1. religion and spirituality
2. hinduism

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A recitation ritual for Shiva at Mount Waverley High School, Victoria (see detail on page 75). Here the thousand names of Shiva are being
recited in unison. On the back wall is a lingam, a very common symbol of Shiva.
Introduction
Sa
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-OSTWORLDRELIGIONSARECONSIDEREDBYBELIEVERSAND
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BY(INDUSASMAKINGUPAPARTICULARCULTURALSYSTEM
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Chapter 4: Hinduism
Extension
R. Oxus
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Sa
Sanskrit
Language of the Vedas and a huge body
of later literature; regarded by Hindus
throughout history as a sacred language.
Vedas
‘Sacred knowledge, sacred texts’—the
most ancient and sacred Indian
scriptures dated from approximately
1200–600 BCE. The 6EDAS are organised
in four collections (2IG, 3AMA, 9AJUR,
!THARVA) and consist of hymns of praise,
ritual/ceremonial manuals and mystical/
philosophical treatises (5PANISHADS).
4HEVARIOUSSTRANDSOF(INDUISMONLYCAMETOGETHERAFTER
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deity
God or goddess. Hinduism is
(plural, deities) characterised by its multiplicity of deities
believed to perform different roles for
their worshippers.
Badami
Mala
The early inhabitants of the
Indus valley
LR4_04.indd 69
KA
R. Krishna Amaravati
Arabian Sea
Glossary
Puri
R. Godavar
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Elephanta
MAGADHA
Bhubaneswar
Ajanta
Ellora
4.1 Origins
Pataliputra
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Kilometres
Figure 4.1.1 Ancient India
RESPOND
Compare this map with a map of modern India.
What differences are there?
The Harappan culture
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Figure 4.1.2 Seal from the Harappan culture
The Vedic period
Glossary
asceticism
The act of performing bodily austerities
designed to acquire magical power or
purify the body.
atman
The essence or principle of life; Ultimate
Reality as present within a human
being—not a ‘soul’ or ‘spirit’.
austerities
Severe acts or practices that usually
require someone to abstain from or
deprive themselves of something.
Brahman
The name given to Ultimate Reality or
Cosmic Self.
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PRIESTSSUGGESTINGTHEEXISTENCEOFASACREDCULTANDTHE
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brahmin
The male priestly class (VARNA).
karma(n)
Originally ritual action; later meaning all
human actions. The law of KARMA refers
to the belief that all human actions have
consequences that affect not only one’s
present life but also future lives until
moksha is achieved.
moksha
Liberation or release from SAMSARA;
the end of rebirth for the human being.
Different philosophical and religious
strands in Hinduism describe MOKSHA
differently—for instance, the attainment
of union with God or knowledge of one’s
identity with Brahman.
pantheon
All the gods believed in by a particular
group of people.
renouncers
Those who ritually leave society in
order to lead a life in the forest based
on the performance of YOGA and bodily
austerities. Renunciation includes giving
up all material possessions and all social
connections.
Vedic
sacrifice
Described in the 6EDAS; a fire sacrifice
in which offerings (food and other gifts)
were made by priests (brahmins) to
honour the gods, and hymns were
chanted. Less elaborate sacrifices
were offered in the home. The priestly
sacrificial ritual became very complex and
was seen as a sacred creative power in
its own right, which guaranteed the reality
of the material universe—if the ritual was
performed correctly by BRAHMINS, who
knew all the rules of the sacrifice, results
would occur automatically. Over time, this
power was interpreted as residing within
the human being (an ‘internal’ sacrifice or
meditation on sacred knowledge), and the
emphasis shifted from material to spiritual
wellbeing.
The emergence of the Aryans
Sa
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Chapter 4: Hinduism
71
Figure 4.1.3 This Sanskrit verse is taken from Rig Veda 3. 62:10, and can be translated as follows:
‘We meditate on the supreme splendour of the god, Savitr: May it stimulate our thoughts.’
#ORRECTPERFORMANCEOFTHERITUALWASBELIEVEDTOBE
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Figure 4.1.4 Groups of priests performing a fire sacrifice
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FAMILYTIESMATERIALPOSSESSIONSREBIRTHINHEAVENAND
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Extension
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Figure 4.1.5 A Hindu ascetic in meditation. The monkey-headed
god Hanuman is depicted in the picture behind him.
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Hinduism as sanatana dharma
Glossary
dharma
The law(s) of the cosmos (SANATANA
DHARMA—eternal DHARMA or universal
natural law) and also the moral and
religious duties, laws and customs that
are in harmony with the natural law.
3ADHARANADHARMA is the general code of
Hindu ethics.
varna
Class into which a person is born. There
were four classes in ancient Indian
society (not to be confused with ‘caste’).
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Chapter 4: Hinduism
4HEKEYCONCEPTFORUNDERSTANDINGTHE(INDUWORLDVIEW
ISdharmaDharmaISAVERYCOMPLEXIDEAWITHMANY
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LIVEINHARMONY
Dharma is the foundation of the whole universe. In this
world people go to a person who is best versed in dharma
for guidance. By means of dharma one drives away evil.
Upon dharma everything is founded. Therefore, dharma is
called the highest good.
Extension
0ROPOSESOMEREASONSFORTHEHIERARCHICALORDER
OFTHEFOURvarnas4OWHATEXTENTDOESTHEORDER
REmECTASOCIETYVERYDIFFERENTFROMTHEPRESENTDAY
)NDIA
Devotion to Vishnu and Shiva
Glossary
Taittririya Aranyaka, 10:79
The earthly manifestation of a god or
goddess taken with the specific intention
of restoring DHARMA when the world is in
a state of decline.
pa
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s
avatara
(ARMONYANDBALANCEAREACHIEVEDBYMEANSOFORDERING
HUMANGROUPSINDIFFERENTLEVELSORCLASSESEACHONE
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MOSTANCIENTSOCIALDIVISIONS4HEYARE
s brahminˆPRIESTTEACHER
s kshatriyaˆWARRIORKING
bhakti
Loving devotion to a personal god or
goddess and sharing in the loving grace
of the divine person.
guru
A religious teacher, often regarded as an
enlightened being; sometimes the central
object of worship in a cult.
yogin
A person who engages in intensive
meditational and ritual practice for long
periods of time in caves or other isolated
sites.
pl
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s vaishyaˆFARMERMERCHANT
s shudraˆSERVANTTOTHEOTHERTHREECLASSES
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3OFARTHEWAYOFTHERITUALASSOCIATEDWITHEARLY6EDIC
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6ISHNUAND3HIVABECAMEESPECIALLYIMPORTANT"YTHE
TIMEOFTHEAPPEARANCEOFTHEGREAT3ANSKRITEPICSTHE
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Figure 4.1.6 Statue of Vishnu in Jodhpur, India
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LR4_04.indd 74
Figure 4.1.7 Dancing Shiva sculpture at Mahabalipuram Temple,
near Chennai, India
3HIVAHASBECOMEVERYIMPORTANTASALOCALDEITYAS
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Chapter 4: Hinduism
s ASAFAMILYMANWITHHISWIFE0ARVATIANDTWOSONS
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75
4.2 Principal teachings
s AS.ATARAJA@,ORDOFTHE$ANCE
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Review
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Figure 4.1.8 Detail of a recitation ritual being performed for
Shiva. The food offerings—here, symbolic offerings to Shiva—are
standard to all pujas (see pages 87–8).
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LR4_04.indd 75
Atman and Brahman, gods and
goddesses
Glossary
samsara
A name for existence seen as bondage
to a set of ongoing rebirths caused by
karmic action.
Atman—‘Ultimate Reality’ or ‘Inner Self’
5NDERLYINGALL(INDUBELIEFISAPHILOSOPHYTHATAPERSON
CONSISTSOFAPHYSICALBODYAMINDANDatmanˆAN)NNER
3ELFTHATEXISTSBEYONDTHESE7HILETHElRSTTWODISAPPEAR
ATDEATHTHEatmanCANPOTENTIALLYBEREBORNFROMLIFE
TOLIFE4HEatmanISTHEESSENCEORPRINCIPLEOFLIFEˆTHE
5LTIMATE2EALITYASPRESENTWITHINAHUMANBEING
4IMEANDTHENATUREOFTHEMATERIALWORLD
)NGENERALWHILETHEREARESOMEGROUPSWHODIFFER(INDUS
WILLASSUMETHATTHEREISNOABSOLUTEBEGINNINGANDEND
EITHERTOTHEIROWNLIVESORTOTHEEXISTENCEOFTHEWORLD
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Figure 4.2.1 The great gods Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma give an interview in heaven, while a record of it is being prepared.
From an 1836 manuscript in Assamese script.
s 7HATIS5LTIMATE2EALITY
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GODSUNDERSTAND
Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence
was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came
afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then
knows whence it has arisen?
Whence this creation has arisen—perhaps it formed itself,
or perhaps it did not—the one who looks down on it, in
the highest heaven, only he knows—or perhaps he does
not know.
Creation Hymn from the Rig Veda, 10:129,
in W. O’Flaherty (trans. and annotat.),
The Rig Veda: An Anthology, 1981
LR4_04.indd 76
This entire world is bound to craving and rolls around like
a wheel forever so long as there exists the notion ‘there is’
and ‘there is not’. Just as lotus fibre is found everywhere
within a lotus stalk, so too fibre which is craving, and has
neither beginning nor end, is always found in the body.
And just as a weaver sews a thread into a garment, so one
is bound to the thread of samsara by the needle of craving.
Mahabharata, 12. 210:32–34
Brahman
BrahmanISTHE5LTIMATE2EALITYBEHINDALLAPPEARANCES
)TISNEUTRALINGENDERANDCANNOTBEWORSHIPPEDDIRECTLY
NORDESCRIBEDEXCEPTINABSTRACTTERMSSUCHAS@"LISS
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HIDES5LTIMATE2EALITYFROMUSANDLEADSUSTOBELIEVETHAT
THEWORLDWESEEISPERMANENT
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Chapter 4: Hinduism
4HE(INDUVIEWISTHATONEISBOUNDTOTHEWORLDBECAUSE
OFSELFINTERESTATTACHMENTANDDESIRE,IBERATIONFROM
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77
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ANDTHESENSESprakriti
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The cosmos as the body of god
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Y^k^cZegZhZcXZVhi]Z\dYdg\dYYZhh^cXdbeaZiZ
Y^k^c^in#
Figure 4.2.2 Krishna and the gopis (milkmaids). The play of
Krishna and the gopis is regarded as an image of the soul’s
relationship with God. The love of Krishna and Radha (pictured
on the right), his favourite gopi, is celebrated in Sanskrit and
Bengali love poetry.
LR4_04.indd 77
>che^iZd[i]Zbng^VYd[cVbZh!iZmihVcYadXVa
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Review
)NYOUROWNWORDSDElNE@atman’AND@Brahman’
)DENTIFYTHEMOSTIMPORTANTGODSANDGODDESSES
IN(INDUISMANDWRITEASENTENCEABOUTEACH
%XPLAINHOW(INDUSCANWORSHIPMANY
DIFFERENTGODSWHILESTILLBELIEVINGTHEYAREJUST
MANIFESTATIONSOFTHEONEGOD
Extension
We
bD
est inatio
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Dharma, karma and moksha
Sa
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Figure 4.2.3 The goddess Durga. Durga represents the
power of the Supreme Being that preserves moral order and
righteousness in the world. The Sanskrit word durga means a
fort or a place that is protected and thus difficult to reach.
pa
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7HATCANYOUDISCOVERABOUTSOMEOFTHEMANY
devasANDdevis OF(INDUISM'OTOTHEWEB
DESTINATIONSFORPAGEASAGOODSTARTINGPOINT
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YOURlNDINGSINGRAPHICFORM
Glossary
jati
The term used to denote communities
(literally ‘births’) and sub-communities in India.
Sva dharma
(own DHARMA)
This is the framework of duties and
obligations in which each person works
out their religious practice.
Dharma—human beings and their destiny
DharmaISNOTAPRECISEDOCTRINETOBELIEVEINBUTA
COMPLEXSETOFTEACHINGSTOBEUNDERSTOODANDPRACTISED
FROMTHEBEGINNINGTOTHEENDOFONESLIFE)NTHISCONTEXT
ITMEANSSOMETHINGSIMILARTOTHE7ESTERNCONCEPTOF
RELIGIOUSPRACTICEANDITSACCOMPANYINGBELIEFˆTHATIS
THERIGHTWAYOFLIVINGINEVERYSENSE
It is neither morality, nor the good, the right, justice, nor
law. It is the socio-cosmic order which can be said to be
good simply because it is necessary for the maintenance of
the successful existence of everything constituted by the
‘three worlds’—(earth, sky and intermediate space …). It
is the good simply in that it assures the continuity of the
empirical world.
M. Biardeau, L’Hindouisme.
Anthropologie d’une Civilisation, 1981, p. 49
Figure 4.2.4 An image of the goddess Durga in the Sri Durga
Temple at Rockbank, near Melbourne
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Chapter 4: Hinduism
@!UTONOMYAND@EQUALITYIMPORTANTVALUESIN7ESTERN
SOCIETIESARETHOUGHTTOLEADTOCHAOSANDANARCHYTHE
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79
#LASSANDCASTE
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4HEMEANINGOFPOLLUTIONISNOT@DIRTYOR@UNHYGIENICBUT
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LR4_04.indd 79
Figure 4.2.5 Hindu altar in Varanasi, India
Karma—actions have consequences
!NOTHERMAJORTEACHINGOF(INDUISMISTHATALLHUMAN
ACTIONSkarmaHAVECONSEQUENCESTHATNOTONLYAFFECT
ONESELFANDOTHERSINTHEIMMEDIATESENSEBUTSHAPETHE
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Moksha or mutki—ways of liberation
and the divine
Bhakti yoga—the way of devotion
6gZcdjcXZgbVnVahddei[dgZXhiVi^XW]V`i^YZkdi^dc
idVeVgi^XjaVg\dYdg\dYYZhh#I]Z\dVa^hidWZXdbZ
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Glossary
ashrama
A stage of life, of which there are four:
the period of being a young student;
the period of marriage and running
a household; the period of partial
withdrawal in middle age for more
intense religious practice; the final period
of complete withdrawal from social life.
The final stage is a time when ascetic
religious practice is recommended.
The ‘release’ from the cycle of SAMSARA.
yoga
‘Joining’/‘yoking’ of mind and body to
achieve perfect unity or wholeness; a
spiritual and bodily discipline.
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[gVbZldg`d[W]V`i^VcY`VgbVnd\V!i]ZbV^cÅVl^c
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moksha
(or MUTKI)
Karma yoga—the way of action
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GODTHEWAYOFkarmaORACTION4HEBhagavad GitaSEE
PAGESnRECOMMENDSbhaktiABOVEALL
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MORECOMMITTEDRENUNCIATIONTHANISPOSSIBLEINORDINARY
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OFLIBERATION
Ways of liberation
Jnana yoga—the way of knowledge
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LR4_04.indd 80
4HEPERFECTPRACTICEOFEACHOFTHEyogasREQUIRESAHIGHLY
COMMITTEDRELIGIOUSDISCIPLINEWHETHER@WITHINTHEWORLD
ORRENOUNCINGIT!BETTERREBIRTHISCONSIDEREDAMORE
REALISTICGOALTHANlNALLIBERATION!BETTERREBIRTHCAN
BRINGBETTEROPPORTUNITIESFORRENUNCIATIONANDLIBERATION
/NEOFTHEGREATTHEMESOF(INDUISMISTHETENSION
BETWEENLOVEOFTHEWORLDANDALLTHEGOODTHINGSINIT
ANDTHEACCOMPANYINGWISHTOBEREBORNONTHEONEHAND
ANDONTHEOTHERHANDTHEKNOWLEDGETHATABSOLUTE
FREEDOMINTHEDIVINECANONLYBEACHIEVEDBYRENOUNCING
THATSELFINTERESTEDLOVE
/NEWAYOFBALANCINGTHESETWOGOALSISTOSETASIDEAPART
OFLIFEFORRENUNCIATION)TISANIDEALFORTHEMALESINTHE
HIGHESTvarnasCLASSESTOSEETHEIRLIVESINFOURSTAGESOR
ashramasTHESTUDENTYEARSTHEPERIODOFMARRYINGAND
REARINGCHILDRENASAHOUSEHOLDERAPERIODDURINGMIDDLE
AGEWHENONEWITHDRAWSFROMMOSTSOCIALLIFEANDlNALLY
THEPERIODINOLDAGEWHENONELEAVESTHEHOUSEHOLDTO
LEADALIFEOFRENUNCIATION)NTHISWAYAPERSONCANFULlL
THEdharmaOFTHEIRBIRTHCONTRIBUTINGTOTHEENRICHMENT
OFTHEORDEROFTHEWORLDANDALSORENOUNCEATTACHMENTTO
ITINPREPARATIONFORLEAVINGITBEHINDFOREVER
22/3/10 10:22:26 AM
Chapter 4: Hinduism
InvestigateTHECONNECTIONBETWEENdharma
ANDkarma4HENINYOUROWNWORDSWRITEA
PARAGRAPHTOEXPLAINEACHCONCEPT
#LARIFYHOWPURITYANDPOLLUTIONARECONNECTED
WITH@ORDERANDHARMONY
7HATDO(INDUSUNDERSTANDBYCLASSvarna
7HATISTHEPRINCIPLEBEHINDTHECASTESYSTEM
$ISTINGUISHTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEEN@CASTEAND
@CLASSIN(INDUSOCIETY
%XPLAINTHECONCEPTOFmokshaANDWHYITIS
CONSIDEREDTOBEVERYDIFlCULTTOATTAIN
OutlineTHEIMPORTANCEOFmokshaFORA(INDU
DEVOTEE
Extension
OralityHASALWAYSBEENTHEDOMINANTWAYOFTRANSMITTING
KNOWLEDGEIN)NDIANCULTURE"YFARTHEMAJORITYOF
RECITATIONSHAVEBEENOF@mUIDTEXTSWHERETHEBASIC
STORYLINEREMAINSTHESAMEBUTWITHSOMEVARIATIONINDETAIL
BEINGADDEDBYTHERECITER0ROFESSIONALRECITERSSTILLWANDER
AROUND)NDIATELLINGSTORIESFROMTHETWOGREAT3ANSKRIT
epicsASWELLASMANYOTHERSDERIVEDFROMCOLLECTIONSOF
MYTHSANDLEGENDSORIGINALLYFOUNDINVERNACULARLOCAL
LANGUAGES)NMOSTCASESTHESETEXTSWILLBEACCOMPANIEDBY
LONGORALCOMMENTARIESINTHEVERNACULARLANGUAGE4HESE
AREAMONGTHEPRINCIPALMEANSOFRELIGIOUSINSTRUCTION
)NADDITIONMOST(INDUSWILLKNOWBYHEARTAFEWVERSES
IN3ANSKRITTHATTHEYMAYUSEINRITUALSANDALSOHYMNS
THATARESUNGINDEVOTIONALPERFORMANCESOFPRAISETOTHEIR
CHOSENDEITIES-OST(INDUSAPPROACHTHEGREAT(INDU
CLASSICSTHROUGHVERSIONSOFTHESETEXTSTRANSLATEDINTOAND
SUMMARISEDINVERNACULARLANGUAGES3ANSKRITMAYSTILLHAVE
AHIGHERSTATUSTHANVERNACULARLANGUAGESBUTITREMAINSA
MYSTERYFORMOST(INDUS
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7ITHAPARTNERDISCUSSWHETHERkarmaMAKES
SENSEINTERMSOF7ESTERNIDEASABOUTBIRTHAND
STATUS*USTIFYYOURRESPONSES
(INDUISMISTAUGHTTHROUGHTENSOFTHOUSANDSOFTEXTS
COMPOSEDINMANYLANGUAGESANDCOVERINGDIFFERENT
GENRES!LL(INDUSHAVEACCESSTOSOMETEXTSEVENIFTHESE
AREJUSTAFEWHYMNSOFPRAISETOAGODANDAFEWSHORTTALES
INVOLVINGHEROESANDTHEEXPLOITSOFGODSORFOLKTALESTHAT
TELLHOWLOWCASTETRICKSTERSANDMERCHANTSSUCCEEDIN
OUTSMARTINGHIGHCASTElGURES
pa
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Review
81
m
)MAGINEYOUAREA(INDUDEVOTEEOF+RISHNA
(OWDIFlCULTWOULDITBETOTAKEUPALIFESTYLE
OFTOTALRENUNCIATION)Skarma yogaANEASIER
OPTIONFORMOSTPEOPLE
Sa
@!BETTERREBIRTHISCONSIDEREDAMOREREALISTIC
GOALTHANlNALLIBERATION!NALYSETHIS
STATEMENTFROMTHEPOINTOFVIEWOFA(INDU
@LIVINGINTHEWORLD
4.3 Sacred texts
and writings
Glossary
epic
A text, usually very long, that depicts
a total view of creation and society
and explores the deepest concerns
of humans.
orality
The remembered and spoken tradition,
as opposed to literality—the written
tradition.
LR4_04.indd 81
The Vedas
4HEVedasSEEPAGESnCONSTITUTEALARGEBODYOFTEXTS
COMPOSEDINANARCHAICDIALECTOF3ANSKRIT4HEYCONSIST
OFFOURPARTSDIFFERINGBYDATEOFCOMPOSITIONANDCONTENT
4HElRSTTHREEARESIGNIlCANTBECAUSEOFTHEMYTHOLOGICAL
NARRATIVESTHEYPASSEDONTOLATER(INDUCULTUREANDTHE
SYSTEMOFLARGESCALESACRIlCESTHEYDESCRIBED4HEMAIN
REASONTHATTHEVedasTHEMSELVESAREVENERATEDNOWIS
BECAUSETHEYAREVERYOLDTHEIRCONTENTSARESCARCELYKNOWN
)NTERMSOFONGOINGINmUENCEIN(INDUCULTURETHE
UpanishadsTHEMOSTRECENTPARTOFTHEVedasARETHEMOST
SIGNIlCANT4HEYCONTAINMANYSPECULATIONSABOUTTHE
NATUREOFTHEPERSONDISTINGUISHINGBETWEENTHEBODY
THEMENTALPROCESSESANDTHE)NNER3ELFatman4HEY
ALSOSPECULATEABOUTTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHEatman
ANDTHEBrahmanTHECOSMICEQUIVALENTOFTHEatmanSEE
PAGESn2ATHERTHANASSERTDIRECTLYTHENATUREOFTHE
atmanTHEYSKIRTAROUNDITDESCRIBINGITASWHATITISNOT
RATHERTHANWHATITIS"ESIDESTHEFAMOUSSTATEMENTINTHE
Bhrhadaranyaka UpanishadTHATTHEatmanIS@NOTTHISNOT
THATTHEChandogya UpanishadPRESENTSASHORTNARRATIVE
DESCRIBINGHOW)NDRAAND6IROCANAAPPROACH0RAJAPATIAS
STUDENTSSEEKINGKNOWLEDGEOFTHEatman
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82
Living Religion Fourth Edition
Figure 4.3.1 Illustrated folio from the Mahabharata, sixteenth century CE
Chandogya Upanishad, 8,7,1, after R. E. Hume,
The Thirteen Principal Upanishads
pa
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The Self which is free from evil, ageless, deathless,
sorrowless, hungerless, thirstless, whose desire is the Real,
whose conception is the Real. It should be searched out, one
should want to understand it. He obtains all worlds and all
desires who has found out and who understands that Self.
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)NDRAGOESONTOIDENTIFYTHE3ELFWITHTHEBODYTHEN
WITHTHEPERSONWHOAPPEARSINADREAMANDNEXTWITH
THECONTENTOFTHEMINDINDREAMLESSSLEEPALLOFWHICH
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FOURTHSTATEBEYONDTHESETHREE
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THEMSELVES4HEYAREKNOWNBYHARDLYANYONEBUTTHE
MOSTINTELLECTUALLYINCLINED(INDUSYETTHEIRTEACHINGSARE
APOWERFULLEGACYTHATINmUENCEDLATER(INDULITERATUREˆ
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bhaktiSTREAMOFTHOUGHTWHEREDEVOTEEANDGODCOMETO
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atmanOFTHEDEVOTEEBEINGIDENTICALTOTHEatmanOFTHE
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H]Vc`VgV^hVh^\c^ÄXVcieZghdcXdch^YZgZY^c
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The epics
4HETWOGREAT3ANSKRITEPICSCOMPOSEDAFTERTHEVedas
BECAMETHElRSTPOPULARTEXTSˆTHEYWEREKNOWNINSOME
FORMBYMOSTMEMBERSOFSOCIETYNOTJUSTBYTHEPRIESTLY
GROUPS4HEEARLIESTGLIMPSESOFbhaktiOCCURINTHELATER
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CAMETOFRUITIONASARELIGIOUSFORCEINTHEFOLLOWINGCENTURIES
WHENITWASDEPICTEDEXTENSIVELYINTHEMASSIVEEPICSTHE
MahabharataANDTHERamayanaBOTHDATINGFROMTHEFOURTH
CENTURYBCEASDOCTRINEANDAMETHODOFRELIGIOUSPRACTICE
LR4_04.indd 82
The Mahabharata and the
Ramayana
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ldgh]^eeZY^ciZbeaZhVcYh]g^cZhVaadkZg>cY^V#
22/3/10 10:22:27 AM
83
pa
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Chapter 4: Hinduism
Figure 4.3.2 Composing the Ramayana. Valmiki is shown composing and completing the epic Ramayana. Image taken from Ramayana,
Bala Kanda, originally published/produced in Udaipur, 1712.
The Bhagavad Gita
Sa
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4HEBhagavad GitaISAVERYSHORTTEXTOFEIGHTEENCHAPTERS
INSERTEDWITHINTHESIXTHBOOKOFTHEMahabharata)TIS
CERTAINLYNOTASWELLKNOWNASTHEMahabharataPRIMARILY
BECAUSEBEINGVERYTHEORETICALITNEVERCAPTUREDTHE
IMAGINATIONOFTHEGENERALPOPULACE(OWEVERITBECAME
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lRST%NGLISHTRANSLATIONINANDHASSINCEBECOME
ENTRENCHEDASATEXTOFCONTEMPORARYMIDDLECLASS
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OFADIRECTREVELATIONOFTHEbhaktiGODSTRUENATURE
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ONLYTOHISTRUEDEVOTEESTHUSSIGNALLINGTHAT!RJUNAIS
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INTHEMIDDLEBOOKSOFTHEMahabharataISABOUTTOBEGIN
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TIMEASITREWORKSTHEUpanishadicTHEORYINTOAbhakti
FRAMEWORKITTRACESTHEPATHBYWHICH!RJUNABECOMES
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ANDDESPAIRTOONEOFKNOWLEDGEANDAWEINTHEFACE
LR4_04.indd 83
The Blessed Lord said:
‘But you cannot see me just with this your own eye. Here I
give you the divine eye. Behold my supreme yoga …’
Then he, Arjuna, filled with amazement, his hair standing
on end, bowed down his head and, with folded hands,
said to the God.
Arjuna said:
‘I see all the gods in your body, O God, as also the various
hosts of beings … I see you possessing numberless arms,
bellies, mouths, and eyes, infinite in form on all sides …
Wearing the crown and bearing the mace and the discus,
a mass of splendour radiating on all sides, I see you—hard
to gaze at—all around me, possessing the radiance of a
blazing fire and sun, incomprehensible …
Your form is fierce. Tell me who you are. Salutation unto
you, O Foremost among the gods, confer your grace on
me, I desire to know you fully, the primal one, for I do not
comprehend your activities.’
Bhagavad Gita 11, 8, 14, 17, 31.
Translation (modified) in W. De Bary (ed.),
Sources of Indian Tradition, Vol. 1, 1964, pp. 288–9
22/3/10 10:22:28 AM
84
Living Religion Fourth Edition
Extension
We
bD
est inatio
n
'OTOTHEWEBDESTINATIONSFORPAGETOREAD
SOMEOFTHECHAPTERSOFTHEMahabharataAND
THERamayana0ROPOSEWHYYOUTHINKTHESETWO
TEXTSRATHERTHANTHEVedasHAVEREMAINEDSO
POPULARIN)NDIA
'OTOTHEWEBDESTINATIONSFORPAGETO
lNDACOPYOFTHEBhagavad GitaANDTRACETHE
CHANGINGRELATIONSHIPBETWEEN+RISHNAAND
!RJUNAFROMCHAPTERSTWOTOELEVEN
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#OMPAREANDCONTRASTTHESTYLEOFTHEBhagavad
GitaANDTHESTYLEOFTHETWOEPICS
!SKA(INDUWHATTHEYKNOWABOUTTHE
CONTENTSOFTHEVedasANDTHEBhagavad GitaAND
WHICHFORTHEMISTHEMOREIMPORTANTTEXT
Figure 4.3.3 Statue of Arjuna in Ubud, Bali
4.4 Ethical systems
Sa
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*USTASAdarshanaORDIRECTVISIONOFTHEDEITYISTHEHIGH
POINTOFTHEDEVOTIONALEXPERIENCEFORANYDEVOTEETHIS
EPISODEINTHEBhagavad GitaISTHECLIMAXOFTHETEXTAND
ALSOOF!RJUNASOWNDEVOTIONALEXPERIENCE!TTHEENDOF
THEVISION!RJUNABEGS+RISHNATOASSUMEHISNORMALHUMAN
FORM4HElNALSIXCHAPTERSOFTHETEXTSPELLOUTSOMEDETAILS
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THEORYINTHEUpanishads
2ECALLWHATTEXTSARECALLEDTHE@EPICSANDWHY
4HEREARE@STRANDSWITHINSTRANDSINTHE(INDU
SCRIPTURES0REPAREACHARTTOCLARIFYYOUR
UNDERSTANDINGOFWHATCONSTITUTESTHEMAJOR
SACREDTEXTSANDWRITINGSOF(INDUISM)NTHE
CHARTGIVEABRIEFSUMMARYOFTHECONTENTOF
EACHOFTHESTRANDS
IdentifyTHEIMPORTANCEOFTHEVedasANDTHE
EPICSFOR(INDUISM
5SINGTHEEXTRACTSINTHEPREVIOUSSECTIONS
examineHOWTHEVedasANDTHEEPICS
demonstrateTHEPRINCIPALTEACHINGSOF(INDUISM
0ROPOSEWHYORALITYHASALWAYSBEENANIMPORTANT
METHODOFTRANSMITTING)NDIANCULTURE
LR4_04.indd 84
Glossary
ethics
The system of explicit, philosophical and/
or religious reflection on moral beliefs
and practices to clarify what is right and
wrong, and what human beings should
freely do or refrain from doing.
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VYYgZhhZY^c8]VeiZg&'!eV\Zh'-,·.'#
)TISOFTENDIFlCULTFORTHOSERAISEDIN7ESTERNCULTURES
TOUNDERSTANDHOWethicsOPERATEWITHIN(INDUSOCIETY
BECAUSETHEIDEAOFTHEINDIVIDUALWITHIN(INDUCULTURE
ISDIFFERENTFROMTHATINTHE7EST)N)NDIAWHATAPERSON
DOESISPRIMARILYGOVERNEDBYTHECASTEOFWHICHTHEY
AREAMEMBERBYGENDERANDBYTHEIRPARTICULARSTAGE
OFLIFE)NTHE7ESTWHEREGROUPAFlLIATIONSAREMUCH
WEAKERANDWHERETHEREEXISTSAMULTIPLICITYOFPREVAILING
ETHICALSYSTEMSTHEONUSFORETHICALDECISIONSRESTSONTHE
INDIVIDUAL)NTHE(INDUFRAMEWORKATTENTIONISPLACED
ONRELATIONSHIPSBETWEENINDIVIDUALSASMEMBERSOFGROUPS
POSSESSINGDIFFERENTQUALITIESANDSOCIALREQUIREMENTS
22/3/10 10:22:28 AM