1. business and industrial
2. advertising and marketing
3. advertising

EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO BEAUTY
By
JENNIFER HUCKEBA
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ADVERTISING
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2005
Copyright 2005
by
Jennifer Huckeba
This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Leurise Phillips and Jerre Steve Huckeba, and my
stepfather, Ken Phillips, for their love and continued support throughout life and my
academic career. And to my boyfriend, Chris Pattillo, for his continued patience and
reassurance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Alaina Rodriguez and Julia Thomas—this project would not
have been possible without their help and continued encouragement. Academically, I
would like to thank two of my committee members—Dr. John Sutherland for sharing his
fatherly advice and guidance, and Dr. Robyn Goodman for her patience. I truly
appreciate the help that Dr. Jim Geason, Patrick Reaves, Jody Hedge, and James Albury
offered to me—this project would not have completed in time without them.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1
2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......................................................................................3
Attractiveness and Persuasion ......................................................................................3
Attractive Models’ Effect on the Perceptions of Advertising in Women .............6
Why Women Use Cosmetics ........................................................................................8
Types of Spokespeople ...............................................................................................10
Celebrity Endorsers ....................................................................................................11
The Beauty Match Up Hypothesis and the Six Types of Beauty ...............................12
Using AdSAM® to Measure Emotional Response ....................................................16
Need for Present Research..........................................................................................20
Research Questions.....................................................................................................21
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................21
Hypothesis: ..........................................................................................................21
3
METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................22
Research Design and Stimuli......................................................................................22
Subjects and Questionnaires .......................................................................................23
Test One...............................................................................................................24
Test Two..............................................................................................................24
v
4
RESULTS ...................................................................................................................26
R1: What are the Strongest and Weakest Examples for Each of the Six Types of
Beauty? ..................................................................................................................26
R2: How Many Types of Beauty are Present in the Data? ........................................29
R3: Which are the Strongest, Weakest, and Middle Examples for Each of the
New Types of Beauty?...........................................................................................38
5
DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................48
Conclusions.................................................................................................................48
Hypothesis and Research Question One..............................................................48
Research Question Two.......................................................................................48
Research Question Three.....................................................................................49
Research Question Four ......................................................................................49
This Study’s Possible Effects on the Industry.....................................................51
Limitations..................................................................................................................51
Future Research ..........................................................................................................52
LIST OF REFERENCES...................................................................................................53
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .............................................................................................56
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
page
4-1
Best examples of beauty types according to agree versus disagree respondent
ratings. ......................................................................................................................27
4-2
Worst examples of beauty types according to agree versus disagree respondent
ratings. ......................................................................................................................27
4-3
A grid of the photographs of each model corresponding to their numbers in the
sets of photographs...................................................................................................28
4-4
Varimax rotated component matrix factor loadings for each of the 42 models. ......30
4-5
Strongest, weakest, and middle model examples for sensual/sexual and young
feminine....................................................................................................................39
4-6
Pleasure, arousal, and dominance scores for the strong, weak, and middle
scoring models for sensual/sexual and young feminine...........................................40
4-11 AdSAM® prominent emotional index table showing respondents’ feeling
towards the strongest young feminine model, C1. ...................................................46
4-12 AdSAM® prominent emotional index table showing respondents’ feeling
towards the strongest sensual/sexual model, SK2....................................................46
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
page
2-1
Prototypes of beauty dimensions elicited from fashion editors ...............................15
2-2
Example of the self assessment manikin used in AdSAM® testing. Row one
represents pleasure, row two represents arousal and row three represents
dominance. ...............................................................................................................17
2-3
Example of AdSAM® scores graphed on a scale of pleasure and arousal. .............19
2-4
Pleasure and arousal scale used to graph AdSAM® scores.....................................19
4-1
Strong, middle, and weak examples of models for young feminine emotional
response means graphed on a scale or pleasure and arousal. ...................................42
4-2
Strong, middle, and weak examples of models for sensual/sexual emotional
response means graphed on a scale or pleasure and arousal. ...................................43
4-3
Strong, middle, and weak examples of models for sensual/sexual and young
feminine emotional response means graphed on a scale or pleasure and arousal....44
viii
Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Advertising
EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO BEAUTY
By
Jennifer Huckeba
May 2005
Chair: Jon Morris
Major Department: Journalism and Communications
It has been said that advertisers believe that the beautiful are credible. Personal
attractiveness is important persuasion because there is a tendency to consistently attribute
more positive qualities to people who are physically attractive rather than unattractive.
The current study attempts to continue the research of Michael Solomon, Richard
Ashmore, and Laura C. Longo's study "The Beauty Match-Up Hypothesis: Congruence
Between Types of Beauty and Product Images in Advertising," Journal of Advertising
(21), 23-24. This study continues the previous research first by testing the six
dimensions of beauty using factor analyses, then by measuring emotional responses to the
pre-determined beauty types.
This research goes one step further than the previous study by using a factor
analysis to combine the types of beauty into two opposite dimensions—sensual/sexual
and young feminine. Additionally, the present study attempts to measure the emotional
responses of college females to models so that we may better understand which images of
models most effectively appeal to them in advertising.
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Advertisers believe the beautiful are credible (Joseph, 1982). The increasing use of
attractive models as a persuasion method can be found in advertisements for nearly every
item that may have an influence on a women's appearance.
Many studies link the way a woman feels about her body to the effectiveness of
attractiveness as a persuasion method (Zinkhan and Hong, 1991; Hanson and Hill, 1994).
Women who are less confident about their bodies may respond more positively to ads
that feature physically attractive endorsers (Hanson, Hill and Stephens, 1994).
Certain types of beauty are more appropriately paired with one product or brand,
than with another (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992). The Beauty Match-up
Hypothesis theorized that people have theories of beauty that influence their emotional
responses to models in advertising (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992). For example,
attractive people vary in exactly how they are attractive and different types of
attractiveness may be best matched with different products (Solomon, Ashmore and
Longo, 1992). The Beauty Match-up Hypothesis study divided beauty into types based
on facial features, appearance of age, attire (if applicable), and flaws (Solomon, Ashmore
and Longo, 1992). The types are: Classic Beauty/Feminine, Cute, Sex Kitten,
Sensual/Exotic, Trendy, and Girl-Next-Door (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992).
Studies have determined that attractiveness can persuade women to buy products,
but they fail to explore how women feel about the models they are shown in the
advertisements and if they prefer one type of beauty to another (Solomon, Ashmore and
1
2
Longo, 1992; Joseph, 1982). To further research and knowledge surrounding
attractiveness as a persuasion method to women, women's emotional responses models
should be studied.
Continuing the research of Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo by measuring women's
emotional responses to numerous models will lead to a better understanding of how
women feel about the images they encounter in advertising, in addition to showing us
how to more successfully attract women to numerous products (1992).
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Attractiveness and Persuasion
According to The Physical Attractiveness Phenomena, “no objective or absolute
answer exists for the question of who is physically attractive or what determines physical
attractiveness” (Patzer, 1985, 187). Because of this, the truth-of-consensus method is
often used to measure physical attractiveness (Patzer, 1985). “This method is based on
the premise that judgments of physical attractiveness are necessarily subjective, and that
such judgments are formed through gestalt principles of person perception rather than
single characteristics” (Patzer, 1985, 187). In the truth-of –consensus method, if
numerous judges rate a stimulus person as high or low in physical attractiveness, then the
stimulus person represents that level of physical attractiveness (Patzer, 1985).
The present study asks subjects not to rate the physical attractiveness of a stimulus
person, but to judge the type of attractiveness. It may be suggested that the principles
behind the truth-of-consensus method may also apply to deciphering type of beauty if
they are an accredited form of measuring level of attractiveness.
It is a thought that physical attractiveness are worldly and evolutionary. “Many
physical characteristics have evolved in specific ways that make a given animal attractive
to another” (Sarwer, Magee, and Clark, 2004, 29). Clear skin, bright eyes, and lustrous
hair are the beauty characteristics of youthfulness, pathogen resistance, symmetry, body
ratios, and averageness (Sarwer, Magee, and Clark, 2004). “These features are desired by
men and women the world over” (Sarwer, Magee, and Clark, 2004, 29).
3
4
The results of Patzer’s study suggest that as communicator attractiveness increases,
persuasive communication effectiveness increases (Patzer, 1985). “Low, moderate, and
high communicator physical attractiveness produce negative, neutral, and positive
effectiveness, respectively” (Patzer, 1985, 187).
“Source attractiveness becomes critical to persuasive impact to the extent that the
receiver is motivated to enhance sense of self, social reputation, or gratifying role
relationships by identifying with admired sources and interjecting their attitudes”
(McGuire, 1985, 264). These findings suggest that “persuasion occurs through the
compliance process when the receiver wants to get a reward or avoid a punishment from
a powerful source” (McGuire, 1985, 266).
According to an article entitled "The Credibility of Physically Attractive
Communicators: A Review," advertisers believe that the beautiful are credible and that
physically attractive sources can contribute to a communication’s effectiveness (Joseph,
1982). “Personal attractiveness is an important and pervasive source of influence in a
variety of interpersonal situations . . . [there is the] presence of a physical attractiveness
stereotype—a tendency to consistently attribute more positive qualities to people who are
physically attractive rather than unattractive” (Joseph, 1982, 16).
Other research results coincide by stating that attractive people are likely to be
viewed “as more sensitive, kind, sociable, interesting, outgoing, strong, poised, and
exciting than less attractive people” (Bertolissi, Lind and Perlini, 1999, 1). American
females who dislike their bodies may respond more positively to products in ads that
feature physically attractive (thin) female endorsers, when compared to women who are
satisfied with their body types (Hanson, and Hill, 1994).
5
When the product has little to do with appearance, the model may be more credible
if less or unattractive (Baker and Churchill, 1977). “The results suggest that in trying to
sell a nonromantically-oriented product to males, an unattractive female model may be
more persuasive in creating eventual product purchase than an attractive model” (Baker
and Churchill, 1977, 553). Baker and Churchill used a seven-point Likert scale to have
subjects determine how attractive or unattractive they believed each model was. “The
results suggest that the sex and physical attractiveness of an ad model do influence
peoples’ evaluations of aesthetic qualities of an advertisement and therefore seem to be
important determinants of the attention-getting value of the ad and the subjects’ liking of
the ad” (Baker and Churchill, 1977, 553).
Automobile manufacturers are just one of many who use attractiveness as a
persuasive measure. Ford Motor Company uses models at auto shows to “spin on the
turntables with automakers’ latest models . . . Although some auto show models are
basically decorative, many narrate technical scripts and are expected to be informed
about the vehicles they promote” (Stroud, 1990, S-2). Car companies choose carefully
which type of model they want representing their cars (Stroud, 1990). “Mazda employed
‘California-looking’ blond, blue-eyed, young, perky talent dressed informally in long
jackets and yellow walking shorts to promote its sporty Miata convertible [in 1989]. . .
Chrysler narrator/models tend to be ‘tall, classy and very mid-American’ but are as
approachable as the girl next door” (Stroud, 1990, S-2).
Numerous cosmetics companies also carefully choose models to convey a specific
image. “To Elizabeth Arden, beauty is a glamorous, Grace Kelly-esque woman. Chanel
sees it as the dark-haired, serene Carole Bouquet and Estée Lauder as the foreign,
6
perfectly gorgeous Paulina Porizkova” (Wells, 1989, 46). The article also states that
“consistent among all is a reliance on the model to telegraph a precise message about the
company” (Wells, 1989, 46).
Attractive Models’ Effect on the Perceptions of Advertising in Women
The media can be a powerful and persuasive tool in influencing young viewers’
self-images (Parker, 2000). High levels of identification and realism can enhance the
power of the media and shape college students’ sexual attitudes and assumptions (Ward,
Gorvine, and Cytron-Walker, 2002).
One of the reasons that the attractiveness of models in the media can have a
positive effect on the credibility of advertising is self-concept. “Ideal self concept is the
reference point in which actual self is compared. If there is a gap between them, an
individual strives to achieve the ideal state. In this respect, ideal self is a motive force
driving and individual upward” (Zinkhan and Hong, 1991, 348). Therefore, if an
individual views an advertisement featuring a model that she views to be better in some
way than her, she is more likely to purchase that item (Zinkhan and Hong, 1991).
“Self concept is a promising variable for explaining the effectiveness of various
promotional strategies. Specifically, promotional efforts may be more effective if they
are directed toward establishing a product image congruent with a consumer’s own selfconcept, compared to non-matching appeals, may lead consumers to subsequent
behaviors favorable to the product advertised” (Zinkhan and Hong, 1991). Zinkhan and
Hong’s research efforts suggest that when a product is consumed primarily in private, the
consumer is less concerned about what others think about them consuming the product
(1991). In this situation, the main consideration is the degree to which the product is
satisfactory in the eyes of the individual consuming the product (Zinkhan and Hong,
7
1991). “Thus, products congruent with ideal self would evoke low buying intention
when the gap between product image and the present state of self is excessive” (Zinkhan
and Hong, 1991, 352).
According to the Social-Comparison Theory, people may compare themselves to
others for reasons other than self-evaluation (Martin and Kennedy, 1993). “The tendency
of female preadolescents and adolescents to compare themselves to models in ads
increases, and this tendency is greater for those with lower self-perceptions of physical
attractiveness and/or lower self-esteem” (Martin and Kennedy, 1993, 526). Selfimprovement prompts upward comparisons with others (Martin and Gentry, 1997).
Girls are likely to view their bodies as objects, allowing physical appearance to
determine how they, and others, judge their overall value as a person (Martin and Gentry,
1997). According to the Social-Comparison Theory, people may compare themselves to
others for reasons other than self-evaluation (Martin and Kennedy, 1993). “The tendency
is greater for those with lower self-perceptions of physical attractiveness and/or lower
self-esteem to compare themselves to models in ads” (Martin and Gentry, 1997, 20).
This may be true because the more someone wants to become a member of a group (i.e.
supermodels), the more important it becomes for the individual to compare herself to that
group (Festinger, personal communication with Goodman).
Yet, when women are exposed to a highly attractive model for an extended period
of time, as a result of comparison, evaluations of both the model and the model as a
spokesperson may be affected negatively because of model derogation (Bower, 2001).
Another study found that after viewing attractive models, women rated average women
as less attractive (Richins, 1991). “Images of highly attractive individuals can cause
8
viewers to rate the attractiveness of more ordinary others lower than they would
otherwise” (Richins, 1991, 81). Highly attractive models are best when paired with
enhancing, attractiveness-related products, yet normally attractive models may be better
in ads for problem-solving products (Bower and Landreth, 2001).
Richins also argues that the temporary dissatisfaction among individuals with
themselves may be beneficial if it stimulates consumers to buy to improve their
appearance, eventually enhancing satisfaction (Richins, 1991). “Research generally,
although not always, finds that ads with attractive models are more effective than those
with less attractive models or without models” (Richins, 1991, 82.)
Why Women Use Cosmetics
In order to better understand how models with different types of beauty affect the
perceptions, and possibly purchase intentions, of women through advertising we need a
better understanding of one industry primarily targeted toward women. Makeup use by
women may be attributed to fulfilling a need to feel attractive in addition to enhancing
feelings of well being (Bloch and Richins, 1992). Adornments can be divided into three
different categories by the way they affect the attractiveness in terms of physical
characteristics:
¾ Remedies are adornments used to remove or significantly alter a mutable attribute that
is thought to be unsatisfactory by others or the self (i.e. appetite suppressants, hair
coloring).
¾ Camouflages are adornments that conceal or downplay innate physical characteristics
the consumer is unable to change (i.e. the skillful application of cosmetics).
¾ Enhancers are adornments that enhance or draw attention to innate physical
characteristics that are viewed positively (i.e. makeup that accentuates a person’s
pleasing eye color) (Bloch and Richins, 1992, 5-6).
“Because adornments serve to enhance one’s appearance, it follows that heavy
users of adornments place greater importance on physical appearance than do light users.
9
Certain personality traits may be associated with a greater emphasis on appearance, and
thus on adornment use” (Bloch and Richins, 1992, 7). Remedies, camouflages and
enhancers can enhance the self-image of the consumer (Bloch and Richins, 1992).
For
example, women may have an increase in self-esteem after using cosmetics if they are
prone to acne, because cosmetics can help camouflage or conceal the problem (Bloch and
Richins, 1992).
Cosmetics, and other adornment, use may also be increased short-term in the
context of situational self-image (Bloch and Richins, 1992). “A woman who typically
used few adornments may be motivated by a special party to significantly increase her
usage level” (Bloch and Richins, 1992, 8).
As previously mentioned, the ideal self-concept is another reason women may use
cosmetics. If there is a gap between the consumer’s ideal self-concept and actual selfconcept, an individual will strive to achieve the ideal state (Zinkhan and Hong, 1991).
This may include more adornment use. “It is possible that consumers who perceive
themselves to be inherently unattractive will rely heavily on adornments as compensatory
tools . . . In the context of attractiveness, adornment usage would be highest among
persons with strong desires to be attractive couples with a sense that adornments are part
of being attractive and self-doubts concerning current attractiveness” (Bloch and Richins,
1992, 8-9).
It is this way that adornment marketing may actually decrease consumer
satisfaction. “Adornment advertising often features models that approach some societal
consensus of perfection. For example, YSL cosmetics, whose target market is affluent
older women, uses 16-year-old models to demonstrate a completely wrinkle-free ideal in
10
its advertisements” (Bloch and Richins, 1992, 11).
This study suggests that repeated
exposure to extremely attractive models in advertising and other mediums may influence
consumers’ perceptions of what constitutes an acceptable physical appearance (Bloch and
Richins, 1992).
In a study entitled "Physical Attractiveness and Personality Among American
College Students," Cash and Smith found that more attractive women have a tendency to
infer that their own appearance, rather than other enduring personal assets, causes males’
overtures (Cash and Smith, 1982, 189). “Physical attractiveness per se affects
perceptions of mental health by both peers and professionals” (Cash and Smith, 1982,
184).
Types of Spokespeople
The current study will use of mix of familiar celebrities and unrecognized models.
To fully understand the subjects’ responses to both types of endorsers, we must first
review the literature surrounding different types of endorsement.
A study conducted by Friedman and Friedman divided endorsers into three types:
the celebrity, the professional (or recognized) expert and the typical consumer (Friedman
and Freidman, 1979). This study used vacuum cleaner, cookies and costume jewelry ads
to test the effectiveness of the different types of endorsers for each of the products.
Results of the study found costume jewelry yielded the most positive response when
paired with the celebrity endorser, vacuum cleaner with expert and cookies with the
typical consumer (Friedman and Friedman, 1979). “If brand-name and advertisement
recall are most desirable, advertisers should use a celebrity. If, on the other hand,
believability of the endorsement, overall attitude toward the advertised product, and
11
initial intent to purchase the advertised product are desired, the type of endorser should
be considered more carefully” (Friedman and Friedman, 1979).
According to "Product Matchup Key to Effective Star Presentations," Stars will
shine brightest as advertising endorsers if adpeople take care to match their personalities
with products and copy” (Forkhan, 1980, 42). In the study, McCollum/Speilman & Co.
collected data from hundreds of celebrity commercial tests over a span of 12 years
(Forkhan, 1980). Results of the study suggest that veteran actors and athletes scored the
highest while younger actors preformed very poorly. Comedians also emerged as “quite
risky endorsers” (Forkhan, 1980, 42). “The main advice M/S/C execs offered was to
decide [first] on what you’re going to say about a product . . . and then find the
personality to fit it” (Forkhan, 1980, 42). Although there are exceptions, M/S/C believes
that non-entertainment personalities (ranging from ex-astronauts to corporate executives),
have a limited appeal and effectiveness (Forkhan, 1980).
Celebrity Endorsers
For an attractiveness-related product, use of a physically attractive spokesperson
celebrity (Tom Selleck) was observed to significantly enhance spokesperson credibility
and attitude toward an ad, relative to use of a physically unattractive celebrity (Telly
Savalas) (Kamins, 1990). Kamins used 89 graduate students from a major west-coast
university to study advertiser believability and credibility, spokesperson believability and
credibility, expectancy-value brand attitude, attitude toward the ad and purchaser
intention (Kamins, 1990). Results of the study implied an interaction effect between
celebrity attractiveness and product type, suggesting that for the product which is
attractiveness related (i.e. luxury car), the attractive celebrity outperformed the
12
unattractive celebrity, and for the product which was unrelated to attractiveness (i.e.
home computer), celebrity attractiveness had no significant impact (Kamins, 1990).
Conformity of identification of a celebrity could foster an attractiveness effect
similar to arousal altering information processing in advertisements (Kahle and Homer,
1985). “Sometimes an attractive model may lure readers into an advertisement, in effect
increasing the ad’s involvement by transforming it into a source of information about that
adaptive topic, sexuality” (Kahle and Homer, 1985, 959). The study also found that the
extent to which the model exudes sexuality, and thus arousal, has a catalytic effect on
information processing (Kahle and Homer, 1985).
The celebrity endorser can be defined as “any individual who enjoys public
recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing
with it in an advertisement” (McCracken, 1989, 310). This research suggests that the
effectiveness of celebrity endorsers stems from cultural meanings that surround that
rather than psychological meanings, as suggested by the source credibility and source
attractiveness models (McCracken, 1989). “The effectiveness of the endorser depends, in
part, upon the meanings he or she brings to the endorsement process. . . Distinctions of
status, class, gender, and age, as well as personality and lifestyle type, are represented in
the pool of available celebrities . . .” (McCracken, 1989, 312).
The Beauty Match Up Hypothesis and the Six Types of Beauty
According to "The Beauty Match-Up Hypothesis: Congruence Between Types of
Beauty and Product Images in Advertising," certain beauty ideals are more appropriate
when paired with specific products rather than others (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo,
1992). “The Beauty Match-Up Hypothesis suggests that people have implicit theories of
beauty that influence responses to models in advertising” (Solomon, Ashmore and
13
Longo, 1992, 24). According to this study, an implicit theory of beauty is a hypothetical
construct that compromises beliefs about various types of good looks, including what
physical and other features define each type, and how the types are related one to another
and inferences about what personal qualities (i.e. traits and lifestyles) go with each type
(Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992).
This study suggests that attractive people vary in exactly how they are attractive
(Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992). The Beauty Match-Up Hypothesis attempts to
divide attractive female models in to categories of beauty and match up each type of
beauty with an appropriate product. “A model whose type of beauty and associated
image matched the product with which it is paired will provide a coherent message,
which, if consistent with the consumers’ desired self-image, may enhance acceptance of
the advertisement” (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992, 24).
To divide photographs of attractive models into categories of beauty, Solomon,
Ashmore and Longo elicited the help of fashion and beauty editors. “These cultural
gatekeepers are instrumental in framing standards of beauty by virtue of the models they
choose (over literally thousands of other aspirants) to adorn their pages” (Solomon,
Ashmore and Longo, 1992, 24).
Solomon further explained the idea of cultural, or imagery gatekeepers in an article
entitled "Building Up and Breaking Down". Solomon believes that these gatekeepers
“are pivotal in determining the eventual market success or failure of many symbolic
products” (Solomon, 1988, 339). Much like casting a part, gatekeepers such as
publishers, journal editors and retail buyers determine the future path of symbolic
14
vehicles (Solomon, 1988). In this case, we may assume that the symbolic products are
models and the products they represent.
In Solomon, Ashmore and Longo’s study, the participants were given a set of
photographs of models employed by major agencies and asked to sort the models’ photos
based on similarity of looks (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992). “The interviews
were transcribed, and terms were chosen that appeared to be common across informants
and represented a range of probable subtypes” (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992, 26).
The descriptors were: Sensual, Cute, Exotic, Girl-Next-Door, Feminine, Sex-Kitten,
Trendy and Classic Beauty (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992). See Figure 2-4 for
photographs pf the Prototypes of Beauty Dimensions from Solomon, Ashmore and
Longo’s study.
According to the study, the types of beauty may be described as follows:
¾ Classic Beauty, as perfect physical, especially facial, features
¾ Cute, as child-like physical features and/or attire
¾ Sex-Kitten and Sensual both are sexual looks, but the former is more overt and
youthful Girl-Next-Door, denoting a natural, unmade-up appearance and simple attire
¾ Exotic, non-Caucasian; Feminine, a soft and/or romantic look
¾ Trendy, an offbeat look, perhaps flawed or asymmetrical, in contrast to a Classic
Beauty type (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992, 25).
15
Figure 2-1: Prototypes of Beauty Dimensions Elicited from Fashion Editors
Then participants were asked to rate the congruence between each model’s look
and specific perfumes and magazines. For each perfume and magazine, subjects were
asked to indicate on a three-point scale whether she would cast that model in an
advertisement for that brand (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992).
Three of the perfumes showed a clear and strong match-up with one beauty type—
Chanel positively with Classic Beauty/Feminine, Poison negatively with Girl-Next-Door
and White Linen positively with Girl-Next-Door and negatively with Trendy (Solomon,
Ashmore and Longo, 1992). Additionally, the magazine Cosmopolitan matched up
16
closely with Sex-Kitten (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992). “These data suggest that
advertisers have successfully articulated a well-differentiated position for both the
magazine and the three perfume brands discussed” (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992,
31).
“Future work needs to explore the types of beauty and product match-ups
distinguished by audience members to whom advertising is targeted, and how the
associations of these decoders correspond with those obtained from the culture
gatekeepers, or encoders, examined here” (Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, 1992, 33).
Additionally, the magazine Cosmopolitan matched up closely with Sex Kitten (Solomon,
Ashmore and Longo, 1992). The present study will add to Solomon, Ashmore and
Longo’s work by exploring college females’ emotional responses to the beauty types.
Additionally, the present study will explore the subject’s responses not to products such
as perfume or magazines, but to cosmetics brands as a whole.
Using AdSAM® to Measure Emotional Response
To study the emotional responses of college females to models, we use AdSAM®,
a non-verbal pictorial method of measuring emotional responses to communication
stimuli (Morris, Woo, Geason and Kim, 2002). AdSAM® uses a database of 232
emotional adjectives such as love and fear “to gain insight and diagnose the relationships
among attitude, cognition, brand interest, and purchase intention” (Morris, Woo, Geason
and Kim, 2002, 8; Morris 1996).
SAM, or Self-Assessment Manikin, is used to measure the respondents’ responses
to each item based on a nine-point scale for each of the three dimensions of emotion—
pleasure, arousal, and dominance, or PAD (Morris, Woo and Cho, 2003).
17
Figure 2-2: Example of the Self Assessment Manikin Used in AdSAM® Testing. Row
one represents pleasure, row two represents arousal and row three represents
dominance.
“The Self-Assessment Manikin visually assesses each PAD dimension with a
graphic character arrayed along a continuous nine-point scale. The first row of figures is
the pleasure scale, which ranges from a smiling, happy face to a frowning, unhappy face.
The second row is the arousal scale, which ranges from extremely calm with eyes closed
to extremely excited with eyes open and elevated eyebrows. The third row, the
dominance dimension, represents changes in control with changes in the size of SAM:
from a large figure indicating maximum control in the situation to a tiny figure which
indicates being under control” (Morris and Pai, 1997, 186, personal communication with
Morris). See figure 2-1.
AdSAM® is thought to be the best way to measure emotional responses because it
has proven to reliably and accurately assess human emotions (McMullen and Morris,
18
2004). “SAM may be used to evaluate feelings or other promotional tools or for the
brands itself” (Morris, 1995, 67).
AdSAM Perceptual Map
®
©
TM
victorious
cheerful
happy
kind
warm
thankful
stimulated
polite
bold
relaxed
mature
childlike
provocative
serene
wholesome
modest
tempted
Pleasure
aggressive
nonchalant
aloof
anxious
quietly indignant
unemotional
cynical
startled
skeptical
suspicious
bored
disbelieving
blase
irritated
displeased
fearful
weary
disgusted
gloomy
disappointed
troubled
insecure
sad
rejected
angry
terrified
deceived
crushed
Arousal
Copyright ©1996-2003 AdSAM Marketing, LLC. All rights reserved.
19
Figure 2-3: Example of AdSAM® Scores Graphed on a Scale of Pleasure and Arousal.
Respondents are asked to choose the manikin in each of the three rows
(representing the three dimensions of emotion, PAD) that best represents how they feel.
Results can be translated into a PAD score for each item tested which can then be
graphed on a scale of pleasure and arousal (Morris, 1995). See figures 2-2 and 2-3.
“The PAD ratings may be used to evaluate the advertiser’s success in reaching the
desired levels of response or goals or may be compared to other ad scores” (Morris, 1995,
65-66).
Figure 2-4: Pleasure and Arousal Scale Used to Graph AdSAM® Scores.
“Emotional response is a powerful predictor of intention and brand attitude, and
given the diagnostic capabilities that are missing in other measures of affect (Aad), it is a
valuable tool for strategic planning, message testing and brand tracking” (Morris, Woo
and Cho, 2003, 30).
In previous research, AdSAM® has been used to test emotional responses crossculturally because it requires little or no verbal communication. For example, AdSAM®
was recently used to test the reliability and validity of the Internet as a cross-cultural
20
platform of data gathering for marketing communications. Although AdSAM® will not
necessarily be used as a cross-cultural measure in the current study, it will be beneficial
to use because much of the bias associated with verbal methods of measurement will be
eliminated (Morris, Woo and Cho, 2003). “A problem inherent in verbal measures of
emotional response is the lack of universally accepted adjectives. It is difficult to design
an instrument that contains words that share the same meaning when translated from
language to language” (Morris and Pai, 1997, 186). Yet, the non-verbal measure, SAM,
has been shown to be a reliable method for measuring the three dimensions of affect—
pleasure, dominance and arousal (Morris and Pai, 1997).
SAM is also an appropriate measure for the current study because the respondents’
“mental activity prompted by the emotional cues in commercials occurs very rapidly and
often subconsciously, making it difficult for people to verbally report their responses”
(Morris and Waine, 2004, 160). AdSAM’s® nine-point scale will make it easy for
respondents to accurately respond to each item (Morris and Pai , 1997, personal
communication with Morris).
Need for Present Research
Although a great deal of research exists addressing women in advertising,
attractiveness in advertising, emotional response to advertising, the use of spokespeople
in advertising, and persuasion in advertising, very little research exists concerning use of
different types of beauty in advertising and the affect of using one type over another onto
a brand. The present study attempts to continue the research of Solomon, Ashmore, and
Longo and is the next step in bridging the gap in attractiveness research in advertising so
that we may have a better understanding of how women, particularly women in college,
feel about the models they encounter in advertising.
21
Research Questions
The previous study matched the beauty types, negatively and positively, with
products including magazines and perfumes. The current study attempts to go one step
by measuring respondents’ emotional responses to these types so that they may be tested
with tested with brand names in future research. In addition, the current study has
chosen the respondents group of college females, rather than cultural gatekeepers, to
attempt to understand one of the possible target audiences of cosmetics brands
companies.
Conclusion
Using the research and knowledge of the preceding studies, the following
prediction is made concerning the outcome of the current study:
Hypothesis:
The subjects’ categorization of the models will be consistent with the six
dimensions of beauty as determined in the Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo study (1992).
The current study also attempts to answer the following questions:
¾ What are the strongest and weakest examples for each of the six dimensions of
beauty?
¾ What will the emotional responses of college females be to the models showing the
different types of beauty?
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo's Beauty Match-Up Hypothesis used fashion
experts and editors to divide numerous black-and-white photographs of women into
categories, or dimensions, of beauty. The all-women subjects used by Solomon,
Ashmore, and Longo in their study were asked to describe why the women were
categorized as such and the subjects, although interviewed separately, agreed on many
accounts in their description (1992). It is suspected that the same physical traits used by
subjects to categorize the photographs in 1992 will be used by subjects in 2004, despite
the difference in subject groups (this study uses college students rather than fashion
experts and editors). Therefore, the primary purpose of this study is to determine if these
models will be divided into the same categories. Thus the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis:
The subjects’ categorization of the models will be consistent with the six
dimensions of beauty as determined in the Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo study (1992).
Research Design and Stimuli
The photographs for the current study were gathered from numerous fashion
magazines such as Vogue, Cosmopolitan, Cosmopolitan Style, In Style, and Allure no
older than one year. They were chosen according to the beauty dimension criteria set
forth by Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo as explained in the literature review (1992). Just
as with the Beauty Match-Up study done by Solomon, Ashmore and Longo, photographs
additionally abided by the following:
22
23
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
only above-the-waist or full-body shots
no visible product logos or brand names
the models are pictured alone in the photo (without other people or animals)
no pictures deviate markedly from the modal size
no color photographs, only clothed models and only photographs of sufficiently high
quality (26).
In this study, AdSAM® was used to measure the emotional responses of the
participants so that we may better understand how the subjects feel about the models.
AdSAM® uses a graphic character (SAM, Self-Assessment Manikin), representing
pleasure, dominance, and arousal, to measure the emotional reactions of individuals
(Morris, 1995). In the current study, arousal refers to the degree to which respondents
have strong feelings towards the models, not necessarily in a sexual manner (i.e. disgust).
Pleasure refers to the degree to which respondents enjoyed or likes the appearance of the
models.
AdSAM® is non-verbal, completely visual, accurate, and effective in assessing
motivation, consistency in feelings, and level of empowerment in addition to identifying
emotional drivers of perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors (Morris, Woo, and Cho, 2003;
Morris, 1995). To use AdSAM®, subjects simply choose the graphic character (SAM) in
each row that best identifies how she feels (Morris, Woo, and Cho, 2003). AdSAM®
emotional response scores can then be used to create perceptual maps, where the results
are scatter-plotted to be analyzed for consistency and similarity (Morris, 1995).
Subjects and Questionnaires
The participants in this study were a convenience sample taken from classes in the
College of Journalism and Communications at the University of Florida. Only females
were allowed to participate. A total of 258 participated in the study. Subjects were
awarded with extra credit for participation in the study.
24
There were a total of six versions of the questionnaires. Instructions were read to
the participants by the principal investigator and were also be included at the top of each
section of the packet for reference. The informed consent document was attached to the
front of each packet and a third party collected the separated informed consent forms
from the participants upon completion so that the principal investigator would not know
the names of the participants. Table 3-1 shows the demographics of the respondents.
Test One
Test one subjects were given packets containing models’ photographs and space
below to mark responses using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “completely agree”
to “completely disagree” to rate each photograph on each of the six pre-established
dimensions of beauty (Solomon, Ashmore, Longo, 1992). Subjects were asked to
evaluate the model as pictured (ignoring anything else they may know about the model)
(Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo, 1992). To eliminate bias, there were three different
versions of the questionnaire, each version containing a different set of models.
Test Two
Test two subjects were given the same packets of models' photographs as the first.
This time, the subjects will be using AdSAM® to give their emotional responses to each
of the photographs. AdSAM® uses a scale of pleasure, dominance and arousal to
determine emotional responses to the stimuli without introducing verbal bias into the
experiment. As with test one, there were three different versions of the questionnaire,
each version containing a different set of models.
Version one in this test had the same set of models as version one in the first test.
The same goes for versions two in both tests and versions three. Each version had 14
models. The version one tests consisted of photographs cf1, c1, g1, se1, sk1, t1, cf2, c2,
25
g2, se2, sk2, t2, cf3, and c3. Version two tests consisted of g3, se3, sk3, t3, cf4, c4, g4,
se4, sk4, t4, cf5, c5, g5, and se5. Version three tests consisted of sk5, t5, cf6, c6, g6, se6,
sk6, t6, cf7, c7, g7, se7, sk7, and t7. Models were presented to respondents in the
questionnaires in the orders above.
To randomize the questionnaires, first they were put in to piles based on test type
and version. Second, the test one versions were pulled from their piles in a random order
and placed into one combined pile for test one. The same was done for test two. This
way, respondents were less likely to have the version, thus the same set of models, as
someone sitting next to them was.
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
R1: What are the Strongest and Weakest Examples for Each of the Six Types of
Beauty?
First, a basic frequency analysis for each of the 42 models was conducted to
determine the strongest and weakest examples of each type of beauty based on the
respondents’ evaluation of each model on a 5-point Likert scale. Because only the first
test required respondents to evaluate each model based on type of beauty, N=131, each of
the three versions of test one contained 14 models, so each model was evaluated by
between 43 and 46 respondents.
Tables 4-1 and 4-2 show the best and worst (respectively) examples for each of the
six pre-determined dimensions of beauty based on the results of test one. In order to
avoid analysis of small groups, “completely agree” and “agree” responses were combined
into one category while “disagree” and “completely disagree” responses were combined
into another. Table 4-3 shows a grid containing the photographs of each model
corresponding to their numbers in the sets of photographs.
Notice that the worst examples for Cute, Trendy, Classic/Feminine, and Girl-NextDoor were the same photograph—t7. Similarly, the worst examples for Sex Kitten and
Sensual Exotic were photograph c2. Again, Sensual and Exotic are grouped opposite of
Girl-Next-Door, Cute, and Classic/Feminine. This shows that the determinants
developed by Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo exist, but are not pure.
26
27
Table 4-1: Best examples of beauty types according to agree versus disagree respondent
ratings.
Beauty Type
Photograph
N
Percentage that
Mean
Number
Agreed
Cute
c6
43
97.7%
1.6047
Trendy
g5
46
91.3%
1.6087
Classic/Feminine
c6
43
97.7%
1.6279
Sex Kitten
sk6
43
93%
1.7209
Girl-Next-Door
c7
43
100%
1.6744
Sensual/Exotic
se1
44
86.4%
1.7955
Table 4-2: Worst examples of beauty types according to agree versus disagree respondent
ratings.
Beauty Type
Photograph
N
Percentage that
Mean
Number
Disagreed
Cute
t7
43
65.1%
3.6047
Trendy
t7
43
53.5%
3.2558
Classic/Feminine
t7
43
58.1%
3.4419
Sex Kitten
c2
44
72.7%
3.8636
Girl-Next-Door
t7
43
86%
3.8372
Sensual/Exotic
c2
44
81.8%
4.0000
28
Table 4-3: A grid of the photographs of each model corresponding to their numbers in the
sets of photographs.
SENSUAL SEX
TREND
NUMBER CLASSIC CUTE
GIRL
EXOTIC
KITTEN Y
FEM
NEXT
DOOR
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
29
R2: How Many Types of Beauty are Present in the Data?
It is not clear how Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo combined beauty types in their
study so in order to find pure beauty types in the current study, a factor analysis for each
model was conducted. This determined how many types of beauty were present in the
models’ photographs, according to the respondents.
All but two (se5 and cf4) of the
factor analyses results were significant.
The Varimax Rotated Component Matrixes from the factor analyses revealed that
several variables repeatedly correlated with the factors—Sex Kitten and Sensual/Exotic
were the variables that appeared most together in a component. Second, the variables
Classic/Feminine, Cute, and Girl-Next-Door appeared together, usually opposite to the
component in which Sex Kitten and Sensual/Exotic belonged to. Trendy appeared
equally with both sets of variables. Ambiguous variables were not included in the table
because they did not clearly belong to one component or another (cross-loaded). Thus,
the variable Trendy is not included in the table because it did not clearly fit with any
combination of variables. Table 4-4 shows the factor loadings for each models that
determined the two new pure beauty types—Sex Kitten and Sensual/Exotic, renamed
“Sexual/Sensual” and Girl-Next-Door, Cute, and Classic/Feminine, renamed “Young
Feminine.”
30
Table 4-4: Varimax Rotated Component Matrix factor loadings for each of the 42
models.
Model
cf1
c1
g1
se1
sk1
N
43
44
44
44
44
P
.001
.005
.000
.000
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.443
F2
.309
.832
.169
.006
.766
.649
-.435
-.019
.612
.356
.771
.376
.180
.719
-.082
-.122
-.773
.764
-.155
-.098
.692
.595
.801
.498
.397
.458
.858
.728
-.033
-.413
.656
.844
-.009
.674
-.121
.576
.199
.633
.124
.428
.691
.801
-.215
.003
.846
.724
.868
.114
.169
.719
.859
.372
-.133
.021
.868
.857
.064
-.067
.872
F3
31
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
t1
cf2
c2
g2
se2
N
44
44
44
44
44
P
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.635
F2
.259
.730
.753
.144
-.113
-.209
.794
.771
.270
.758
-.377
.789
.284
.636
.073
.245
.875
.725
-.132
.085
.780
.386
.909
.003
.469
.696
-.077
.240
.867
.864
-.149
-.110
.885
.550
.900
-.171
.533
.794
-.006
.222
.916
.881
-.170
-.012
.811
.594
.826
-.010
.375
.280
.881
.767
.042
-.175
.711
.927
.103
-.106
.878
F3
32
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
sk2
t2
cf3
c3
g3
N
44
44
44
44
46
P
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.591
F2
.291
.737
.040
.011
.924
.561
-.310
.025
.862
.043
.904
.054
.871
.766
.702
.319
.259
.878
-.009
.312
.820
.686
.753
.149
.284
.285
.928
.779
.083
.102
.822
.886
-.012
.572
.006
.812
.067
.733
.076
.179
.871
.778
-.212
.094
.647
.581
.900
.214
.337
.604
.692
.537
-.414
-.094
.744
.820
.215
.048
.802
F3
33
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
se3
sk3
t3
cf4
c4
N
46
46
46
46
46
P
.000
.000
.000
.272
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.134
F2
-.456
F3
.647
.702
.019
-.198
.082
.864
.818
.699
.567
-.292
.370
.438
.485
.857
.690
.060
-.119
.791
.830
.191
.147
.023
.853
.508
.663
-.127
.326
.842
.808
-.231
.004
.829
.403
.770
.046
.555
.420
-.081
.768
.836
-.403
-.129
.037
.085
-.185
.690
.827
-.045
.762
.230
.117
.002
.009
.746
.788
.010
.095
.914
.753
.056
.082
.628
.914
.004
34
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
g4
se4
sk4
t4
cf5
N
46
46
45
46
46
P
.000
.000
.003
.001
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.704
F2
.180
.347
.877
.750
.136
-.109
.817
.860
.249
.697
.042
.868
.316
.653
.784
.305
-.017
.166
.773
.839
-.032
.687
-.148
.828
.032
.721
.495
.033
.333
-.129
.852
.823
.345
.217
.093
.633
.430
.656
-.101
.371
.824
.832
-.084
.176
.787
.708
.774
.166
.439
.689
.053
-.012
.899
.691
.006
.023
.760
.830
.022
F3
35
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
c5
g5
se5
sk5
t5
N
46
46
46
43
43
P
.000
.000
.524
.001
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.037
F2
.768
.866
-.059
.142
.877
.922
-.007
.224
.887
.773
.645
.087
F3
.831
.698
.671
.770
.818
-.018
.833
.202
.152
.075
.646
.156
-.588
.834
.720
.074
-.004
-.666
.613
.807
.345
.277
.026
.149
.292
.490
.686
.533
.104
.137
.690
.720
.024
.799
.210
.821
.228
-.236
.145
.676
.875
-.081
.092
.585
-.187
.268
.865
.792
-.019
-.010
.855
-.019
.127
36
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
cf6
c6
g6
se6
sk6
N
43
43
43
43
43
P
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.720
F2
.344
.856
-.006
.138
.726
.657
-.309
.118
.831
.562
.879
.032
.274
.722
.109
.267
.936
.743
-.159
.026
.852
.706
.931
-.020
.179
.748
.268
.264
.775
.809
-.208
.007
.644
.606
.880
.237
.273
.121
.797
.796
-.187
-.014
.887
.845
.483
.620
.196
.539
.460
.093
.920
.828
.168
.172
.859
.867
.455
.114
.627
F3
37
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
t6
cf7
c7
g7
se7
N
43
43
43
43
43
P
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.816
F2
.283
.268
.776
.752
.080
.028
.742
.878
.172
.525
.114
.858
.412
.765
.095
.300
.874
.858
-.119
.135
.763
-.080
.907
.161
.713
.851
.124
.112
.837
.897
.011
.200
.885
.743
.868
.091
.186
.431
.867
.684
-.031
-.212
.815
.807
.006
.660
-.146
.885
.505
.661
.863
.415
.041
-.044
.860
.859
.229
-.021
.780
F3
38
Table 4-4. Continued
Model
sk7
t7
N
43
43
P
.000
.000
Question
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
Trendy
Classic/
Feminine
Sex Kitten
Girl-NextDoor
Sensual/
Exotic
Cute
F1
.573
F2
.530
.779
.549
.282
.225
.142
.781
.884
.141
.564
-.043
.823
.038
.810
-.055
.066
.921
.627
.324
.366
.901
.629
.131
F3
The variables Sensual/Exotic and Sex Kitten were combined into one type of
beauty (renamed Sensual/Sexual) based on the results of the factor analyses. Although
occurring less frequently than the Sensual/Sexual combination, the factor analyses also
showed that the variables Cute, Girl-Next-Door, and Classic/Feminine should also be
combined into one type (named Young/Feminine).
R3: Which are the Strongest, Weakest, and Middle Examples for Each of the New
Types of Beauty?
Now that the number of beauty types present in the research has been determined
using factor analysis, it is important to conduct a General Linear Model Repeated
Measures test. This will determine the strongest and weakest models for the two types.
Strong, weak, and middle examples were chosen for each of the two types of
beauty based on their estimated marginal means. Table 4-5 shows the model that is the
strongest example for each type, the weakest example of each type, and the model closest
to the grand mean for each type. The grand means were found by calculating the overall
39
mean for each of the two types of beauty. The table clearly shows that the opposite of
Sensual/Sexual is Young Feminine. The Repeated Measures Analysis also showed
significant differences in the respondents’ evaluations to the two new types of beauty in
addition to significant differences between strong, weak, and middle examples of models.
Table 4-5: Strongest, weakest, and middle model examples for Sensual/Sexual and
Young Feminine.
SENSUAL/SEXUAL
(SE + SK)
Mean Score
Strongest
Lowest mean
score.
Photograph
1.721
YOUNG FEMININE
(CF + C + G)
Mean Score
1.636
C1
SK2
Middle
Score closest to
the grand mean
score.
Weakest
Highest mean
score.
Photograph
2.825
2.525
(Grand Mean
for SS = 2.825)
(Grand Mean
for YF = 2.525)
G6
3.930
SK4
3.628
C2
T7
40
R4: What are the Emotional Responses of College Women to Models?
In order to examine the emotional responses of the subjects to the photographs of
the models, we used AdSAM as described in the Literature Review and Methodology
sections of this study. Table 4-6 shows the Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance scores for
the Strong, Weak, and Middle scoring models for the new types of beauty.
Table 4-6: Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance scores for the Strong, Weak, and Middle
scoring models for Sensual/Sexual and Young Feminine.
Group
Strong
Beauty
Type
Young
Feminine
Sensual/
Sexual
Middle
Young
Feminine
Sensual/
Sexual
Weak
Young
Feminine
Sensual/
Sexual
Emotional
Response
Mean
Std.
Error
Pleasure
Arousal
Dominance
Pleasure
Arousal
Dominance
Pleasure
Arousal
Dominance
Pleasure
Arousal
Dominance
Pleasure
Arousal
Dominance
Pleasure
Arousal
Dominance
7.564
5.615
5.872
4.103
3.615
4.769
4.976
4.762
5.357
5.810
4.452
5.690
4.077
2.795
6.513
5.410
3.692
5.769
.266
.305
.334
.265
.295
.333
.257
.294
.322
.255
.284
.321
.266
.305
.334
.265
.295
.333
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
7.037
5.011
5.210
3.579
3.032
4.111
4.468
4.179
4.719
5.305
3.890
5.056
3.550
2.190
5.851
4.886
3.109
5.111
8.091
6.220
6.534
4.627
4.199
5.428
5.484
5.344
5.995
6.315
5.015
6.325
4.604
3.399
7.175
5.934
4.276
6.428
p=.000
In the table, we see equal pleasure and dominance scores for Young Feminine.
Arousal scores varied from 5.615 (strong model) to 2.795 (weak model). This means that
the respondents, who were all women, were not very aroused by the photos they
evaluated. The dominance score for the weakest model was significantly higher than the
other two scores. This shows us that dominance, in this case, may have not been a
positive reaction of the respondents. Pleasure scores in this table are higher, especially for
the strongest model.
41
The table shows much lower pleasure and arousal scores for Sensual/Sexual than
for Young Feminine. The pleasure scores for the weak and middle models were the
same, but significantly lower for the strongest model. This means that women did not
have pleasure in viewing these photographs. The scores for both beauty types showed
significant differences from one type to another.
Figures 4-1 and 4-2 show the means graphed on a scale of pleasure and arousal.
The mean for the strongest model for Young Feminine resides in the upper right-hand
quadrant (the most positive) near adjectives such as bold, warm, and mature. Meanwhile,
the mean for the strongest Sensual/Sexual model resides in the lower left-hand quadrant
(the most negative) near adjectives such as skeptical, blasé, and unemotional.
This suggests that respondents felt much more positively about the Young
Feminine type than the Sensual/Sexual type. Notice that the weak example lays almost
exactly opposite to the strongest example for Young Feminine on the graph. Also notice
that the Sensual/ Sexual plots are close to the midpoint while the Young Feminine plots
reach from the upper right-hand quadrant to the lower-left. In Figure 4-3, we see the
strong, middle, and weak examples of models for both types of beauty graphed on a scale
of pleasure and arousal. Dominance is represented in the graphs by the size of the plot
marks.
AdSAM® Prominent Emotional Index tables showed a strong difference between
the emotions that respondents felt towards C1, the strongest Young Feminine model, and
the middle and weakest feminine models (SK4 and T7, respectively). Table 4-11 shows
that 38 percent of respondents indicated that they felt appreciative, 26 percent felt
grateful, and 26 percent felt amused by the strongest Young Feminine model.
42
AdSAM Perceptual Map
®
©
TM
victorious
cheerful
happy
kind
warm
thankful
stimulated
polite
s
bold
relaxed
mature
childlike
provocative
serene
wholesome
modest
tempted
Pleasure
aggressive
nonchalant
aloof
m
anxious
quietly indignant
unemotional
cynical
startled
skeptical
suspicious
bored
w
disbelieving
blase
irritated
displeased
fearful
weary
disgusted
gloomy
disappointed
troubled
insecure
sad
rejected
angry
terrified
deceived
crushed
Arousal
Pleasure Arousal and Dominance scores
Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g)
m
Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g) C1 Strongest
Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g) SK4 Middle
w
Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g) T7 Weakest
s
Copyright ©1996-2003 AdSAM Marketing, LLC. All rights reserved.
Figure 4-1: Strong, middle, and weak examples of models for Young Feminine emotional
response means graphed on a scale or pleasure and arousal.
43
AdSAM Perceptual Map
®
©
TM
victorious
cheerful
happy
kind
warm
thankful
stimulated
polite
bold
relaxed
mature
childlike
provocative
serene
wholesome
modest
tempted
Pleasure
m
aggressive
w
nonchalant
aloof
anxious
quietly indignant
unemotional
cynical
s
startled
skeptical
suspicious
bored
disbelieving
blase
irritated
displeased
fearful
weary
disgusted
gloomy
disappointed
troubled
insecure
sad
rejected
angry
terrified
deceived
crushed
Arousal
Pleasure Arousal and Dominance scores
Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk)
s
m
w
Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk) SK2 Strongest
Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk) G6 Middle
Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk) C2 Weakest
Copyright ©1996-2003 AdSAM Marketing, LLC. All rights reserved.
Figure 4-2: Strong, middle, and weak examples of models for Sensual/Sexual emotional
response means graphed on a scale or pleasure and arousal.
44
AdSAM Perceptual Map
®
©
TM
victorious
cheerful
happy
kind
warm
thankful
stimulated
polite
yfs
bold
relaxed
mature
childlike
provocative
serene
wholesome
modest
tempted
Pleasure
ssm
aggressive
ssw
nonchalant
aloof
yfm
anxious
quietly indignant
unemotional
cynical
sss
startled
skeptical
suspicious
bored
yfw
disbelieving
blase
irritated
displeased
fearful
weary
disgusted
gloomy
disappointed
troubled
insecure
sad
rejected
angry
terrified
deceived
crushed
Arousal
Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance scores
yfs Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g) C1 Strongest
yfm Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g) SK4 Middle
yfw Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g) T7 Weakest
sss Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk) SK2 Strongest
ssm Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk) G6 Middle
ssw Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk) C2 Weakest
Copyright ©1996-2003 AdSAM Marketing, LLC. All rights reserved.
Figure 4-3: Strong, middle, and weak examples of models for Sensual/Sexual and Young
Feminine emotional response means graphed on a scale or pleasure and
arousal.
45
For the strongest and weakest Young Feminine models, respondents indicated that they
felt unimpressed (14 percent, 58 percent), unconcerned (19 percent, 56 percent),
uninterested (19 percent, 51 percent), and nonchalant (26 percent, 56 percent).
AdSAM® Prominent Emotional Index tables showed a strong difference between
the emotions that respondents felt towards C1, the strongest Young Feminine model, and
the middle and weakest feminine models (SK4 and T7, respectively). Table 4-11 shows
that 38 percent of respondents indicated that they felt appreciative, 26 percent felt
grateful, and 26 percent felt amused by the strongest Young Feminine model. For the
strongest and weakest Young Feminine models, respondents indicated that they felt
unimpressed (14 percent, 58 percent), unconcerned (19 percent, 56 percent), uninterested
(19 percent, 51 percent), and nonchalant (26 percent, 56 percent).
Respondents indicated that they felt uninterested, unconcerned, unimpressed, and
nonchalant towards the models. The adjectives for the middle model, G6, were
somewhat more positive than those for the other two models, including soft hearted,
sensitive, and logical. Table 4-12 shows the AdSAM® Prominent Emotional Index table
for the strongest Sensual/Sexual model, SK2.
Overall, the adjectives listed for the Sensual/Sexual models were much more
negative then those listed for the Young Feminine Models. This reaffirms that
respondents had more positive emotional responses to the models in the Young Feminine
category than the Sensual/Sexual category.
46
Table 4-11: AdSAM® Prominent Emotional Index table showing respondents’ feeling
towards the strongest Young Feminine model, C1.
AdSAM Prominent Emotion Index
©
Young Feminine (cf+ c+ g) C1 Strongest
Adjective
appreciative
grateful
amused
protected
soft hearted (t)
impressed
cooperative
awed
surprised
joyful
Percent of Mentions
38%
26%
26%
23%
23%
21%
21%
21%
18%
15%
Table 4-12: AdSAM® Prominent Emotional Index table showing respondents’ feeling
towards the strongest Sensual/Sexual model, SK2.
AdSAM Prominent Emotion Index
©
Sexual/ Sensual (se + sk) SK2
Strongest
Adjective
uninterested
unconcerned
unimpressed
indifferent
nonchalant
listless
sluggish
bored
unexcited
meek
Percent of Mentions
28%
28%
23%
23%
23%
21%
18%
18%
18%
15%
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis: The subjects’ categorization of the models will be consistent with the
six dimensions of beauty as determined in the Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo study
(1992).
Although prior research suggested that the girl-next door types were similar to the
cute types, it did not combine them into one group. Nor did it combine sensual/exotic
47
with sex kitten (though they were also suggested as being very similar). This research
goes one step further than the previous study by using a factor analysis to combine the
types of beauty into two opposite dimensions—sensual/sexual and young feminine.
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Conclusions
Hypothesis and Research Question One
H: The subjects’ categorization of the models will be consistent with the six
dimensions of beauty as determined in the Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo study (1992).
R1: What are the strongest and weakest examples for each of the six types of beauty?
After conducting Basic Frequency analyses, it became obvious that the magazine
editors that Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo used to conduct their study viewed models
differently than the college females who responded to the current study. This difference
caused overlap in the frequency tests and helped us to produce two pure types of
beauty—Sensual/Sexual and Young Feminine. The knowledge of this difference in
response may be useful to companies because it shows a clear difference in opinions from
the women who choose the models for fashion magazines and the women who may view
them.
Research Question Two
R2: How many types of beauty are present in the data?
In this study we found two contrasting types of beauty—Sensual/Sexual and Young
Feminine. This continues the precedence set forth by Solomon, Ashmore, and Longo
(1992) by continuing to combine types. These findings supports the previous study in the
48
49
sense that the frequency analyses showed that the dimensions existed, yet disputed it
because the dimensions were not pure.
Research Question Three
R3: Which are the strongest, weakest, and middle examples for each of the new types of
beauty?
The strongest, weakest, and middle examples for each type of beauty clearly
showed that the opposite of Young Feminine is Sensual/Sexual. This neither disputes nor
supports previous research because previous research did not test the relationships
between these two types. This knowledge may be beneficial to companies because it will
help them to create advertisements that feature precisely the image they wish to portray to
women.
Research Question Four
R4: What are the emotional responses of college women to models?
Respondents indicated that they felt more pleased in viewing the strongest Young
Feminine model, C1, and had equal arousal and dominance for the strongest and middle
models. Surprisingly, the weakest Young Feminine photo, T7, showed more dominance.
As pleasure and arousal scores decreased in the photographs, dominance increased. The
highest dominance score in the weakest Young Feminine model may be justified by the
respondents’ feelings of domination over that model, as in feeling better or better looking
than she looks.
The respondents consistently indicated Sensual/Sexual little arousal coupled with
slightly increasing pleasure. The pleasure score for the strongest Sensual/Sexual model
was significantly lower than the pleasure score for the strongest young feminine model.
These findings suggest, surprisingly, that although the respondents felt a model resided
50
strongly in the Sensual/Sexual category, they had very little or no pleasure or arousal in
viewing her. Also, these models aroused respondents very little. This implies a clear
difference between viewed attractiveness and sexiness in the respondents.
It is the opinion of the researcher that the definition of sexy may have been altered
over time by the media through sexually provocative images named by them to be sexy.
Over time, society, namely women, may have adopted the definition of sexy not to mean
attractive in a sexual way, but to mean overly sexual and not attractive. Others may argue
that the respondents may have scored the Sensual/Sexual images lower than the Young
Feminine models because they feel jealous of the model and unable to achieve to look
themselves. This idea may be discounted because the models chosen for the Young
Feminine category exhibited nearly the same body types as the Sensual/Sexual models
and, arguably, the same amount of beauty potential. The main differences between the
strongest Sensual/Sexual model and the strongest Young Feminine model are clothing,
position, and expression.
Through this research it is evident that many advertisers may have been mislead in
using more sexual models to attract women to their products. It may be a common
misconception that women may be attracted to a product if an overly sexual and
provocative model endorses it—that they may look at the model and somehow desire to
be like her and therefore purchase the product. While previous research suggests that a
women is more likely to purchase a product if she is unhappy with her own body and
desires to be more like the endorser, this study shows that the model should not be
Sensual/Sexual. Advertisers should, rather, be using models in the Young Feminine
category to appeal to women, as women showed more pleasure in viewing these models.
51
Through this, it can be assumed that women desire to be more like the Young Feminine
models, and in turn, will purchase the products they endorse more readily than they
would a product endorsed by a more overtly sexual model.
This Study’s Possible Effects on the Industry
This research is the first step in an entirely new approach to advertising to women:
advertising to women using models women like and wish to be like. The results of this
study may be useful to companies (such as cosmetics and clothing) that wish to target
educated females. Through this research, we learned that companies should be cautious
when choosing a model to represent a brand. Models who are photographed in sexy and
provocative ways may overwhelm consumers and consumers may transfer the negative
feelings they have toward the model’s representation onto the brand. Companies who
wish to elicit feelings of boldness, triumph, energy, victory, protection, and appreciation
may want to use only models in the Young Feminine category to target college females.
Limitations
Although there were numerous significant findings in this study, there are some
limitations that need to be mentioned. First, the validity may be questioned because
respondents were a convenient sample taken from two classes taught with the same
professor in a large southeastern university (restricted by place and time). Second,
because the sample consisted of only students, the study was limited to an age range of
17 to 26. Third, the study may contain non-response error because some of the students
may have chosen not to answer some of the questions. Fourth, the photographs used may
have introduced some bias as some showed only the model’s face, while others showed
what the model was wearing. Fifth, the characteristics listed by Solomon, Ashmore, and
52
Longo made it difficult for the researcher in this study to choose models who exemplified
the six types of beauty for the study accurately (1992).
Future Research
Future research should attempt to test the emotional responses of multiple
respondent groups to numerous combinations of brands paired with models in the two
beauty categories. It should further test models and brands that are trendy (as trendy did
not clearly fit into either type of beauty). Additionally, tests should be conducted to
determine whether models that are more clothed relegate a difference in emotional
response than models that are more scantily clad. Future research testing this should be
constant in using clothed, unclothed, or photographs only showing model’s faces. Future
research should also use a sample not limited by age or education, and if possible, time
and place.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Jennifer Huckeba was born on April 5, 1981, and was raised in Orlando, Florida.
She graduated from William R. Boone High School in 1999 and continued her education
at the University of Florida with a major in public relations. Upon graduation in 2003,
Jennifer continued her academic career at the University of Florida with a Master of
Advertising. After graduation, Jennifer plans to pursue a career in public relations and
advertising in North Florida.
56