calves would promote rumen development. The rationale was that physical ‘scratch’ was needed to start the rumen working. It is now known that the main stimulus to rumen development is volatile fatty acid (VFA) production from feed fermentation. Because the amounts of VFA produced from grain are higher than those from forage, the rumen develops much faster when grain-based diets are fed, as shown in the photographs below. For this reason, hay should not be offered to calves until after they are weaned. B C Another reason for not feeding hay to calves before weaning is that the small amount they can consume contributes little to their nutrient requirements. Any hay that they do consume video clip used with permission will limit starter intake and reduce total daily nutrient intake. of Penn State University Most of the hay they do not consume becomes bedding. Click here to see a video about rumen development continued... Feeding Hay to Calves (continued) Although not required by calves before weaning, forage is important later, to promote the growth of the muscular layer of the rumen and to maintain the health of the papillae—the small projections lining the inside of the rumen (shown in photo C on the previous page). Rumen papillae can grow too rapidly in response to high levels of VFA. When this happens, they may clump together, reducing the surface area available for absorption. Also, some ‘scratch’ is needed to keep the papillae from forming layers of keratin (skin-like tissue), which can also inhibit VFA absorption. A common recommendation is to start offering high quality hay immediately after weaning at 5 to 7 weeks of age. If calves are not weaned until 8 to 10 weeks of age, feed a limited amount (500 grams/day) of the best hay available from about 6 weeks of age. The amount should be limited to ensure that hay consumption will not significantly reduce starter intake. Feeds & Feeding 115 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Weaning Typical starter intake pattern for well-managed Holstein heifer calves. DPP INDEX Many producers wean calves when they reach a particular age—often 8-10 weeks. Although this might be effective for most, some calves are not ready to be weaned at that particular age while many are ready much earlier. The critical question is: ‘How well developed are their rumens?”. Since you can’t actual monitor rumen development, the next best indicator is dry feed intake. 4 Starter Intake, kg/day DPP TOC A healthy calf routinely consuming a kilogram of starter daily can be weaned immediately. The age at which she has achieved that level of intake is mainly a function of management. Calves raised in a clean, dry environment who are offered fresh, nutritious and palatable starter and water in clean containers each day from their first week of life can usually consume that level of starter by 6 weeks of age. 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Calf Age, weeks 8 9 10 Feeds & Feeding 116 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Feeding Calves from Weaning to Breeding DPP TOC DPP INDEX Between weaning and conception at 15 months of age, the heifer will gain from 200 to 400 kg and grow in height by 30 to 50 cm. Expected growth rates, derived from standard curves for US Holstein heifers, are given in the table below. Continue feeding starter and start offering high quality hay immediately after weaning. If calves are not weaned until 8 to Expected growth rates for 10 weeks of age, feed a limited amount (500 grams/day) of the Holstein heifers. best hay available from about 6 weeks of age. A grower ration, containing 16-18% crude protein (dry matter basis) Weight Height and Rumensin® (to improve feed efficiency) can kg mm replace starter when calves are around 4 months of gain per day age and consuming 2 kg of starter daily. The grower protein level and the amount to feed will depend on 5th percentile 0.54 83 hay consumption and quality. Recognize the difference 25th percentile 0.68 96 between the amount of hay offered and the amount Median 0.78 103 consumed—much of the hay offered can become 75th percentile 0.85 109 bedding if feeders are not well designed. Beginning at about 6 months of age, heifers can be fed a silage-based total mixed ration (TMR), where all ingredients are combined in a single mix. This strategy provides better control of diet composition and intake than does separate feeding of forage and concentrate. In either case, an ionophore such as Rumensin® is normally added to the concentrate portion of the ration to promote efficient growth. The few months before a heifer reaches puberty (normally at 9-10 months of age) is a critical time for offering a wellbalanced ration, designed to support lean tissue growth. If the diet contains excess energy, the heifer will begin to gain body condition (fat). Fat that is laid down in the developing mammary gland can have negative effects on milk secretory tissue development and milk production later in life. Feeds & Feeding 117 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Nutrient Requirements of Weaned Calves Live Daily DM Weight Gain Intakea kg g kg 60 70 80 90 100 600 700 800 600 700 800 600 700 800 600 700 800 900 600 700 800 900 1.56 1.71 1.87 1.70 1.86 2.03 1.83 2.00 2.18 2.09 2.28 2.48 2.68 2.22 2.42 2.63 2.84 DPP TOC DPP INDEX The following tables are adapted from the US National Research Council’s ‘Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle’, 7th Revised Edition, published in 2001. --------------- Energy --------------NEM NEG ME DE Mcal Mcal Mcal Mcal 1.85 1.85 1.85 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.51 2.51 2.51 2.51 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 1.34 1.62 1.90 1.42 1.71 2.00 1.49 1.79 2.10 1.55 1.87 2.19 2.52 1.61 1.94 2.27 2.62 4.83 5.31 5.80 5.26 5.77 6.29 5.68 6.21 6.75 6.07 6.62 7.19 7.78 6.45 7.02 7.62 8.22 5.23 5.70 6.19 5.66 6.16 6.67 6.07 6.59 7.13 6.46 7.00 7.57 8.15 6.83 7.40 7.99 8.59 ---- Protein ---ADP CP g g 213 241 269 219 247 275 225 253 281 231 260 288 317 237 265 294 323 284 322 359 292 330 367 300 337 375 309 346 385 423 316 354 392 430 Vitamin A IU 6,600 6,600 6,600 7,700 7,700 7,700 8,800 8,800 8,800 9,900 9,900 9,900 9,900 11,000 11,000 11,000 11,000 abbreviations: BW - Body Weight; ADG - Average Daily Gain; DMI - Dry Matter Intake; TDN Total Digestible Nutrients; NEM - Net Energy for Maintenance; NEG - Net Energy for Gain; ME- Metabolizable Energy; RDP - Rumen Degradable Protein; RUP - Rumen Undegradable Protein; CP - Crude Protein; Ca - Calcium; P - Phosphorus continued... BW kg 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 ADG DMI TDN --- kg/d --- % 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.2 6.9 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.7 7.9 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.7 8.8 8.8 9.3 9.5 9.6 9.6 58.4 61.7 65.3 69.2 58.4 61.7 65.3 69.2 58.4 61.7 65.3 69.2 58.4 61.7 65.3 69.2 58.4 61.7 65.3 69.2 58.4 61.7 65.3 69.2 58.4 61.7 65.3 69.2 NEM NEG ME RDP RUP ------ Mcal/d ------ ---- g/d ---- RDP RUP CP --------- % --------- Ca P --- g/d --- 3.57 3.57 3.57 3.57 4.44 4.44 4.44 4.44 5.24 5.24 5.24 5.24 6.01 6.01 6.01 6.01 6.75 6.75 6.75 6.75 7.46 7.46 7.46 7.46 8.15 8.15 8.15 8.15 8.9 9.4 10.0 10.6 8.9 9.4 10.0 10.6 8.9 9.4 10.0 10.6 8.9 9.4 10.0 10.6 8.9 9.4 10.0 10.6 8.9 9.4 10.0 10.6 8.9 9.4 10.0 10.6 23 30 37 43 24 30 37 43 25 31 37 43 27 33 38 44 28 34 40 45 30 35 41 46 33 36 42 47 0.84 1.22 1.61 2.00 1.05 1.51 1.99 2.49 1.24 1.79 2.36 2.94 1.42 2.05 2.70 3.37 1.59 2.30 3.03 3.78 1.76 2.55 3.35 4.18 1.93 2.80 3.67 4.58 8.6 364 9.3 393 9.9 421 10.6 446 10.7 452 11.5 488 12.3 522 13.1 554 12.6 534 13.6 577 14.6 617 15.5 655 14.5 612 15.6 661 16.7 707 17.7 751 16.2 687 17.6 742 18.8 794 19.9 843 18.0 760 19.4 821 20.7 878 22.0 931 19.8 831 21.0 898 22.4 963 24.0 1015 167 230 292 352 148 205 260 314 131 182 232 280 114 161 205 248 99 141 181 218 86 124 159 192 75 108 139 180 4.1 5.5 6.9 8.3 2.9 4.0 5.0 6.0 2.2 3.0 3.7 4.5 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.5 1.3 1.8 2.3 2.7 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.9 13.0 14.9 16.9 18.9 11.9 13.4 15.0 16.6 11.1 12.4 13.7 15.1 10.6 11.7 12.9 14.1 10.2 11.2 12.3 13.3 9.9 10.9 11.8 12.8 9.7 10.7 11.6 12.5 11 13 16 18 12 14 17 19 13 15 17 19 14 16 18 20 15 17 19 21 16 18 20 22 17 19 21 23 abbreviations: BW - Body Weight; ADG - Average Daily Gain; DMI - Dry Matter Intake; TDN Total Digestible Nutrients; NEM - Net Energy for Maintenance; NEG - Net Energy for Gain; ME- Metabolizable Energy; RDP - Rumen Degradable Protein; RUP - Rumen Undegradable Protein; CP - Crude Protein; Ca - Calcium; P - Phosphorus Feeds & Feeding 149 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Appendix A: Typical Analyses of Western Canadian Feeds DPP TOC DPP INDEX The table on the following pages presents typical analysis results for ingredients used in western Canadian dairy rations. These estimates are not intended to substitute for the routine analysis of feeds available on a particular farm. When analysis results are received from the lab, compare them with these ‘book’ values and with previous analyses of similar feeds from the same farm. Results which are markedly higher or lower should be questioned. Spurious values may be due to poor sampling or errors in analysis. In either case, sampling and analysis should be repeated until you are confident in the results. It makes little sense to design feeding programs around questionable analysis values. Typical Analyses Estimates DM ADF NDF CP CF Ash Ca P RUP NELa % ---------------------- % of DM ---------------------- % CP Mcal/kg Alfalfa Hay, early vegetative Hay, late vegetative Hay, early bloom Hay, mid bloom Hay, full bloom Silage, typical Dehy, 17% protein Dehy, 20% protein Barley Grain, typical Silage, typical Beet Pulp, typical Blood Meal Brewers Grains, wet, typical Bromegrass Fresh, early vegetative Fresh, mature Hay, late vegetative Hay, late bloom Canola Meal, typical Seeds, typical Corn Distillers Grains, typical Grain, typical Gluten Meal, typical Silage, typical Feather Meal, typical Fish Meal, typical 87 87 87 87 87 40 90 90 28 29 31 35 37 31 35 31 38 40 42 46 50 42 45 42 23 20 18 17 15 18 18.9 22.2 4 10.2 3.5 9.2 3 9.6 2.6 9.1 2 8.9 3 9.6 3 10.6 3.7 11.3 1.8 1.54 1.41 1.41 1.25 1.41 1.52 1.74 0.35 0.29 0.22 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.3 20 22 24 27 30 23 59 59 1.50 1.42 1.35 1.30 1.23 1.32 1.38 1.40 88.5 7 37 32 91 33.6 90 22 23 19 54 48.4 42 12.7 11.2 9.3 97.2 28 2.1 2.1 0.5 1.1 6.5 2.6 7.6 5.3 4.8 4.8 0.06 0.55 0.66 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.27 0.11 0.28 0.6 25 25 36 80 49 1.94 1.50 1.79 1.50 1.50 34 57 88 89 31 44 35 43 56 72 65 68 18 6.4 16 10 3.7 10.7 2.2 10 2.6 9.4 2.3 8.4 0.5 0.2 0.32 0.3 0.3 0.26 0.37 0.35 40 50 44 48 1.69 1.28 1.55 1.33 90 95 19 8 24 26 39 30 3.9 42 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.66 35 30 1.74 3.85 93 88 90 32 93 93 17.0 3.0 3.9 30.5 - 42.0 9.0 13.3 50.0 - 29.0 10.0 73.0 8.8 89.2 77.4 8.7 7.6 4.3 1.6 2.2 2.0 3.0 10.0 7.5 4.2 10.8 11.8 0.38 0.03 0.11 0.29 0.22 3.87 1.30 0.29 0.78 0.24 0.81 2.37 54 1.99 52 1.96 55 1.99 30 1.60 71 1.35 60 1.72 continued... 6.8 4 abbreviations: DM - Dry Matter; ADF - acid detergent fibre; NDF - Neutral Detergent Fibre; CP - Crude Protein; EE - Ether Extract (Lipids); Ca - Calcium; P - Phosphorus; RUP - Rumen Undegradable Protein; NEL - Net Energy for Lactation aconversions to other energy units follow this table Typical Analyses Estimates DM ADF NDF CP CF Ash Ca P RUP NELa % ---------------------- % of DM ---------------------- % CP Mcal/kg Oats Grain, typical Hay, boot stage Orchardgrass Fresh, early vegetative Hay, early bloom Hay, late bloom Silage, typical Pea Seeds, typical Perennial Ryegrass Hay, typical Silage, typical Soy Beans, typical Meal, typical Timothy Hay, late vegetative Hay, early bloom Hay, mid bloom Hay, full bloom Hay, late bloom Wheat Grain, typical Millrun, typical 90 86 16.0 32.0 11.6 32.0 58.0 17.5 23 89 91 35 31.0 34.0 45.0 39.5 3.4 6.5 0.07 0.41 0.32 0.21 17 25 1.77 1.64 55.0 18.4 4.9 11.3 61.0 15.0 2.8 8.7 72.0 8.4 3.4 10.1 60.0 12.5 3.0 10.0 0.58 0.27 0.26 0.57 0.54 0.34 0.30 0.40 40 46 48 27 1.64 1.47 1.20 1.31 3.6 0.12 0.45 25 2.01 86 35 30.0 41.0 8.6 2.2 11.5 39.5 60.0 12.5 3.0 10.0 0.65 0.57 0.32 0.40 46 27 1.45 1.42 92 89 11.0 13.0 42.8 18.8 6.0 8.0 54.0 1.7 5.5 7.3 0.27 0.22 0.65 0.73 26 28 2.11 1.94 89 90 89 89 88 29.0 32.0 36.0 38.0 40.0 55.0 17.0 2.8 61.0 15.0 2.9 67.0 9.1 2.6 68.0 8.1 3.1 70.0 7.8 2.8 7.1 5.7 6.3 5.2 5.4 0.66 0.53 0.48 0.43 0.38 0.34 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.18 30 34 38 42 46 1.50 1.38 1.30 1.25 1.20 90 90 4.0 11.4 15.9 1.6 13.3 20.0 17.8 4.4 2.0 9.1 0.06 0.11 0.40 1.00 25 25 2.04 1.82 90 9.0 19.3 23.4 5.1 2.6 1.4 abbreviations: DM - Dry Matter; ADF - acid detergent fibre; NDF - Neutral Detergent Fibre; CP - Crude Protein; EE - Ether Extract (Lipids); Ca - Calcium; P - Phosphorus; RUP - Rumen Undegradable Protein; NEL - Net Energy for Lactation aconversions to other energy units follow this table Table for Conversion of Feed NEL Values to NEM, NEG and TDN NEL NEM NEG TDN NEL NEM NEG TDN NEL NEM NEG TDN 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 0.96 0.97 0.99 1.00 1.02 1.03 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.09 1.10 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.16 1.17 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.23 1.24 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.38 1.39 1.40 0.41 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.81 0.82 49.8 50.2 50.6 51.0 51.4 51.8 52.2 52.7 53.1 53.5 53.9 54.3 54.7 55.1 55.5 55.9 56.3 56.7 57.1 57.6 58.0 58.4 58.8 59.2 59.6 60.0 60.4 60.8 61.2 61.6 62.0 62.4 62.9 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57 1.58 1.59 1.60 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.70 1.71 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.58 1.59 1.60 1.61 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.70 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.77 1.78 1.79 1.81 1.82 1.83 0.83 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 63.3 63.7 64.1 64.5 64.9 65.3 65.7 66.1 66.5 66.9 67.3 67.8 68.2 68.6 69.0 69.4 69.8 70.2 70.6 71.0 71.4 71.8 72.2 72.7 73.1 73.5 73.9 74.3 74.7 75.1 75.5 75.9 76.3 1.76 1.77 1.78 1.79 1.80 1.81 1.82 1.83 1.84 1.85 1.86 1.87 1.88 1.89 1.90 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.98 1.99 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 1.84 1.86 1.87 1.88 1.89 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.97 1.98 1.99 2.00 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 76.7 77.1 77.6 78.0 78.4 78.8 79.2 79.6 80.0 80.4 80.8 81.2 81.6 82.0 82.4 82.9 83.3 83.7 84.1 84.5 84.9 85.3 85.7 86.1 86.5 86.9 87.3 87.8 88.2 88.6 89.0 89.4 89.8 Feeds & Feeding 153 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM Glossary of Terms DPP TOC DPP INDEX abomasum: the fourth compartment of the ruminant stomach; function similar that of the monogastric stomach (e.g., the human stomach) in its secretions of hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes. acetic acid: one of the primary volatile fatty acids produced by the microbial fermentation of feeds in the rumen and in silage; the acid found in vinegar; chemical formula - C2H4O2. active immunity: resistance to disease or infection developed as a result of an animal’s own immune system producing antibodies following infection or vaccination. active transport: transport of ions, nutrients or other molecules into a cell against a concentration gradient, requiring the expenditure of energy. adipose tissue: fatty tissue; refers to the body’s fat stores. ad libitum: without restriction; refers to the practice of allowing animals to consume feed or water to the limit of their appetites. alkaline: refers to a water solution having a pH greater than 7. amino acid: one of 20 nitrogen-containing organic molecules that appear in unique sequences joined by peptide bonds to form peptides and proteins; 10 amino acids are considered essential to mammals—they cannot be synthesized by mammalian tissues. ammonia (NH3): a colourless gas which is soluble in water. Glossary of Terms (continued) ammonium salts: chemical compounds which, in water solution, dissociate into ammonium cations (NH4+) and anions such as chloride (Cl–) or sulphate (SO4=). anemia: a condition where there is a lower than normal amount of hemoglobin in the blood and red blood cell production is reduced. anestrus: absence of a heat or estrus cycle. anion: a negatively charged atom or molecule such as chloride (Cl–) or sulphate (SO4=). antibiotic: a chemical substance such as penicillin or tetracycline that is able to kill or inhibit the growth of pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms. antibody: blood proteins (immunoglobulins) which counteract toxins or participate in the destruction of foreign organisms. antioxidant: a substance which will inhibit the oxidation of other compounds. ash: the residue remaining when a feed is burned in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere; used to determine the total mineral content of a feed. atomic absorption spectrophotometry: a method of chemical analysis in which atoms and molecules are identified by the wavelength of radiation that they absorb. bacterium: a sigle-celled micro-organism lacking a membranebound, structurally discrete nucleus and other subcellular compartments possessed by higher organisms including protozoa. basic pH: on a scale of 1-9, a pH above 7 is considered basic, or alkaline. bloat: a condition in ruminants resulting from the build-up of gas in the rumen and the inability to expel it. Glossary of Terms (continued) bolus: the amount of feed in one swallow that passes through the esophagus to the rumen-reticulum or in the reverse direction for rumination (cud chewing). borate-phosphate buffer: a solution containing salts of boric and phosphoric acids used to estimate the solubility of feed proteins. bushel: a unit of volume used in measuring the bulk density of feed grains; 1 bushel = 36.369 litres = 8.00 Imperial gallons. butyric acid: one of the primary volatile fatty acids produced by the microbial fermentation of feeds in the rumen and in silage; chemical formula - C4H8O2. B-vitamins: a group of water soluble vitamins including thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, biotin, choline, myoinositol, para−aminobenzoic acid, vitamins B6, B12. calorie: the amount of heat (energy) required to the raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.5° C to 15.5° C. carbohydrate: a chemical compound or molecule composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in the ratio of 2H:1C:1O; carbohydrates can be simple sugars such as sucrose and fructose or complex polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. carbon dioxide (CO2): a simple compound composed of one atom of carbon and 2 of oxygen; green plants use CO2 to manufacture carbohydrates and other organic compounds; when mammals digest these compounds, CO2 is released. carotene: a carotenoid pigment that gives a reddish color to plants such as carrots and tomatoes; carotene is often used as a vitamin supplement because animals can convert it into Vitamin A. carotenoid: one of a group of fat soluble red, orange, purple or yellow pigments found in plants and some fungi. Glossary of Terms (continued) cation: a positively charged atom or molecule such as Ammonium (NH4+), Sodium (Na+) and Calcium (Ca2+). cellulose: a complex structural carbohydrate (polysaccharide) found in plants, consisting of long chains of glucose subunits; although cellulose cannot be digested by mammalian enzymes, certain rumen microbes can. cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide: an acidic detergent used in the laboratory analysis of feeds for Acid Detergent Fibre. chemical fibre: the fibre content of a feed, determined in the laboratory as Acid Detergent or Neutral Detergent Fibre. chlorophyll: the green plant pigment involved in capturing solar energy which the plant uses in the process of photosynthesis to manufacture carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. Coccidiosis: a disease caused by protozoa which colonize the small intestine; signs include: bloody stool, strained defecation and mild fever. coccidiostat: a chemical substance such as Bovatec®, Deccox® or Rumensin® that is able to kill or inhibit the growth of the protozoa which cause Coccidiosis. coenzyme: an organic, nonprotein molecule that binds with an apoenzyme (a protein molecule) to form an active enzyme; vitamins often function as coenzymes. colorimetry: a laboratory analysis method in which chemical concentrations are measured through changes in colour or colour intensity. compensatory growth: rapid growth in a young animal following a period in which maximum growth has been impaired by limited availability of nutrients; sometimes called ‘catch-up’ growth. concentrate: a feed ingredient other than forage. coring tool: used to take feed samples by boring into a stack of hay or concentrate mix and removing a core sample. Glossary of Terms (continued) Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS): a method of determining animal requirements and formulating diets, developed by scientists at Cornell University. corticosteroid: an anti-inflammatory steroid hormone produced by the cortex (inside layer) of the adrenal gland, located near the kidney. Crude Protein: nitrogen concentration multiplied by 6.25; used to approximate the amount of protein in feed, based on the assumption that feed proteins contain approximately 16% (1 ÷ 6.25) nitrogen. cutin: a wax which, together with cellulose, forms the surface layer of many plants. degradability: the potential for a feed ingredient or component to be broken down in the rumen. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): the molecule that encodes genetic information in the nucleus of every cell. dermatitis: inflammation of the skin. detergent: a chemical or agent used for cleaning. diethyl ether: an organic chemical used to extract lipids and oils from feeds to determine their Crude Fat content. digesta: digested and undigested feed residues found in the digestive tract. digestibility: the potential for a feed ingredient or component to be digested as it passes through the digestive tract. Digestible Energy: the difference between the Gross Energy consumed and the fecal energy excreted for a particular feed component is properly called Apparent Digestible Energy; true Digestible Energy also accounts for the contribution to fecal energy of endogenous losses such as secretions and cell sloughing from the digestive tract. diuretic: a substance that causes urination to increase. Glossary of Terms (continued) Dry Matter Intake: the amount consumed of the moisture-free portion of a diet. duodenum: the first segment of the small intestine after the stomach (abomasum in ruminants). dwarfism: the condition of being abnormally smaller than the average size for the species. effective fibre: the amount or proportion of fibre in the diet which is capable of provoking chewing and salivation; usually related to the amount or proportion of long forage particles; there is currently no strictly quantitative definition. emulsion: A mixture of two normally unmixable liquids (e.g., oil and water) in which one exists as tiny, suspended particles within the other. epithelial cells: the layer of cells on the surface of skin and mucous membranes. ergot: a fungal disease of Rye and other cereals that replaces the grain kernal with a long, dark, horny body. eructate: to expel gas from the stomach via the mouth. esophagus: the tube-like upper portion of the digestive tract which carries food and fluid from the mouth to the stomach and boluses of digesta back to the mouth for rumination (cud-chewng). essential amino acid: one of 10 amino acids which cannot be synthesized by mammalian tissues, they are arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. essential oil: a vegetable oil having the distinct odour of the plant from which it was derived (e.g., peppermint oil). ethyl alcohol (ethanol): an organic alcohol produced from the aerobic fermentation of starch or other organic matter; the intoxicating ingredient in beer, spirits and wine. fat: a lipid which is a solid at 20°C, suggesting the presence of a low proportion of short chain fatty acids and a high proportion of saturated long chain fatty acids. fat soluble vitamins: a group of vitamins which are insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents and stored in body fat, including vitamins A, D, E amd K. fatty acid: an organic compound with an acid group (HOC–) on one end and hydrogen (H) atoms attached to a backbone of carbon (C) atoms; when 2 H atoms are attached to each non-terminal C, the fatty acid is saturated; when pairs of H atoms are missing from adjacent C atoms, it is unsaturated. FFA Glossary of Terms (continued) 18:1 Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Missing Hydrogen fatty acid ester: an organic compound formed by combining a fatty acid with an organic alcohol, most commonly glycerol. fibre: the parts of a plant whose cell walls contain cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. fistula: a surgically implanted device which provides an open connection from the exterior of the animal to an internal organ; fistulas (in some cases called cannulas) are commonly installed to facilitate sample collections during experimental procedures. free fatty acid: a fatty acid whose acid group is not linked to another compound (e.g., esterified to an organic alcohol); when body fat (adipose tissue) is mobilized, it enters the bloodstream as free fatty acids. fructose: a 6-carbon sugar commonly found in fruit. fungi: a group of rumen micro-organisms that absorb food in solution directly through their cell walls and reproduce through spores (e.g., yeasts and moulds) galactose: a 6-carbon sugar imilar to glucose. germ or germ oil: products made from the developing cells of a seed (e.g. , Wheat germ is the embryo of Wheat seed). gestation: pregnancy. glucose: a 6-carbon sugar found in fruits, animal tissues and animal fluids; glucose is about half as sweet as sucrose (table sugar); also called dextrose. glyceride: a lipid which consists of a glycerol molecule with one, two or three fatty acids attached to it; these are called monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides, respectively; fat is stored in the animal body in the form of glycerides. C O H C OH H C OH Fatty Acid H Monoglyceride Gly cer ol H H H H C O Fatty Acid H C O Fatty Acid H C OH H Diglyceride Gly cer ol H Gly cer ol Glossary of Terms (continued) H C O Fatty Acid H C O Fatty Acid H C O Fatty Acid H Triglyceride glycerol: a colourless, odourless liquid alcohol; sweet tasting and syrupy; obtained from natural lipids. glycoprotein: a carbohydrate and protein combination. goitre: enlargement of the thyroid gland causing a swelling of the neck just below the lower jaw. grass tetany: a metabolic disorder causing nervous signs and resulting from a low blood Magnesium concentration (hypomagnesemia); usually a result of being fed on young pastures high in sodium and potassium. green chop: fresh forage which is ‘cut and carried’ to animals. Glossary of Terms (continued) green feed: in some areas, green feed refers to green chop; on the prairies, green feed usually refers to a cereal crop harvested for hay. Gross Energy: the total amount of heat (calories) produced from the combustion of feed in an atmosphere of pure oxygen. hay: forage stored with a moisture level below 20%. haylage: a hay-crop stored as silage with a moisture level typically between 30 and 60%. heat of production: the heat produced as the products of digestion are metabolized. hemicellulose: a complex, branched-chain polysaccharide composed of subunits including a number of different simple sugars; closely associated with lignin in the plant cell wall. hemoglobin: the protein responsible for conveying oxygen, via red blood cells, to organs and tissues throughout the body. hydrochloric acid (HCl): the acid secreted from mucosal cells lining the abomasum; responsible for lowering the pH of digesta entering the small intestine. hydrogenation: the addition of hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fatty acids to increase their degree of saturation; vegetable oils which are liquid at 20°C are hydrogenated to produce solid margarine. hydrolysis: chemical breakdown involving the addition of water (H2O). hypocalcemia: low blood Calcium concentration; Milk Fever may occur when blood Calcium concentration falls below 7 mg/dl (milligrams per decilitre). hypogonadism: decreased function of the gonads; retardation of sexual development and growth. Glossary of Terms (continued) hypomagnesemia: low blood Magnesium concentration; Grass Tetany may occur when blood Magnesium concentration falls below 1 mg/dl (milligrams per decilitre). ileum: the third section of the small intestine, draining into the large intestine. immunity: resistance to infection by disease-causing (pathogenic) organisms. immunoglobulin: a blood protein having antibody activity, transferred from dam to calf via colostrum. inductively coupled plasma spectrophotometry: a laboratory method used to measure very low concentrations of minerals. intramuscular: refers to the injection of drugs or nutrients into muscular tissue. intrauterine: refers to the administration of drugs into the body of the uterus. intravenous: refers to the injection of drugs or nutrients directly into the bloodstream through a vein. ion: an atom or molecule having either a positive charge (cation) or a negative charge (anion). jejunum: the middle segment of the small intestine, between duodenum and ileum. laminae: the ridged area of attachment between the horn-like walls of the hoof and the underlying tissues. laminitis: inflammation of the laminae of the hoof. lignified nitrogen: represents protein which has become bound to lignin through heating; such ‘heat-damaged’ protein is indigestible. lipid: an organic compound (fat or oil) primarily composed of free fatty acids and/or glycerol esters of fatty acids— mono-, di- and triglycerides. Glossary of Terms (continued) macromineral: a mineral element required in relative large amounts by animals (e.g., Sodium, Chlorine, Calcium). metabolic disorder: non-infectious disease resulting from abnormal biochemical processes in the body (e.g., Ketosis, Milk Fever). metabolism: the biochemical process which take place in living organisms. Metabolizable Energy: energy available for biochemical processes within the animal. Metabolizable Protein: true protein available to the animal for metabolism. metalloenzyme: an enzyme containing a metal ion. microbial protein: cellular protein produced by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa that inhabit the rumen; as microbial cells are carried out of the rumen and into the lower digestive tract, microbial protein becomes available for digestion and absorption by the host animal. micromineral: a mineral element required in relative small amounts by animals (e.g., Copper, Selenium, Zinc). Milk Fever: a metabolic disorder resulting from low levels of calcium available in the blood; signs of the disease include: staggering gait, paralysis, and coma. mineral: an inorganic element (e.g., Calcium, Sodium, Sulphur). mycotoxin: a toxic chemical produced by mould. myoglobin: a muscle protein which is responsible for taking up the oxygen required for muscle contraction. Net Energy: energy available to support maintenance, growth and milk production. Net Protein: true protein and amino acids available to support maintenance, growth and milk production. Glossary of Terms (continued) nitrate (NO3–): the primary form of nitrogen absorbed by plants from soil; forages harvested under conditions where they have accumulated excess nitrate (frost, drought, heavy application of N fertilizer or manure) can be toxic to animals. non-essential amino acid: one of 10 amino acids which can be synthesized by mammalian tissues, they are alanine, aspartic acid, cysteine, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, hydroxyproline, proline, serine and tyrosine. nucleic acid: a complex molecule which encodes genetic information in a long chain consisting of unique sequences of the nucleotides adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil; nucleotides contain phosphorus as well as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. oil: a lipid which is liquid at 20°C, suggesting the presence of a high proportion of short chain and/or long chain unsaturated fatty acids. omasum: the third compartment of the ruminant stomach; responsible for extracting water from digesta and propelling digesta from the rumen and reticulum into the abomasum. organic: refers to chemical compounds primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. organic acid: an organic compound with an acid group (OCO–) at one end. osteomalacia: softening of mature bone due to deficiency of Calcium and Phosphorus mineralization when bone cells are replaced as part of normal turnover. osteoporosis: decreased density of bones. papillae: short projections lining the wall of the rumen which increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients. parity: the number of times a cow has calved; primiparous cows have calved once, multiparous cows have calved more than once. Glossary of Terms (continued) passive immunity: resistance to infection acquired through the intake of antibodies in colostrum or other medium; see also active immunity. pectin: a polysaccharide, rich in galacturonic acid, which cements together the other compounds in the plant cell wall (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin). pelleting: a type of feed processing where feeds are ground, treated with steam and forced through a small diameter die at high pressure. pentosans: a class of polysaccharides whose subunits are five carbon sugars. pentose: a five carbon sugar. peptide: a short chain of amino acids, usually no more than 10 amino acids long; a polypeptide is a longer single chain. perennial forage: a forage species having a life span of greater than two years. phospholipid: a triglyceride that has a phosphorous-containing compound bound to it in place of one of the 3 fatty acids. physical fibre: structured roughage; plant material that, when consumed, provokes chewing and salivation. polysaccharide: a carbohydrate composed of long straight and/or branched chains of simple sugars (e.g., cellulose, pectins, pentosans). propionic acid: one of the primary volatile fatty acids produced by the microbial fermentation of feeds in the rumen and in silage; chemical formula - C3H6O2. Diagram of porcine insulin showing the 3-dimensional relationships of its six chains. protein: a large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids linked in a specific order through peptide bonds; proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the bodys cells, tissues, and organs; each protein has unique functions; examples are hormones (see diagram of insulin on left), enzymes, and antibodies. Glossary of Terms (continued) protozoa: a single-celled micro-organism having a membranebound, structurally discrete nucleus and other subcellular compartments which are absent in bacteria. provitamin: a compound that an organism can transform into a vitamin (e.g., carotene gives rise to Vitamin A). resin: a non-volatile, solid or semi-solid organic plant exudate. reticulum: the first section of the ruminant stomach marked by the distinctive ‘honeycomb’ appearance of its inside surface (see photo on left). ribonucleic acid (RNA): the nucleic acid responsible for transfering the genetic information encoded in DNA to the cell machinery responsible for synthesizing proteins. rickets: softening of the bones due to a deficiency of Vitamin D or calcium. The inside surface of rumen (upper) and reticulum (lower) in the stomach of a young calf. rumen: the second and largest section of the ruminant stomach, home to a varied population of bacteria, fungi and protozoa which digest feed in an anaerobic (without oxygen) environment. Rumen Acidosis: a metabolic disorder that occurs when the cow is unable to buffer the acids produced by rumen fermentation; rumen digesta become more acidic, rumen pH dropping below 5.6. Rumen Degradable Protein (RDP): Crude Protein in feed which has the potential to be broken down by rumen microbes. Rumen Undegradable Protein (RUP): Crude Protein in feed which has the potential to escape degradation by rumen microbes, passing to the lower digestive tract where it may be digested or excreted; also referred to as bypass or escape protein. salivary glands: glands in the mouth responsible for the secretion of saliva which protects and coats the digestive system, buffers rumen contents, dissolves nutrients for absorption and carries feed down the digestive tract. Glossary of Terms (continued) saturated: refers to fatty acids in which all carbon atoms carry a complete complement of hydrogen atoms. silage: a forage crop stored at a moisture level normally in the 30-60% range. silica: silicon dioxide (SiO2); appearing naturally as quartz, sand and flint. Sodium Lauryl Sulphate: a detergent used in the determination of Neutral Detergent Fibre. starch: a white, tasteless, solid carbohydrate composed of chains of glucose subunits; found in the kernel of seeds and other plant parts. steroid: a chemical sustance containing the core structure of cholesterol (e.g., hormones such as estrogen and cortisol, vitamin D). subcutaneous: under the skin. sugar: simple carbohydrates, including monosaccharides such as glucose (blood sugar) and fructose and disaccharides such as lactose (milk sugar) and sucrose (table sugar). tannin: chemical compounds which impart a bitter taste to plants and are thought to provide protection from insects and animals; tannins bind to, and may reduce digestibility of proteins. temper rolling: rolling of grain after soaking in water; reduces shattering of grain kernels, resulting in fewer small starch particles which are degraded very rapidly by rumen microbes. thyroxine: a hormone produced by the thyroid gland which controls basal meatabolic rate. thyroid gland: a ductless gland found on either side of the neck, responsible for the regulation of metabolism and growth through secretion of the hormone thyroxine. Glossary of Terms (continued) trace mineral: a mineral element required in relative small amounts by animals (e.g., Copper, Selenium, Zinc). transferase: an enzyme that facilitates the transfer of a chemical group from one molecule to another. transition milk: milk produced by the cow after colostrum but before milk of normal composition is seen. true protein: chemical compounds composed of chains of amino acids linked through peptide bonds; used to distinguish from Crude Protein. tungstic acid (H2O4W): used to precipitate protein in the determination of true protein. unsaturated: refers to fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms are missing from adjacent carbon atoms in the chain. urea: a nitrogen-containing compound excreted in urine; used in rations as a source of non-protein nitrogen. urease: an enzyme produced by rumen bacteria which breaks down (hydrolyses) urea to produce ammonia and carbon dioxide. variance: a statistical estimate of the amount of variation within a group of measurements. volatile fatty acids: short chain (2-5 carbons) fatty acids which evaporate at 20ºC; the primary end-products of rumen fermenation. White Muscle Disease: a metabolic disease resulting from a deficiency of selenium and/or Vitamin E; often seen in calves of dams who were deficient in selenium or Vitamin E in late gestation; signs include: weak, hard muscles and an inability to stand or walk with a normal gait. Feeds & Feeding 169 GC GREEN CERTIFICATE CURRICULUM DPP TOC Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W Y Z A abomasum definition .......................................................................................................... 153 accelerated calf feeding. See calves: feeding acetic acid definition .......................................................................................................... 153 from rumen fermentation ............................................................................ 89 acetoacetic acid ....................................................................................................... 143 acetone ....................................................................................................................... 143 Acid Detergent Fibre and estimation of feed energy value ........................................................ 24 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 24 Acid Detergent Fibre Nitrogen. See Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen Acid Detergent Fibre Protein. See Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen as estimate of heat-damaged protein ...................................................... 34 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 34 Acid Detergent Insoluble Protein ........................................................................ 34 acidosis. See Rumen Acidosis ACP. See Adjusted Crude Protein active immunity definition .......................................................................................................... 153 active transport definition .......................................................................................................... 153 ad libitum definition .......................................................................................................... 153 additives. See feed additives ADF. See Acid Detergent Fibre ADF-N. See Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen ADF-P. See Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen ADIN. See Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen ADIP. See Acid Detergent Insoluble Protein adipose tissue definition .......................................................................................................... 153 Adjusted Crude Protein ........................................................................................... 34 ADP. See Apparent Digestible Protein Alfalfa ............................................................................................................................. 55 illustration .......................................................................................................... 56 alkaline definition .......................................................................................................... 153 amino acid definition .......................................................................................................... 153 amino acids essential .............................................................................................................. 94 limiting ................................................................................................................ 95 ammonia definition .......................................................................................................... 153 ammonium salts definition .......................................................................................................... 154 anemia definition .......................................................................................................... 154 anestrus definition .......................................................................................................... 154 anion definition .......................................................................................................... 154 anionic supplements ............................................................................................... 80 See also Dietary Cation-Anion Balance antibiotic definition .......................................................................................................... 154 antibiotics in milk replacer ............................................................................................... 107 antibody definition .......................................................................................................... 154 antioxidant definition .......................................................................................................... 154 Apparent Digestible Protein requirements of pre-weaned calves ............................................................... 109, 112 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 117 as fed ............................................................................................................................. 22 as is ................................................................................................................................. 22 as received ................................................................................................................... 22 ash as estimate of feed mineral content ......................................................... 38 definition .......................................................................................................... 154 atomic absorption spectrophotometry definition .......................................................................................................... 154 B B-vitamins definition .......................................................................................................... 155 in plants .............................................................................................................. 12 supplementation ............................................................................................. 79 bacterium definition .......................................................................................................... 154 bagged feeds sampling for analysis ...................................................................................... 18 Barley as forage ............................................................................................................. 53 grain ..................................................................................................................... 58 grain processing .............................................................................................. 58 starch rumen degradability ............................................................ 58, 59, 62 basic pH definition .......................................................................................................... 154 Beet Pulp ...................................................................................................................... 67 molassed............................................................................................................. 67 beta-hydroxy butyric acid .................................................................................... 143 biotin .................................................................................................................. 99, 155 Birdsfoot Trefoil .......................................................................................................... 55 bloat ............................................................................................................................. 137 definition .......................................................................................................... 154 Blood Meal ................................................................................................................... 68 dietary limit ....................................................................................................... 68 body condition and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 139 in early lactation............................................................................................. 127 body reserves ........................................................................................................... 128 bolus definition .......................................................................................................... 155 borate-phosphate buffer definition .......................................................................................................... 155 Bovatec® in calf starter .................................................................................................... 110 Bovine Virus Diarrhea ............................................................................................ 105 brew mash. See Brewer’s Grains Brewer’s Grains ........................................................................................................... 69 dietary limit ....................................................................................................... 69 Bromegrass .................................................................................................................. 44 illustration .......................................................................................................... 46 buffering capacity of silage ............................................................................................................... 40 buffers ........................................................................................................................... 80 in saliva ........................................................................................................ 86, 93 bulk density of grain ................................................................................................................ 41 effect of processing ............................................................................... 43 bushel definition .......................................................................................................... 155 bushel weight of grain ................................................................................................................ 41 butyric acid definition .......................................................................................................... 155 from rumen fermentation ............................................................................ 89 bypass protein. See Rumen Undegradable Protein C Ca. See Calcium Calcium blood concentration and Grass Tetany .................................................................................. 142 and Milk Fever ....................................................................................... 144 metabolism at calving ................................................................................................. 144 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 118 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 96 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 96 calf starter .................................................................................................................. 110 intake, and weaning ...................................................................................... 115 calorie definition .......................................................................................................... 155 calves feeding from weaning to breeding................................................................ 116 pre-weaning programs ...................................................................... 111 weaning ............................................................................................................ 115 Canola meal ...................................................................................................................... 70 oil feeding ....................................................................................................... 73 for dust control in feeds ....................................................................... 73 seed ...................................................................................................................... 63 dietary limit .............................................................................................. 63 fat content ................................................................................................ 63 procesing .................................................................................................. 63 carbohydrate reserves in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 carbohydrates definition .......................................................................................................... 155 digestion ............................................................................................................. 89 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 synthesis in plant growth ................................................................................6 carbon dioxide definition .......................................................................................................... 155 role in plant growth ...........................................................................................6 carotene definition .......................................................................................................... 155 in plants .............................................................................................................. 12 carotenoid definition .......................................................................................................... 155 cation definition .......................................................................................................... 156 cellulose definition .......................................................................................................... 156 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide definition .......................................................................................................... 156 in Acid Detergent Fibre analysis ................................................................. 24 chemical fibre ............................................................................................................. 42 definition .......................................................................................................... 156 chewing and salivation ............................................................................................ 86, 93 role of structured roughage ........................................................................ 42 Chlorine requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 96 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 96 chlorophyll and plant growth ................................................................................................ 6 definition .......................................................................................................... 156 choline ............................................................................................................... 99, 155 Cicer Milkvetch ........................................................................................................... 55 Cl. See Chlorine close-up period ........................................................................................................ 132 CNCPS. See Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System Co. See Cobalt Cobalt requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 coccidia ....................................................................................................................... 110 Coccidiosis definition .......................................................................................................... 156 coccidiostats ............................................................................................................... 80 See also Deccox®, Bovatec®, Rumensin® definition .......................................................................................................... 156 in calf starter .................................................................................................... 110 coenzyme definition .......................................................................................................... 156 colorimetry definition .......................................................................................................... 156 colostrum ................................................................................................................... 104 commodity sheds ..................................................................................................... 85 compensatory growth ........................................................................................... 111 definition .......................................................................................................... 156 computer grain feeding ........................................................................................ 122 concentrates definition .......................................................................................................... 156 sampling for analysis ...................................................................................... 16 storage ................................................................................................................ 85 condition score ........................................................................................................ 128 method ............................................................................................................. 129 Copper requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 coring tool definition .......................................................................................................... 156 Corn as silage ............................................................................................................... 53 distiller's grains. See Distiller’s Grains gluten feed ......................................................................................................... 71 gluten meal........................................................................................................ 71 dietary limit .............................................................................................. 71 grain ..................................................................................................................... 59 processing ................................................................................................ 59 starch rumen degradability ............................................................ 58, 59, 62 Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System and effective NDF ............................................................................................ 25 and non-structural carbohydrates ............................................................. 26 definition .......................................................................................................... 157 corticosteroid definition .......................................................................................................... 157 cows feeding dry ............................................................................................................. 132 lactating .................................................................................................. 122 CP. See Crude Protein Crude Fat method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 37 Crude Protein definition .......................................................................................................... 157 fractions .............................................................................................................. 32 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 31 requirements of early lactation cows........................................................................ 130 of mid lactation cows ......................................................................... 131 of pre-weaned calves ............................................................... 109, 112 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves ....................................................................... 117, 118 Cu. See Copper cutin definition .......................................................................................................... 157 D DCAB. See Dietary Cation-Anion Balance DE. See Digestible Energy Deccox® in calf starter .................................................................................................... 110 degradability definition .......................................................................................................... 157 dermatitis definition .......................................................................................................... 157 detergent definition .......................................................................................................... 157 Dietary Cation-Anion Balance for prevention of Milk Fever ....................................................................... 144 diethyl ether definition .......................................................................................................... 157 in Crude Fat analysis ....................................................................................... 37 digesta definition .......................................................................................................... 157 digestibility definition .......................................................................................................... 157 Digestible Energy ...................................................................................................... 92 definition .......................................................................................................... 157 requirements of pre-weaned calves ............................................................... 109, 112 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 117 values of feeds calculation from Net Energy for Lactation .................................... 27 digestive system ........................................................................................................ 86 Displaced Abomasum ........................................................................................... 138 effect of condition score ............................................................................. 140 Distiller’s Grains .......................................................................................................... 72 with solubles ..................................................................................................... 72 diuretic definition .......................................................................................................... 157 DM. See Dry Matter DMI. See Dry Matter Intake DNA. See nucleic acid dry basis ....................................................................................................................... 22 dry cows. See cows: dry Dry Matter method for feed analysis ............................................................................... 22 Dry Matter Intake decrease pre-partum.................................................................................... 132 and Displaced Abomasum ............................................................... 138 and Fatty Liver Syndrome ................................................................. 141 and Ketosis ............................................................................................. 143 definition .......................................................................................................... 158 effect of stage of lactation ............................................................... 126, 127 in calculation of Relative Feed Quality ..................................................... 30 of lactating cows ............................................................................................ 127 dry period optimum length ............................................................................................. 132 dry result ...................................................................................................................... 22 duodenum definition .......................................................................................................... 158 dwarfism definition .......................................................................................................... 158 Dystocia and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 138 E E. coli ............................................................................................................................ 105 effective fibre definition .......................................................................................................... 158 emulsion definition .......................................................................................................... 158 energy balance in lactation.............................................................................................. 127 digestible. See Digestible Energy gross. See Gross Energy metabolizable. See Metabolizable Energy net. See Net Energy, Net Energy for Gain, Net Energy for Lactation, Net Energy for Maintenance role in animal health ..................................................................................... 134 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 92 unit conversions ............................................................................................... 27 table .......................................................................................................... 152 values of feeds estimation from Acid Detergent Fibre ........................... 24, 27, 28 epithelial cells definition .......................................................................................................... 158 ergot definition .......................................................................................................... 158 in rye grain ......................................................................................................... 61 eructate definition .......................................................................................................... 158 esophagus definition .......................................................................................................... 158 essential amino acid definition .......................................................................................................... 158 essential oil definition .......................................................................................................... 158 ethanol definition .......................................................................................................... 158 ether extract ................................................................................................................ 37 ethyl alcohol definition .......................................................................................................... 158 F fat bypass .................................................................................................................. 73 definition .......................................................................................................... 159 supplementation ..................................................................................... 73, 90 dietary limit .............................................................................................. 74 Fat Cow Syndrome .................................................................................................. 140 fat soluble vitamins definition .......................................................................................................... 159 fatty acid definition .......................................................................................................... 159 fatty acid ester definition .......................................................................................................... 159 fatty liver and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 139 Fatty Liver Syndrome ............................................................................................. 141 Fe. See Iron: role in nutrition feather meal ................................................................................................................ 75 dietary limit ....................................................................................................... 75 feed additives ............................................................................................................. 80 analysis ................................................................................................................ 19 by NIR ......................................................................................................... 21 by wet chemistry .................................................................................... 21 report interpretation ............................................................................ 19 table .......................................................................................................... 149 digestion ............................................................................................................. 86 sampling ............................................................................................................. 13 hay ............................................................................................................... 14 silage .......................................................................................................... 15 feed intake. See Dry Matter Intake Feedlot (grain) Bloat. See bloat fetus growth ............................................................................................................... 132 growth during last trimester...................................................................... 119 fibre and rumen mat ................................................................................................. 93 definition .......................................................................................................... 159 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 134 role in nutrition ........................................................................................ 42, 93 fish meal ....................................................................................................................... 76 dietary limit ....................................................................................................... 76 palatability ......................................................................................................... 76 fistula definition .......................................................................................................... 159 Flaxseed ........................................................................................................................ 64 dietary limit ....................................................................................................... 64 feeding effect on milk fat .............................................................................. 64 oil content .......................................................................................................... 64 folic acid ............................................................................................................ 99, 155 foo-foo dust................................................................................................................. 80 forage grain crop ........................................................................................................... 53 legume. See legume forages free fatty acid definition .......................................................................................................... 159 Free-gas Bloat. See bloat frothy bloat. See bloat fructose definition .......................................................................................................... 159 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 fungi ............................................................................................................................. 160 G galactose definition .......................................................................................................... 160 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 germ definition .......................................................................................................... 160 germ oil definition .......................................................................................................... 160 gestation definition .......................................................................................................... 160 glucose blood concentration in Ketosis ................................................................................................. 143 definition .......................................................................................................... 160 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 glyceride definition .......................................................................................................... 160 glycerol definition .......................................................................................................... 160 glycoprotein definition .......................................................................................................... 160 goitre definition .......................................................................................................... 160 grain crops..................................................................................................................... 53 See also Barley, Corn, Oats, Rye, Triticale, Wheat processing .......................................................................................................... 43 sampling for analysis ...................................................................................... 16 grain bins ..................................................................................................................... 85 Gramineae ................................................................................................................... 53 Grass Tetany .............................................................................................................. 142 definition .......................................................................................................... 160 grasses annual .................................................................................................................. 52 perennial............................................................................................................. 44 Bromegrass .............................................................................................. 44 Orchardgrass ........................................................................................... 44 Perennial Ryegrass ................................................................................. 45 Reed Canarygrass................................................................................... 45 Tall Fescue................................................................................................. 45 Timothy ..................................................................................................... 45 Wheatgrass ............................................................................................... 45 green chop definition .......................................................................................................... 160 green feed definition .......................................................................................................... 161 Gross Energy ............................................................................................................... 92 definition .......................................................................................................... 161 growth accelerated, of calves .................................................................................... 106 curves for US Holsteins ................................................................................ 102 monitoring in heifers .................................................................................... 103 of calves ............................................................................................................ 111 from weaning to breeding................................................................ 116 of heifers during pregnancy ................................................................................ 119 target for heifers at breeding ............................................................................................. 119 targets for calves and heifers .......................................................... 102, 116 H hay definition .......................................................................................................... 161 feeding to calves ............................................................................................ 113 moisture level ................................................................................................... 81 sampling for analysis ...................................................................................... 14 storage ................................................................................................................ 81 haylage definition .......................................................................................................... 161 health effect of nutrition ........................................................................................... 134 heat damage in silage ............................................................................................................... 34 heat of production definition .......................................................................................................... 161 Heat-damaged Protein. See Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen heifers feeding after breeding ....................................................................................... 119 pre-puberty ............................................................................................ 116 Rumensin® ............................................................................................. 116 springing management ......................................................................................... 120 hemicellulose definition .......................................................................................................... 161 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 hemoglobin definition .......................................................................................................... 161 hydrochloric acid definition .......................................................................................................... 161 hydrogenation definition .......................................................................................................... 161 hydrolysis definition .......................................................................................................... 161 hypocalcemia definition .......................................................................................................... 161 hypogonadism definition .......................................................................................................... 161 hypomagnesemia definition .......................................................................................................... 162 Hypomagnesemic Tetany. See Grass Tetany I I. See Iodine ileum definition .......................................................................................................... 162 immunity definition .......................................................................................................... 162 immunoglobulin definition .......................................................................................................... 162 inductively coupled plasma spectrophotometry definition .......................................................................................................... 162 intake. See Dry Matter Intake intramuscular definition .......................................................................................................... 162 intrauterine definition .......................................................................................................... 162 intravenous definition .......................................................................................................... 162 Iodine requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 ion definition .......................................................................................................... 162 ionophores .................................................................................................................. 80 Iron requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 Italian Ryegrass .......................................................................................................... 52 J jejunum definition .......................................................................................................... 162 Johne’s Disease ........................................................................................................ 105 K K. See Potassium Ketosis ......................................................................................................................... 143 and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 138 effect of condition score ............................................................................. 140 Kjeldahl method of feed analysis ....................................................... 31, 32, 33, 35 Koster Crop Tester ..................................................................................................... 22 L lactating cows. See cows: lactating lactation curve ......................................................................................................... 126 laminae definition .......................................................................................................... 162 laminitis ...................................................................................................................... 136 and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 139 definition .......................................................................................................... 162 LDA. See Displaced Abomasum legume forages .......................................................................................................... 54 Alfalfa ................................................................................................................... 55 and bloat ............................................................................................................ 54 Birdsfoot Trefoil ................................................................................................ 55 Cicer Milkvetch ................................................................................................. 55 mineral levels .................................................................................................... 54 Red Clover .......................................................................................................... 55 lignified nitrogen definition .......................................................................................................... 162 lignin ................................................................................................................................. 8 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 lipids definition .......................................................................................................... 162 digestion ............................................................................................................. 90 in plants ................................................................................................................. 9 M macromineral definition .......................................................................................................... 163 macrominerals in plants .............................................................................................................. 11 Magnesium and chlorophyll ................................................................................................ 11 blood concentration in Grass Tetany ...................................................................................... 142 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 mammary gland involution ......................................................................................................... 132 swelling, in Udder Edema ........................................................................... 147 Manganese requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 98 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 98 mature shrunk body weight ................................................................................ 102 of heifers at breeding ............................................................................................. 119 ME. See Metabolizable Energy Megalac® ...................................................................................................................... 73 metabolic disorders definition .......................................................................................................... 163 effect of condition score .................................................................. 128, 140 effect of low pre-partum DMI.................................................................... 132 metabolism definition .......................................................................................................... 163 Metabolizable Energy .............................................................................................. 92 definition .......................................................................................................... 163 reqirements of weaned calves ....................................................................... 117, 118 requirements of pre-weaned calves ............................................................... 109, 112 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 values of feeds calculation from Net Energy for Lactation .................................... 27 Metabolizable Protein ............................................................................................. 95 definition .......................................................................................................... 163 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 metalloenzyme definition .......................................................................................................... 163 Metritis and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 138 Mg. See Magnesium microbial protein definition .......................................................................................................... 163 microminerals definition .......................................................................................................... 163 in plants .............................................................................................................. 11 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 microwave oven for feed Dry Matter testing ................................................................... 22, 23 milk consumption by calves ................................................................................ 106 feeding to calves ............................................................................................ 105 hospital ............................................................................................................. 107 for calves ................................................................................................. 105 replacer ............................................................................................................. 107 feeding rate ............................................................................................ 108 Milk Fever ................................................................................................................... 144 and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 138 definition .......................................................................................................... 163 effect of condition score ............................................................................. 140 minerals definition .......................................................................................................... 163 feed analysis by NIR ................................................................................ 21, 38 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 38 premixes ............................................................................................................. 78 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 96 supplemental .................................................................................................... 78 ad libitum (free choice) feeding ........................................................ 78 uptake by plants ........................................................................................ 6, 11 Mn. See Manganese moisture method for feed analysis ............................................................................... 22 MP. See Metabolizable Protein MSBW. See mature shrunk body weight Mycoplasma .............................................................................................................. 105 mycotoxin definition .......................................................................................................... 163 myoglobin definition .......................................................................................................... 163 myoinositol....................................................................................................... 99, 155 N Na. See Sodium NDF. See Neutral Detergent Fibre NDIN. See Neutral Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen NDIP. See Neutral Detergent Insoluble Protein Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy........................................................... 21 for mineral analysis ......................................................................................... 38 NEG. See Net Energy for Gain negative energy balance ...................................................................................... 140 NEM. See Net Energy for Maintenance Net Energy ................................................................................................................... 92 definition .......................................................................................................... 163 Net Energy for Gain .................................................................................................. 92 requirements of pre-weaned calves ............................................................... 109, 112 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves ....................................................................... 117, 118 values of feeds calculation from Metabolizable Energy ......................................... 27 Net Energy for Lactation ......................................................................................... 92 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 of early lactation cows........................................................................ 130 of mid lactation cows ......................................................................... 131 values of feeds estimation from Acid Detergent Fibre ............................................ 27 Net Energy for Maintenance ................................................................................. 92 requirements of pre-weaned calves ............................................................... 109, 112 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves ....................................................................... 117, 118 values of feeds calculation from Metabolizable Energy ......................................... 27 Net Protein definition .......................................................................................................... 163 Neutral Detergent Fibre digestibility and milk production ............................................................................. 30 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 25 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 Neutral Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 35 Neutral Detergent Insoluble Protein .................................................................. 35 in Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System................................. 35 rumen degradability ....................................................................................... 35 NFC. See Non-fibre Carbohydrates niacin .................................................................................................................. 99, 155 NIR. See Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy NIRS. See Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy nitrates and nitrogen fixation ..................................................................................... 10 definition .......................................................................................................... 164 role in plant growth ...........................................................................................6 nitrogen fixation in legume forages ............................................................................................ 10 non-essential amino acid definition .......................................................................................................... 164 Non-fibre Carbohydrates and rumen acidosis ....................................................................................... 136 method of calculation ............................................................................ 26, 37 Non-protein Nitrogen as fraction of Crude Protein ................................................................. 31, 32 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 32 rumen degradability ............................................................................... 32, 36 Non-structural Carbohydrates digestion in rumen .......................................................................................... 89 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 method of calculation .................................................................................... 26 NPN. See Non-protein Nitrogen NSC. See Non-structural Carbohydrates nucleic acid definition .......................................................................................................... 164 nutrient requirements of dry cows ....................................................................................................... 133 of early lactation cows ................................................................................. 130 of mid lactation cows ................................................................................... 131 of pre-weaned calves ........................................................................ 109, 112 of springing heifers ....................................................................................... 121 of weaned calves ........................................................................................... 117 O Oats as forage ............................................................................................................. 53 grain ..................................................................................................................... 60 processing ................................................................................................ 60 oil definition .......................................................................................................... 164 supplementation ..................................................................................... 73, 90 dietary limit .............................................................................................. 74 omasum definition .......................................................................................................... 164 Orchardgrass ............................................................................................................... 44 illustration .......................................................................................................... 47 organic definition .......................................................................................................... 164 organic acid definition .......................................................................................................... 164 osteomalacia definition .......................................................................................................... 164 osteoporosis definition .......................................................................................................... 164 P P. See Phosphorus pantothenic acid ............................................................................................ 99, 155 papillae definition .......................................................................................................... 164 para-aminobenzoic acid .............................................................................. 99, 155 parity definition .......................................................................................................... 164 particle size of forages ............................................................................................................ 42 and Displaced Abomasum ............................................................... 138 passive immunity definition .......................................................................................................... 165 Pasteurella ................................................................................................................. 105 pasteurization of hospital milk ............................................................................................... 105 Pea .................................................................................................................................. 66 varieties ............................................................................................................... 66 peak milk ......................................................................................................... 126, 128 pectins definition .......................................................................................................... 165 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 pelleting definition .......................................................................................................... 165 Penn State Forage Particle Separator ................................................................. 42 pentosans definition .......................................................................................................... 165 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 pentose definition .......................................................................................................... 165 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 peptide definition .......................................................................................................... 165 perennial forage definition .......................................................................................................... 165 Perennial Ryegrass .................................................................................................... 45 illustration .......................................................................................................... 48 persistency ..................................................................................................... 126, 128 pH of rumen digesta ............................................................................................. 89 in rumen acidosis ................................................................................. 136 of silage ............................................................................................................... 40 method of determination ................................................................... 40 phospholipid definition .......................................................................................................... 165 Phosphorus in plant protein ................................................................................................. 10 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 118 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 physical fibre ............................................................................................................... 42 definition .......................................................................................................... 165 placenta structure in cow ............................................................................................. 146 polysaccharide definition .......................................................................................................... 165 Potassium in soil and Grass Tetany .................................................................................. 142 in udder edema .............................................................................................. 147 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 processing index ....................................................................................................... 43 propionic acid definition .......................................................................................................... 165 from rumen fermentation ............................................................................ 89 propylene glycol ........................................................................................................ 80 as Ketosis treatment ..................................................................................... 143 protein definition .......................................................................................................... 165 digestion ............................................................................................................. 91 in plants .............................................................................................................. 10 metabolizable. See Metabolizable Protein net. See Net Protein role in animal health ..................................................................................... 134 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 94 proteins synthesis in plant growth ................................................................................6 protozoa definition .......................................................................................................... 166 provitamin definition .......................................................................................................... 166 pushing up total mixed ration .......................................................................................... 125 R Ration Formulation ................................................................................................. 148 RDP. See Rumen Degradable Protein Red Clover .................................................................................................................... 55 illustration .......................................................................................................... 57 Reed Canarygrass ...................................................................................................... 45 Relative Feed Quality ............................................................................................... 30 Relative Feed Value ................................................................................................... 29 resin definition .......................................................................................................... 166 Retained Placenta ................................................................................................... 146 and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 138 effect of condition score ............................................................................. 140 reticulum definition .......................................................................................................... 166 RFQ. See Relative Feed Quality RFV. See Relative Feed Value riboflavin ........................................................................................................... 99, 155 ribonucleic acid (RNA) definition .......................................................................................................... 166 rickets definition .......................................................................................................... 166 root reserves in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 rumen definition .......................................................................................................... 166 fermentation ..................................................................................................... 87 microbes ..................................................................................................... 86, 89 Rumen Acidosis ....................................................................................................... 136 and Displaced Abomasum ......................................................................... 139 definition .......................................................................................................... 166 Rumen Degradable Protein ................................................................................... 36 definition .......................................................................................................... 166 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 36 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 of early lactation cows........................................................................ 130 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 118 requirements of mid lactation cows ............................................. 131 Rumen Undegradable Protein .............................................................................. 95 definition .......................................................................................................... 166 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 of early lactation cows........................................................................ 130 of mid lactation cows ......................................................................... 131 of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 118 Rumensin® in calf grower .................................................................................................. 116 in calf starter .................................................................................................... 110 in heifer ration ................................................................................................ 116 to reduce Ketosis incidence ....................................................................... 143 RUP. See Rumen Undegradable Protein Rye as pasture ........................................................................................................... 53 distiller's grains ................................................................................................. 72 grain ..................................................................................................................... 61 S S. See Sulphur salivary glands definition .......................................................................................................... 166 salivation ...................................................................................................................... 86 role of structured roughage ........................................................................ 42 sampling bulk concentrates ............................................................................................ 16 SARA. See Subacute Rumen Acidosis saturated definition .......................................................................................................... 167 Se. See Selenium Selenium requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 98 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 98 silage cereal.................................................................................................................... 44 definition .......................................................................................................... 167 effluent collection ........................................................................................... 84 grain-crop ........................................................................................................... 44 hay-crop .............................................................................................................. 44 legume ....................................................................................................... 54 sampling for analysis ...................................................................................... 15 storage ................................................................................................................ 82 silica definition .......................................................................................................... 167 Sodium in Udder Edema ............................................................................................. 147 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 Sodium Lauryl Sulphate definition .......................................................................................................... 167 in Neutral Detergent Fibre analysis ........................................................... 25 Soluble Protein method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 33 rumen degradability ............................................................................... 33, 36 sorting of total mixed ration ..................................................................................... 124 Soy meal ...................................................................................................................... 77 in calf starter .......................................................................................... 110 SP. See Soluble Protein Spartan Dairy Ration Evaluator® ........................................................................ 148 starch definition .......................................................................................................... 167 in grain kernel ...................................................................................................... 7 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 starter. See calf starter steroid definition .......................................................................................................... 167 Structural Carbohydrates digestion in rumen .......................................................................................... 89 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 structured roughage ................................................................................................ 42 Subacute Rumen Acidosis.................................................................................... 136 See also Rumen Acidosis subcutaneous definition .......................................................................................................... 167 sugars definition .......................................................................................................... 167 in plants ................................................................................................................. 7 Sulphur in plant protein ................................................................................................. 10 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 97 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 97 Sunflower seed ...................................................................................................................... 65 dietary limit .............................................................................................. 65 oil content ................................................................................................ 65 T Tall Fescue .................................................................................................................... 45 illustration .......................................................................................................... 49 tallow ............................................................................................................................. 73 tannin definition .......................................................................................................... 167 target body weight ................................................................................................. 102 TBW. See target body weight TDN. See Total Digestible Nutrients temper rolling definition .......................................................................................................... 167 thiamine ............................................................................................................ 99, 155 thyroid gland definition .......................................................................................................... 167 thyroxine definition .......................................................................................................... 167 Timothy ........................................................................................................................ 45 illustration .......................................................................................................... 50 TMR. See total mixed ration Total Digestible Nutrients requirements of springing heifers ............................................................................. 121 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 118 values of feeds calculation from Net Energy for Lactation .................................... 27 total mixed ration .................................................................................................... 124 for heifers after breeding ....................................................................................... 119 at 6 months of age ............................................................................... 116 for lactating cows .......................................................................................... 122 trace minerals. See microminerals transferase definition .......................................................................................................... 168 transition milk definition .......................................................................................................... 168 trichloroacetic acid in True Protein analysis .................................................................................. 32 Triticale as silage ............................................................................................................... 53 True Protein as fraction of Crude Protein ......................................................................... 32 compared with Crude Protein ..................................................................... 31 definition .......................................................................................................... 168 separation from Non-protein Nitrogen ................................................... 32 tungstic acid definition .......................................................................................................... 168 in True Protein analysis .................................................................................. 32 U udder. See mammary gland Udder Edema ............................................................................................................ 147 urea definition .......................................................................................................... 168 urease definition .......................................................................................................... 168 uterus growth during last trimester...................................................................... 119 V variance definition .......................................................................................................... 168 VFA. See volatile fatty acids vitamin A ...................................................................................................................... 99 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 of pre-weaned calves ............................................................... 109, 112 of weaned calves .................................................................................. 117 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 99 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 99 supplementation ............................................................................................. 79 synthesis from carotene ................................................................................ 12 vitamin B1. See thiamine vitamin B12 ...................................................................................................... 99, 155 vitamin B2. See riboflavin vitamin B6 ......................................................................................................... 99, 155 vitamin C ...................................................................................................................... 99 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 vitamin D ...................................................................................................................... 99 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in nutrition .............................................................................................. 100 signs of deficiency ......................................................................................... 100 supplementation ............................................................................................. 79 vitamin E ....................................................................................................................... 99 requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 role in nutrition .............................................................................................. 100 signs of deficiency ......................................................................................... 100 supplementation ............................................................................................. 79 vitamin K ...................................................................................................................... 99 vitamins fat soluble ................................................................................................... 79, 99 in plants .............................................................................................................. 12 method of feed analysis ................................................................................ 39 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 99 supplemental .................................................................................................... 79 water soluble ..................................................................................................... 99 volatile fatty acids definition .......................................................................................................... 168 production in rumen ...................................................................................... 89 stimulation of rumen development ........................................................ 113 W water body content................................................................................................... 101 for calves ........................................................................................................... 110 role in nutrition .............................................................................................. 101 weaning. See calves: weaning Wheat as forage ............................................................................................................. 53 distiller's grains ................................................................................................. 72 grain ..................................................................................................................... 62 dietary limit .............................................................................................. 62 starch rumen degradability ............................................................ 58, 59, 62 Wheatgrass .................................................................................................................. 45 illustration .......................................................................................................... 51 Y yellow grease .............................................................................................................. 73 Z Zinc requirements of dry cows ............................................................................................. 133 role in animal health ..................................................................................... 135 role in nutrition ................................................................................................ 98 signs of deficiency ........................................................................................... 98 Zn. See Zinc Dairy Production Supervisor: Skill Training Curriculum A MANAGING MILKING & SANITATION Monitor & manage the milking equipment system for proper operation A2 II Develop & manage a cleaning & sanitation program for milk equipment A3 II Develop a feeding program & supervise calf feeding (0 - 3 months) Ä B1 II Operate & manage the preventative health program for calves B2 II Monitor calf health, detect sickness & disorders (as listed) & take action B3 II Ä Demonstrate a basic knowledge of cattle anatomy & physiology C1 II Ä Develop a herd health & vaccination program Establish & maintain a calving & maternity area Supervise the milking routine A1 B MANAGING CALF REARING C MANAGING CATTLE HEALTH C9 D FEEDING THE HERD E DAIRY PRODUCTS MARKETING G GENERAL SUPERVISING II Ä Ä Judge & assess cattle performance & select animals for culling E1 F II Demonstrate a basic knowledge cattle nutrition D1 MANAGING CATTLE BREEDING II II Ä Develop a schedule & routine & manage the servicing of the milk systems A4 II Supervise the maintenance of milk quality standards Read, interpret & demonstrate basic knowledge of the Dairy Code of Practice C3 II Ä Demonstrate knowledge of common respiratory diseases & disorders & treat a suspected case C4 II Demonstrate knowledge of common digestive diseases & disorders & treat a suspected case C5 II Demonstrate knowledge of common respiratory diseases & disorders & treat where possible C6 II Assess lab testing options to diagnose health problems & take proper samples C10 II Set up & maintain a multi-purpose cow history record system (health, breeding, etc) C11 II Manage the calving program & assist cows when calving Develop & manage a mastitis control program C12 II C13 II Diagnose minor problems & carry out basic foot trimming & care C14 II Take a feed sample for nutrient analysis & interpret lab results Perform a condition scoring on a cow Manage program & supervise the feeding of replacement cattle (6 months - calving) Ä D4 II Ä Supervise the feeding program & manage the feeding of the milking herd Ä D5 II Ä Perform AI and manage the on-farm storage of semen Operate the DHI program in the herd C2 D2 Ä II II Ä Ä Judge & select cows & bulls for mating E2 II Ä Demonstrate a basic knowledge of milk marketing, dairy policy & pricing F1 II Ä Manage the herd’s production to optimize quota requirements F2 II Demonstrate use of decision making and problem solving techniques G1 II Ä Demonstrate effective verbal & written communication for records, staff & public G2 II Ä D3 II Ä Ä Operate the herd breeding program E3 II Ä E4 II Ä A5 E5 II II Supervise the farm facilities cleaning & waste management program A6 II II Manage dry cow health & feeding C8 II Supervise & manage the operation of the feeding equipment Manage the pastue grazing of cattle D6 Develop & manage a control program for external & internal parasites & pests C7 II Ä D7 II Ä Ä Manage the marketing of cattle Ä F3 II Demonstrate supervisor’s time management competence G3 II Ä Ä Plan & manage farm staff work schedule Ä G4 II Ä Ä Supervise farm staff work activities G5 II Ä Ä Conduct training of farm staff G6 II Ä Conduct production meetings Ä G7 II Ä Ä
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