A Ks -band selected galaxy sample in GOODS-S: Catalogue release and galaxy luminosity functions! M. Salvato1 , A. Gabasch1,2 , N. Drory3 , G. Feulner1,2 , U. Hopp1,2 , M. Pannella1 , A. Rau1 , S. Seitz2 , R. Bender1,2 , and 1 2 3 Max–Planck–Institut f¨ ur extraterrestrische Physik, Giessenbachstraße 1, 85748 Garching, Germany Universit¨ ats–Sternwarte M¨ unchen, Scheinerstraße 1, 81679 M¨ unchen, Germany Department of Astronomy, University of Texas at Austin, University Station C1400, Austin, TX 78712 Received . . . / Accepted . . . Abstract. We present a deep Ks -selected galaxy catalogue constructed from public data in the centre of the GOODS-S field. The sample of 3237 galaxies covers a total area of 50.64 arcmin2 and reaches a limiting magnitude of Ks (AB) ∼ 25. We derive photometric redshifts with an accuracy of ∆z/(1 + z) ∼ 0.05. The catalogue with multi-band photometry in U BV RIJHKs as well as the photometric redshifts are released to the public!! . A comparison of Ks -band galaxy number counts to previously published results shows the quality of the sample. We derive galaxy luminosity functions (LFs)in the rest-frame UV (1500˚ A) as well as in the rest-frame optical (r ! ) and rest-frame near-infrared (Ks ) as a function of redshift. A comparison of the LFs in the UV and the optical with deep I-band selected LFs shows the influence of the selection band: The rest-frame UV LF from the Ks -selected GOODS-S sample has slightly larger characteristic luminosity, a significantly lower characteristic density, but a similar faint-end slope. The rest-frame optical LF shows good agreement at the bright end, but a significantly shallower faint-end slope. This differences can be mainly attributed to the fact that some faint blue galaxies at lower redshifts remain undetected in our near-infrared selected sample. The extrapolated rest-frame Ks -band LF agrees with those based on Spitzer data. Considering the evolution of M ∗ and φ∗ we find relatively good agreement with evolutionary trends found in the literature. Key words. Galaxies: luminosity function – Galaxies: evolution – Galaxies: high-redshift – Galaxies: fundamental parameters – Galaxies: distances and redshifts 1. Introduction The advent of deep, large-area public surveys covering a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum from Xray to radio wavelengths enable us to study the evolution of galaxies in unprecedented detail. Surveys like GOODS (Giavalisco et al. 2004) and COSMOS (?)offer powerful datasets to constrain the evolution of basic galaxy properties like the luminosity function (e.g. Caputi et al. 2006), the stellar mass function (e.g. Bundy et al. 2005; Drory et al. 2005), the star-formation history (e.g. Bunker et al. 2004; Gabasch et al. 2004b), and the specific star formation rate (e.g. Feulner et al. 2005; Juneau et al. 2005). Send offprint requests to: M. Salvato [email protected] ! Based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory, Chile (ESO programs 63.O-005, 64.O-0149, 64.O0158, 64.O-0229, 64.P-0150, 65.O-0048, 65.O-0049, 66.A-0547, 68.A-0013, 69.A-0014). !! http://www.mpe.mpg.de/opinas/goods-s/index.html Moreover, the availability of high-resolution HST imaging allows to trace the evolution of galaxy morphology over a vast redshift range. While galaxy surveys in the past have predominantly been carried out at optical wavebands (see Colless 1997 for a review), the strong impulse to push the observational frontier to ever higher redshifts, and the growing interest in the build-up of stellar mass in galaxies over cosmic time demands a selection at longer wavelengths. Especially the near-infrared K-band offers the unique opportunity to trace the massive part of the galaxy population out to very high redshifts. Important near-infrared surveys include the Hawaii Deep Fields (Cowie et al. 1996), the Las Campanas Infrared Survey (Marzke et al. 1999), K20 (Cimatti et al. 2002a), MUNICS (Drory et al. 2001), and FIRES (Labb´e et al. 2003). The purpose of this paper is to describe a deep Kselected galaxy catalogue on the central part of the GOODS-S field with improved photometric calibration and high-quality photometric redshifts. This catalogue will be made publicly available and has already been used, together with the FDF (Heidt et al. 2003), in Gabasch et al. (2004b), Drory et al. (2005) and Feulner et al. (2005) for deriving the star formation history, the evolution of the stellar mass, and the specific star formation rate of field galaxies within the redshift regime from 0.5 to 5. Moreover, both samples have been used in Pannella et al. (2006) to study the contribution of bulges and disks to the evolution of the mass function up to z∼ 1. This paper is organised as follows: Section 2 describes the optical and near-infrared image dataset on which this work is based. In Sect. 3 we discuss the source detection method and the construction of the multi-band photometric catalogue. The photometric redshift technique used to derive galaxy distances as well as its calibration and testing is detailed in Sect. 4. The resulting source catalogue and galaxy number counts derived from it are described in Sect. 5. Section 6 discusses the distribution of our objects in redshift space. Galaxy luminosity functions at 1500˚ A as well as in the r! and Ks bands are presented in Sect. 7, before we summarise our results in Sect. 8. Throughout this work we assume ΩM = 0.3, ΩΛ = 0.7, H0 = 70 km s−1 Mpc−1 . Magnitudes are given in the AB system. 2. Dataset The study presented here is based on ground-based optical and near-infrared images obtained by ESO on the GOODS-S field. Optical observations in the U, B, V, R and I bands have been carried out with the Wide-Field Imager (WFI) at the 2.2-m MPG/ESO telescope. The datasets have been reduced by two different groups: U and I images are taken from the field Deep2c of the GOODS/ESO Deep Public Survey (Arnouts et al. 2001), and images in the B, V and R bands have been provided by the Garching-Bonn Deep Survey (Schirmer et al. 2003). U and I images have a total exposure time of 13.2 and 7.47 hours, respectively. The latter were obtained by stacking the images from the GOODS/ESO Deep Public Survey and supplementing them with archival WFI images. Accordingly, total exposure times of 15.8, 15.6 and 17.8 hours were reached in the B, V and R bands, respectively. All optical observations were obtained under very similar seeing conditions (1!! ) with a marginal spread of less than 5%. The J, H and Ks -band data were observed with ISAAC at the VLT and are part of the GOODS/ESO release 0.51 . The near-infrared observations are split into eight subfields, with a size of 3! ×3! each (plate scale 0.!! 148/pixel). They cover the central part of the optical images which have a field of view of 30! ×30! (0.!! 238/pixel). The nomenclature and the location of the near-infrared subfields are shown in Fig. 1. The subfields are overlapping by ∼25!! , which reduces the total analysed area to 50.64 arcmin2 . The exposure times in each filter differ be1 Available at http://www.eso.org/science/goods/ Fig. 1. Mosaic Ks -band image showing the area covered by the catalogue. Each of the eight subfields has a size of 3! ×3! . The nomenclature “FXX” corresponds to the original GOODS/ESO naming scheme. tween the eight subfields and range from 2.2 to 4.2, 3.9 to 5 and 5.8 to 7.9 hours in the J, H and Ks bands, respectively. Moreover, the seeing conditions varied significantly for the eight sub-fields and between the three near-infrared bands (see Tab. 1). 3. Source detection and multi-band photometry Source detection and multi-band photometry was performed using YODA (Drory 2003). This package was specifically designed for multi-band imaging surveys. It takes into account that in mosaiced frames as well as in dithered images the background noise is often inhomogeneous across the field. Furthermore, the frames do usually not share a common coordinate system and/or pixel scale, due to the use of multiple telescopes and imagers. This is a severe issue, since re-sampling the images to a common coordinate system inevitably introduces considerable noise, especially for faint sources. The methodology used here is resembling the method described in Drory et al. (2001). Below, details on the detection, image registration and photometric measurements, specific for this analysis, are given. 3.1. Detection Source detection was performed in the Ks -band subimages. Because of the considerable seeing variability between the individual subfields this results in varying limiting depths for the sub-patches. Compared to a degradation of the quality of all images to that with the worst point spread function (PSF), this has the advantage of reaching the optimum depth for each subfield. Table 1. Seeing of the near-infrared images for the 8 subfields. The completeness and surface brightness limits for the Ks band images are given as well. Field F09 F10 F11 F14 F15 F16 F20 F21 J H KS 50% compl. s. b. lim. !! !! !! mag mag/arcs2 0.36 0.51 0.46 0.45 0.47 0.41 0.46 0.40 0.43 0.57 0.48 0.42 0.67 0.60 0.50 0.49 0.39 0.45 0.44 0.48 0.49 0.55 0.39 0.39 24.71 24.45 24.73 24.95 24.69 24.12 25.04 24.98 24.47 24.57 24.54 24.78 24.75 24.32 24.60 24.68 The reliability of the source detection depends mainly on three parameters, namely (i) the threshold level above the background, (ii) the minimum number of connected pixels above that threshold which define an object and (iii) the minimum number of pixels above the detection threshold in split objects. For each Ks -band subfield, simulations were done using a different combinations of the parameters. The combination for which we obtained the maximum number of detections in the positive image and the minimum number detections in the negative image (false detections) has been considered as optimal and used . Accordingly, the detection parameters were chosen as 3.5σ for the detection threshold, 7 pixels for the minimum number of consecutive pixels, and, in case of a splitted object, 5 pixels. A source catalogue for each subfield was thus generated. Due to dithering, the borders of the images were not homogeneously exposed thus leads to in numerous false detections andobjects with unreliable photometry. For this reason, all detections located within 50 pixels from the borders were removed. Nevertheless, an overlap of few arcseconds still remains between neighbouring subfields. A cross check between the 8 catalogues revealed the presence of 65 sources with multiple detections. For these sources only the detection with the largest distance to the border of the image was included into the final source lists. The resulting catalogues consist of 3294 sources split into 450 in F09, 461 in F10, 427 in F11, 409 in F14, 351 in F15, 336 in f16, 408 in F20 and 452 in F21. The 50% completeness limits for point-sources were estimated following the procedure described in Snigula et al. (2002). The resulting value for each subfield, together with the surface brightness limit, is listed in Tab. 1. Note that the quantities were computed after the tuning of the photometry as explained in Sect. 4. 3.2. Multi–band photometry After source detection, all optical and near-infrared images were convolved to the worst seeing among the images in the dataset, namely to the 1!! seeing of the B-band frame. In the next step, each convolved image was registered to the pixel coordinate system of the corresponding un-convolved Ks -band image in which the detection was performed. After transforming the coordinates the fluxes in all filters were measured in fixed apertures of 1.!! 5 (i.e. 1.5 times the seeing). Furthermore, the total magnitudes included in Kron-like apertures (Kron 1980) were derived. The small fixed aperture was chosen in order to avoid the flux contamination from neighbouring objects. As a further advantage the colour gradient of extended objects far from the centre are ignored. Thus, later spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting will not take into account colour gradients outside of the aperture. The fluxes were measured with both YODA and SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts 1996), and the values were found to be consistent. The preliminary magnitudes of the sources were computed based on the zero-points and associated uncertainties provided in the image headers. More precise magnitudes were achieved after the tuning of the zero-points of the images as described in the following section. 4. Photometric redshift 4.1. The method Photometric redshifts for the detected sources were computed with the algorithm described in Bender et al. (2001) and Gabasch et al. (2004a). In brief, semi-empirical SED templates were fitted to the multi-band photometry data and the best solution was determined via χ2 statistics. The templates were obtained by grouping approximately 300 observed spectra of galaxies from the FORS Deep Field (FDF; Heidt et al. 2003) and the Hubble Deep Field North (HDF; Williams et al. 1996) according to their spectral properties and extending them by fitting a combination of different stellar population models by Maraston (1998) with different ages and dust extinction values. As a result, representative SED templates with variable starformation activity, age, metalicity, and dust extinction were obtained. The complete set of 29 SED templates is shown in Fig. 2. For each object a redshift probability function P (z) was determined by matching the redshifted galaxy templates to the multi-band source fluxes assuming no priors. In addition, stellar SEDs from the Pickles compilation of stars with solar abundance, metal-weak and metal-rich FK dwarf and G-K giant components (Pickles 1998) were fitted. 4.2. The calibration The photometric redshifts were calibrated using the observed spectra of 135 galaxies. 120 of these were taken from Fig. 2. SED template library used for the photometric redshift determination. All templates are normalised to the flux at λ = 5100˚ A. the GOODS/EIS webpage available prior to the release of the spectroscopic master catalogue2 . In addition 15 spectra of non-active galaxies were taken from the follow-up of X-ray observations in the Chandra Deep Field South (Szokoly et al. 2004). The redshift distribution of these 135 galaxies ranges from z = 0.2 to z = 6.0, with the majority of them lying between z = 0.5 and z = 1.4. The technique of photometric redshift is in general very sensitive to uncertainties in the photometry (see Bolzonella et al. (2000) for a complete discussion). Therefore, precise zero-points of the individual images are mandatory. Unfortunately, the first release of the optical GOODS/EIS images suffered from significant inaccuracies of the zero–points in the U and I bands (see Arnouts et al. 2001; Manfroid & Selman 2001; Hildebrandt et al. 2005). In addition, field-to-field variations of the order of 0.1 mag in J and 0.2 mag in Ks were already noted when the data were released. For the H-band data field-to-field variations were not ruled out in the release. Being aware of these uncertainties, we allowed for small changes in the zero-points of the images in order to increase the accuracy of the photometric redshift solution. In a given optical band, the same correction to the zeropoint was applied in all subfields, as single images cover the whole area. In the near-infrared, new zero-points were independently obtained for each of the eight subfields. The zero-points were considered appropriate when for each object with an available spectrum (i) the photometric redshift was consistent with the spectroscopic one and (ii) the selected galaxy template was resembling the actual 2 http://www.eso.org/science/goods/spectroscopy/ CDFS Mastercat/ Fig. 3. Template fitting to the photometric points for an example galaxy with R=23 mag (bottom panel). The best fit is obtained with a late-type galaxy template at z = 1.02 ± 0.05. The same galaxy with a spectroscopic redshift of z = 0.97 is shown for comparison in the top panel (arbitrarily normalised) with the continuum from the best fitting SED (dotted line) is over-plotted. spectrum. A typical example is shown in Fig. 3, were the multi-band photometry of a galaxy at R=23 mag is plotted together with the best fitting SED template. The resulting photometric redshift of z=1.02±0.05 is consistent with the spectroscopic redshift of z=0.97. The final corrections to the zero-points in the B, V and R bands are only marginal (from −0.02 to +0.08 mag), while U and I required a systematic brightening of the order of 0.25 magnitudes. In the J band the necessary correction was on average −0.1 mag, while the H and Ks band zero-points needed a modification in a range of −0.45 to +0.19 mag depending on the subfield. Applying these corrections, a set of new zero-points was computed for all bands: U =21.10, B=24.61, V =24.15, R=24.54, I=22.88; the zero-points for the J, H and Ks bands for each subfield are listed in Tab. 2. The obtained values were used to compute the actual surface brightness limits of the Ks band images and the aforementioned completeness limits of the catalogues presented in Table 1. Fig. 4 (left panel) shows the comparison between our photometric redshift and thenow available spectroscopic redshift for a sample of approximately 500 galaxies (i. e. including the 135 used for the calibration: see figure caption for details). Considering only galaxies with highly reliable spectroscopic redshifts, an accuracy of ∆z/(1+z) = 0.05 is reached independent of redshift (middle panel), the highest precision achieved for this dataset of images so far. The right panel shows the histogram of the reduced χ2 of the photometric redshifts fit. The me- Table 2. Correction to the zero-points of the images. F09 F10 F11 F14 F15 F16 F20 F21 J H Ks mag mag mag 25.08 24.89 24.88 25.1 25.06 24.55 25.03 25.08 24.48 24.68 24.66 24.53 24.44 24.81 24.55 24.82 24.14 24.08 23.92 24.16 23.93 23.83 24.27 24.35 dian value of the reduced χ2 is below 1.6 and demonstrates that the galaxy templates describe the vast majority of galaxies well. 4.3. Verification of the zero-points Although the achieved accuracy of the photometric redshifts is a crucial test of our re-calibrated zero-points, we performed additional tests using (i) detecxtion in more than one subfield, (ii) the H-band catalogue of the Las Campanas Infrared Survey (Chen et al. 2002) and (iii) photometric redshifts provided by COMBO–17 (Wolf et al. 2004). As discussed above, 65 sources were detected in more than one of the eight Ks -band images. For each of these sources and for a given near-infrared band, the photometry of the multiple detections (after the zero-point correction) is in agreement within 0.05 mag or better. The resulting values for the photometric redshifts of the individual sources are consistent within ∆zphot = 0.03. Observations of the GOODS-S field in V , R, I, z and H are also included in the Las Campanas Infrared Survey. Chen et al. (2002) provide the H-band photometry for sources brighter then H ∼ 20.8 mag in a fixed aperture of 2!! . In order to allow a comparison with their results, we recomputed the flux measurements in the H band using the same aperture. The magnitude difference ∆MH = MH, Las Campanas − MH, this work for common sources, before and after the zero-point correction, are shown in the left panel of Fig. 5. Using the original zero-points, the distribution showed an offset of ∆MH = 0.04 mag and a non-negligible asymmetry due to field-to-field variations. With the new zero-points this asymmetry disappears and the distribution is centred at ∆MH = 0.03 mag with an RMS of 0.1 mag. We further compared our photometric redshifts with the results of COMBO–17 (Wolf et al. 2004), a survey based on photometry in 17 optical filters, including 12 medium-band filters. These filters are sensitive to individual emission lines and therefore allow a photometric redshift accuracy of up to 1% for sources brighter than R = 21. The precision decreases for fainter objects, reaching 10% at R > 24. A total of 499 targets with photometric redshifts and classified as galaxy in COMBO–17 are also present in our catalogues. A comparison of the photometric redshifts is shown in the right panel of Fig. 5. Following Wolf et al. we estimated the precision of our photometric redshift in different magnitude intervals. For galaxies brighter than R = 21 an accuracy of ∆z = (z COMBO−17 − z this work )/(1 + z COMBO−17 ) ∼ 0.02 was achieved. This value corresponds to the intrinsic binning of our photometric redshift procedure. Sources with 21 < R < 23.5 have a ∆z of 0.05. For galaxies fainter than R = 23.5, the photometric redshifts of COMBO–17 exhibit significant uncertainties. Therefore, these sources could not be used for further verification of the quality of our results. 5. Source catalogue After removing the field-to-field variations of the photometry and the verification of the photometric redshift accuracy, we applied our method to all eight Ks -band source catalogues. The merged final catalogue can be accessed online at the URL http://www.mpe.mpg.de/opinas/goods-s/index.html. Additionally, information about sources can be accessed by clicking on them in the images or querying by coordinates. For each source its identification, position, photometry, photometric and spectroscopic (if available) redshift, absolute magnitude in the B and Ks bands, and its classification are presented. In addition thumbnail images in all filter bands as well as the best fitting SED model together with the photometric redshift probability distribution are shown. The nature of a source is indicated by a flag (galaxy=G, star=S, AGN=AGN). Below we describe how stars are identified and how we treated AGN for the subsequent analysis of the galaxy luminosity function. 5.1. Stars The catalogue contains 14 stars with known spectral type provided by SIMBAD as well as 22 objects for which stellar spectra have been observed in the follow-up by VVDS, VLT/FORS2 spectroscopy in GOODS-S and K20. As demonstrated in Gabasch et al. (2004a), stars can be also identified by the photometric redshift technique. We classify as stars all objects for which the best fitting stellar SED gives a better match than any galaxy template (2 χ2star < χ2galaxy ). According to this criterion 41 stars were selected, out of which ∼50% were also spectroscopically confirmed. 5.2. AGN The KS -band selection naturally does not distinguish between normal and active galaxies, thus also AGN and quasars are contained in the final source catalogue. As no specific AGN template is included in our photometric Fig. 4. Left panel: Comparison between the photometric redshifts presented in this paper and publicly available spectroscopic redshifts for galaxies in GOODS-S. This includes objects in common with the VVDS (Le F`evre et al. 2004), observed with the VLT/FORS2 (Vanzella et al. 2005), from the spectroscopic follow-up of Chandra selected sources (Szokoly et al. 2004) and from K20 (Mignoli et al. 2005). The filled circles indicate objects for which the spectroscopic redshifts were flagged as highly reliable (flag(VVDS)=4, flag(VLT/FORS2)=A, flag(Szokoly)=2, flag(K20)=1). Empty circles mark galaxies with lower reliability. Middle panel: Distribution of the uncertainties in the photometric redshift (solid histogram). It can be fitted by a Gaussian distribution (dotted line) centred at ∆z/(1 + z) = 0.012 with a σ of 0.05. Right panel: Histogram of the reduced χ2 of the best template fit for all 3237 galaxies. The dotted vertical line indicates the median reduced χ2 of 1.6. Fig. 5. Left panel: Histogram of magnitude differences between the H-band photometry from the Las Campanas Survey and this work computed within a fixed aperture of 2!! . The dashed and solid lines show the distribution before and after the correction of the zero-points, respectively. After the correction the asymmetry of the distribution disappears. Right panel: Comparison between the photometric redshifts presented in this work and those provided by COMBO–17 for the galaxies in common. Filled circles represent galaxies brighter than R =23.5 mag and empty circles mark fainter sources. redshift code, a separate verification of the reliability of the photometric redshift for those galaxies was required. For this purpose, we compared the photometric redshifts for 36 X-ray selected sources from our catalogue with secure spectroscopic redshifts provided by Szokoly et al. (2004). 15 of those where classified as galaxies on the base of their optical spectra and already used for the calibration in Sect. 4.1. The remaining sources include 7 type-I and 14 type-II AGN. We find a good match of the photometric and spectroscopic redshifts for all 36 sources with an accuracy of ∆z/(1 + z) = 0.05 (see Fig. 6). Irrespective of the small sample size, the achieved precision excels those obtained for previous X-ray selected samples, including those using AGN templates (e.g., Zheng et al. 2004). As no specific AGN SED templates were used to obtain the photometric redshifts, the accurate match with the templates of normal and star-forming galaxies suggests K [AB mag] Fig. 6. Comparison of the photometric redshift presented in this work with the spectroscopic redshift for 36 X-ray selected galaxies. Symbols are as defined in Zheng et al. (2004), where open circles represent type-I AGN, open squares type-I quasars, filled circles type-II AGN, filled squares type-II AGN and triangles galaxies. The accuracy is ∆z/(1+z) ∼ 0.05. Note that no specific AGN SED template was used. This suggests that the light of the host galaxies dominates over the nuclear emission. that the optical emission of the X-ray selected sources is dominated by the host galaxy rather than the central engine. Therefore, these galaxies remained included in the final source catalogue used in the following for the study of the luminosity functions. Only for two sources significant deviations between the photometric and spectroscopic redshifts were found, namely (ii) a normal galaxy, and (iii) a type II AGN. In both cases the algorithm has picked up the right redshift as second solution. 5.3. The final catalogue After removal of the stars, the galaxy number counts for the 3237 galaxies of the final catalogue have been computed (Tab. 3) and a good agreement has been found when comparing the results to previous studies (Fig. 7). This is the catalogue that has been already used, together with the FDF, in Gabasch et al. (2004b), Drory et al. (2005), Feulner et al. (2005) and ? for deriving the star formation history, the evolution of the stellar mass, and the specific star formation rate, the star formation history and evolution of galaxy morphology of field galaxies within a vast redshift regime. In the following section we analyse the redshift distribution and the luminosity functions. Fig. 7. Galaxy number counts in the Ks band from our catalogue,not corrected for incompleteness (filled red circles) and from previous studies (other symbols). Error bars indicate Poisson errors. Table 3. Differential Ks -band galaxy number counts in the GOODS-S field. Ks [mag] 17.50 18.50 19.50 20.50 21.50 22.50 23.50 log N (K) [mag−1 deg−1 ] 2.70 3.17 3.77 4.10 4.33 4.61 4.79 δ log N (K) [mag−1 deg−1 ] 0.17 0.10 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 6. Redshift distribution To better characterise the galaxy population probed by our sample we study the distribution of the absolute Iband magnitude with redshift for the various SED templates (see left panel of Fig. 8). It confirms that early-type galaxies are present out to relatively high redshifts of z ∼ 2 in a deep Ks -band selected catalogue (?). Later types can be traced to even higher redshifts. This trend can be seen also in the right panel of Fig. 8, where we reproduce the redshift distribution of the sample galaxies as a function of their SED (as attributed by the photo-z code). Galaxies classified as early type (red) appear mostly at redshift less than 1.5, while those classified as intermediate type (green) reach redshifts up to 4. On the other hand, objects with a starburst/irregulartype SED (blue) span the full redshift range. Only in a few Table 4. Schechter function fit to the luminosity function at 1500˚ A. A fixed value of α1500 =-1.07 has been used. redshift bin 0.45 0.81 0.81 1.11 1.11 1.61 1.61 2.15 2.15 2.91 2.91 4.01 M∗1500 (mag) φ∗1500 (Mpc−3 ) -18.72+0.22 −0.22 0.0072+0.0010 −0.0010 -19.61+0.26 −0.25 -19.72+0.28 −0.22 -20.34+0.20 −0.20 -20.80+0.43 −0.56 -21.27+0.29 −0.28 0.0041+0.0007 −0.0006 0.0036+0.0010 −0.0008 0.0028+0.0006 −0.0005 0.0011+0.0006 −0.0004 Table 6. Schechter function fit to Ks -band luminosity function for a fixed value of αK = −1.15. redshift bin 0.45 0.85 0.85 1.31 1.31 1.91 1.91 2.61 M∗Ks (mag) φ∗Ks (Mpc−3 ) -23.54+0.37 −0.41 0.0028+0.0004 −0.0003 -23.20+0.25 −0.21 0.0013+0.0002 −0.0001 -23.52+0.24 −0.21 -23.39+0.24 −0.21 0.0017+0.0002 −0.0002 0.0009+0.0001 −0.0001 0.0008+0.0002 −0.0002 7. Luminosity function Table 5. Schechter function fit to the r ! -band luminosity function for a fixed value of αr! = −1.07. redshift bin 0.45 0.85 0.81 1.31 1.31 1.91 1.91 2.61 2.61 3.81 3.81 5.01 M∗r! (mag) φ∗r! (Mpc−3 ) -22.38+0.22 −0.20 0.0047+0.0004 −0.0004 -22.63+0.18 −0.18 0.0019+0.0002 −0.0002 -22.90+0.21 −0.16 0.001+0.0002 −0.0001 -22.55+0.20 −0.17 -22.96+0.20 −0.20 -23.36+0.55 −0.56 0.003+0.0003 −0.0003 0.0013+0.0002 −0.0002 0.0002+0.0002 −0.0001 cases, the photo-z code has attributed an early-type SED to objects at redshifts as high as 2.5. This can be naturally explained as follows. The rest-frame UV-to-optical SED of a heavily dust obscured starburst at these high redshifts is very similar to that of an old, passively evolving galaxy, so that the photometric redshift technique selects the wrong SED. This is particularly true in absence of any prior on the maximum redshift allowed for an early-type galaxy. In fact, when early-type SEDs are forced not to characterise galaxies at redshifts higher than 1.5, the new solutions of the photo-z code for the previous objects do correspond to a starburst-like SED. Furthermore, only 2% of these objects have a new redshift that differs by more than 0.2 from the original one, the fraction of those with a difference in redshift larger than 0.5 being only 1%. In the same panel, the total redshift distribution of the objects is shown as a black line. Large scale structures spectroscopically detected at z ∼ 0.7 (Cimatti et al. 2002b; Gilli et al. 2003; Le F`evre et al. 2004), z ∼ 1.1 (Vanzella et al. 2002), z ∼ 1.61 (Gilli et al. 2003), and z ∼ 3.5 (Caputi et al. 2006) can be also seen in the histogram of photometric redshifts. In this section we analyse the rest-frame UV, r! , and Ks band luminosity functions inferred from the Ks -selected GOODS catalogue. The previously mentioned different limiting magnitudes of the sub-patches are taken into account in the computation of the luminosity functions. Following Gabasch et al. (2004a) we derive the absolute rest-frame magnitudes by using the best fitting SED determined by the photometric redshift code. As the SED fits all observed-frame wave-bands simultaneously, possible systematic errors which could be introduced by using k-corrections applied to a single observed magnitude are reduced. Since the photometric redshift code works with 1.5!! aperture fluxes, we also need to correct to total luminosities by applying an object dependent scale factor. For this scale factor we used the ratio of the Ks -band aperture flux to the total flux as provided by YODA. To account for the fact that some fainter galaxies are not visible in the whole survey volume we perform a V /Vmax (Schmidt 1968) correction. To derive reliable Schechter parameters we limit our analysis of the luminosity function to the bins where the V /Vmax correction contributes at most a factor of 3 (we also show the uncorrected luminosity function in the various plots as open circles). The errors of the LFs are calculated by means of Monte-Carlo simulations and include the photometric redshift error of every single galaxy as well as the statistical error. Rest-frame UV-band LF: In Fig. 9 we show the UV LF as evaluated in a rectangular filter centred at 1500 ± 100 ˚ A in the redshift range 0.5 < z < 4.0. The filled (open) symbols denote the LF with (without) completeness correction. The solid lines show the Schechter function fitted to the luminosity function for a fixed slope α = −1.07. The best fitting Schechter parameters, the redshift binning as well as the reduced χ2 are also listed in each panel of the figure and in Tab. 4. Since the slightly shallower Ks -selected GOODS-S LF does not allow us to constrain the faint-end slope to the same level as Gabasch et al. (2004a) in the FDF (but is consistent with the faint end slope determined for that field), we adopt this value also for the GOODS-S sample. Furthermore, we also Fig. 8. Left panel: Absolute I-band magnitude versus photometric redshift. Colour indicates the SED template, where red corresponds to early types, and blue to late types. Note the lack of galaxies in the redshift range 0.2 to 0.6 (see inset). Right panel: Redshift number distribution of all galaxies in the GOODS-S sample. The clustering visible at z ∼ 0.7, 1.1, and 1.6 is spectroscopically confirmed. show in the various panels the corresponding UV-band Schechter function derived in the FDF. Compared to LF parameters of the optically selected FDF sample, the 1500˚ A LF of the Ks -selected sample has slightly brighter values of M∗ , significantly lower values in φ∗ and, within the large errors, a similar faint-end slope α. As faint blue galaxies at relatively low redshifts will certainly be missed more likely in a Ks -selected sample than in an optical selected one, the significantly lower values of φ∗ does not come as a surprise (see also Fig. 11 and discussion below). Moreover, we showed in Gabasch et al. (2004b) that the UV luminosity density (directly proportional to the SFR) derived in GOODS-S is similar in shape, but systematically lower by ≈ 0.2 dex at z > 1 compared to the FDF. This result originates from the lower density of M1500 > −19 galaxies in the Ks -selected catalogue. Rest-frame r! -band LF: The r! -band LFs together with the best fitting Schechter parameter, the redshift binning as well as the reduced χ2 is shown in Fig. 10 and listed in Tab. 5. Although there is a relatively good agreement between the slope of the UV LF found in the FDF and GOODS-S, this is not the case for the r! -band. A steep slope of αr! = −1.30 ± 0.05 as found for the r! -band FDF LF (Gabasch et al. 2006) is not seen for the GOODS-S LF. Therefore, we investigate the redshift evolution of the faint-end slope of the LF by fitting a three parameter Schechter function (M ∗ , φ∗ , and α). Under the assumption that α does not depend on redshift, the slope’s best error-weighted value in the redshift range from %z& ∼ 0.65 to %z& ∼ 2.3 is αr! = −1.07 ± 0.12 (including also the higher redshift bins changes α only marginally). The difference between the FDF and the GOODS-S slope is hence on a 2σ level for the r’-band. As already discussed above, faint blue galaxies will certainly be missed more likely in a Ks -selected sample than in an I-selected one. This is illustrated best in Fig. 11, where we show the absolute r! -band magnitude of GOODS-S and FDF galaxies as a function of redshift and sub-divided into four main SED types. The SEDs are mainly grouped according to the UV−K colour (see Gabasch et al. 2006, for more details): for increasing spectral type (SED type 1 → SED type 4) the SEDs become bluer, i.e. the UV flux (and thus the recent star formation rate) increases if compared to the K-band flux. Furthermore, the rest-frame U − V colour lies in the range between 2.3 – 1.9, 2.0 – 1.6, 1.6 – 0.9, and 0.9 – 0 for SED type 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Therefore, in a rough classification one can refer to SED types 1 and 2 (SED type 3 and 4) as red (blue) galaxies. Fig. 10 clearly shows, that the Ks -selected GOODS-S catalogue mainly misses faint SED type 4 galaxies, whereas about the same number of type 1, 2 and 3 galaxies are detected. This deficit can not be compensated by the V /Vmax method, as it corrects only for the phenomenon that a faint galaxy in the selection catalogue might not be visible in the whole volume of the redshift bin under consideration. The V /Vmax correction cannot account for galaxy types which are not detected at all. On the other hand, as we show in Gabasch et al. (2006) at the depth of the FDF the faint-end of the r! -band LF is always dominated by SED type 4 galaxies, while ˚ from low redshift ($z% = 0.65, upper left panel) to high redshift ($z% = 3.5, lower right Fig. 9. Luminosity functions at 1500 A panel). The filled (open) symbols show the luminosity function corrected (uncorrected) for V /Vmax . The corresponding Schechter function derived in the FDF is also shown as dashed line in every panel with the shaded region roughly corresponding to the associated 1σ error. The limiting magnitude of the FDF is indicated by the low-luminosity cut-off of the shaded region. for the bright end SED type 1 galaxies dominate. As we are able to detect in GOODS-S about the same amount of type 1/2 galaxies (if compared to the FDF) but miss a large fraction of faint type 4 galaxies, the overall LF flattens. It also explains the relatively good agreement at the bright end between the GOODS-S and FDF r! -band LF up to redshift of about z ∼ 2.5. Rest-frame Ks -band LF: The rest-frame Ks -band LF in the redshift range %z& = 0.65 to %z& = 2.3 is shown in Fig. 12 and listed in Tab. 6. Computing the rest-frame Ks -band luminosity of a galaxy at some redshift z > 0 is, in principle, an extrapolation since our reddest observed band is the Ks band itself. However, Saracco et al. (2006) show that the RMS error of this extrapolation is comparable to the typical photometric errors as long as the observed Ks filter samples the part of the SED dominated by old stars, i.e. for wavelengths λ > 4000˚ A. Hence we restrict our analysis of the rest-frame Ks -band LF to redshifts z < ∼ 2. In each panel of the Figure we also show the bestfitting Schechter parameters, the redshift binning as well as the reduced χ2 . As the slope of the LF is relatively uncertain, we decided to use a fixed slope of α = −1.15 which yields a relatively good χ2 in the various redshift bins. Note that there is a hint for an upturn at the very faint end of the LF at low redshift (see also Saracco et al. 2006). In the second and third panel the corresponding LF as presented recently in Caputi et al. (2006) is also shown in red. Caputi et al. used Spitzer/IRAC data in addition to the available optical and near-infrared photometry in GOODS-S. Hence the relatively good agreement between their and our LF shows that we do not suffer from large extrapolation errors. Furthermore in Fig. 13 we compare our Ks -band LF to the one published by Saracco et al. (2006) for a very deep, but ten times smaller survey. For this comparison we computed our LF in the same redshift bins as Saracco et al.. Both LFs are in very good agreement. In the last two panels of Fig. 12 we compare our best-fitting values for M ∗ and φ∗ (derived using a fixed α = −1.1) at various redshifts with results from the literature (using the same value for α) showing reasonable agreement. Considering the redshift evolution of φ∗ we find that the characteristic number density drops by a factor of ∼ 3 − 4 over the redshift range 0.65 < z < 2.3, Fig. 10. r’-band luminosity functions from low redshift ($z% = 0.45, upper left panel) to high redshift ($z% = 5.1, lower right panel). The filled (open) symbols show the luminosity function corrected (uncorrected) for V /Vmax . The corresponding Schechter function derived in the FDF is also shown as dashed line in every panel together with the its limiting magnitude, indicated by the low-luminosity cut-off of the shaded region. which results in an decrease of the Ks -band luminosity density with increasing redshift. 8. Conclusion In this paper we have made use of publicly available U BV RIJHKs images in the centre of the GOODS-S field to construct a deep Ks -selected galaxy sample for evolution studies. Our catalogue of 3237 galaxies covers a total area of 50.64 arcmin2 and reaches a limiting magnitude of Ks ∼ 25 (50% completeness limit for point sources). We describe in detail the construction and calibration of the photometric catalogue. We lay special emphasis on an improvement of the photometric calibration by making use of spectroscopic information. A comparison of Ks -band galaxy number counts to previously published results shows the quality of the galaxy sample. We derive photometric redshifts and estimate their accuracy of ∆z/(1 + z) ∼ 0.05 over the whole range up to z ∼ 5 by comparing them to available high-quality spectra in the field. The resulting photometric catalogue as well as the photometric redshifts are released to the pub- lic. It can be accessed at the following web address: http://www.mpe.mpg.de/opinas/goods-s/index.html. We derive galaxy luminosity functions in the restframe UV (1500˚ A) as well as in the rest-frame optical (r! ) and rest-frame near-infrared (Ks ) as a function of redshift. Compared to the UV LF derived from the I-band selected FDF sample (Gabasch et al. 2004a), the LF from the Ks selected GOODS-S sample has slightly brighter values of M∗ , significantly lower values in φ∗ but, within the large errors, a similar faint-end slope α. This difference can be mainly attributed to the fact that faint blue galaxies at lower redshifts will certainly be missed more likely in a near-infrared selected sample than in an optically selected survey. For the rest-frame r! -band LF we find relatively good agreement with the LF derived in the optically selected FDF at the bright end, but a significantly shallower faintend slope for the Ks -selected GOODS-S sample, again likely caused by the non-detection of extremely starforming galaxies in a near-infrared selected catalogue. The rest-frame Ks -band LF agrees reasonably well with previously published results (Caputi et al. 2006; Saracco et al. 2006). Considering the evolution of φ∗ we find good agreement with the evolutionary model of Fig. 11. Absolute r’-band magnitude as a function of redshift and SED type. The open red symbols are derived from the FDF I-selected catalogue whereas the filled black symbols stem from this work (see text for details). Caputi et al. (2006) as well as with the results of Feulner et al. (2003) and Saracco et al. (2006). We find that the characteristic number density drops by a factor of ∼ 3 − 4 over the redshift range 0.65 < z < 2.3. For M ∗ we can neither confirm nor exclude the evolution in the characteristic luminosity due to the badly constrained bright end of the LF in the small volume probed by our survey at lower redshifts. At higher redshifts, however, our values for M ∗ agree very well with the literature. Acknowledgements. We are grateful to A. Cimatti, B. 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