1. art and entertainment
2. books and literature

Part of the First Impressions project funded by MLA
First Impressions: How printing began
12) Suggested activities
11) Glossary of printing terms
e
10) Timeline: The important dates in early printing and other things happening at the time
9) Printing presses at the John Rylands Library
8) Printing today
7) Who paid for the printing of books?
6) Who read the first printed books?
4) Important printers (1450 – 1500)
3) How and why did printing start in Europe?
2) Who invented printing?
1) What is printing?
Contents
1
Woodblock printing was the first process to be used
on a worldwide scale. Creating a woodblock to print
from is a long process. The cutting of a woodblock
was a great skill, passed down from generation to
generation. The design must be drawn in reverse
and then fine chisels and blades are used to cut
away unwanted wood. The block can then be inked
up
p and the image
g transferred on to cloth or paper.
p p
Woodblock printing
d replica
replic woodblock.
St Christopher print and
In order to get images and text to appear the right
way around they have to be put on to the printing
blocks backwards. It‛s not easy to draw and write
back to front so sometimes
times mistakes could be made.
Why back to front?
What is printing?
We don‛t know exactly
how Gutenberg created hiss
letters but within a few
Movable metal type
. Notice how the lett
years there was a common backwa
ers arre
rds.
method: a steel rod was
cut with a letter (in relief)
at one end; the letter on the rod was hammered into a block of copper leaving
eaving
an impression of the letter; the copper was put into a mould and liquid metal
was poured into the mould and left to set. Of course you couldn‛t just have
ave
one of each letter - you needed lots of the same letter in both lowercase
se and
uppercase, as well as punctuation, to make up a whole page. Many pages of
type might have been prepared at the same time – think about how many
y
letters would be needed for just one page!
The earliest movable type
presses, invented in China,
used clay (especially
porcelain which is very
hard). Later on wood was
used and then metal.
Movable type was not
used in Europe until
Gutenberg came up with
the idea of movable type
made from cast metal.
Movable type printing uses pieces of metal type, which can be
reorganised in any order. The letters can be used in one order to print
one page and then moved around to print something else. This process
allows for much more flexibility and speed compared to woodblock printing.
Movable Type
2
ust
o make j
…?
t
w
s
o
n
in
k
k
s
u
l
anima
Did yo
und 170
o
r
a
k
o
o
It t
Inks
It is very important to use the right ink when printing. Oil
Oil-based inks had
been used since the 10th century but they smeared when used on vellum.
They were discarded in favour of water-based inks. However
Howev printers had
a problem as water-based ink would not stay on the metal blocks and so
they returned to oil-based ink which coated the metal better.
bet
Can you tell which is papyrus, parchment and paper?
?
Did you know…
e oil.
rly inks was oliv
The base for ea
Did you kn
ow…?
Legend say
s that Ts‛a
i Lun was w
making the
atching a w
walls of its
asp
nest by ch
of bamboo
ewing up p
, mixing th
ie
e
ces
m
working th
with its sa
e mixture
li
v
a
t
h
e
n
into a flat
He copied
sheet with
the wasp (w
its feet.
ith his han
feet!), usin
ds not mou
g bamboo a
th and
nd water t
flat sheet
hen spread
to dry in t
in
he sun.
g the
.
one bible
Before the introduction of paper people wrote on
parchment or vellum, which is made from animal skin.
The skin was scraped to remove the hair or wool,
washed in lime to get rid of the grease, washed in
clean water, stretched out dry and then scraped to
make it smooth and thin enough.
Paper is made from natural materials – early paper
was made from cloth fibres, and later from wood pulp.
Our word paper comes from "papyrus", although
papyrus isn‛t paper as it is made in a different way
and not from pulp (mashed up natural materials).
Papyrus was first made around 3500 BC by the
ancient Egyptians who used strips from the papyrus
reeds which they soaked, made into a cross pattern
and pressed into sheets. Paper more like we use today
was invented in China in about AD 705 by a scholar
called Ts'ai Lun.
Paper making started in Europe around 200
years before Gutenberg. Many copies of the
Gutenberg Bible, the first book printed using
movable type, was printed on paper from
Northern Italy. Paper was cheaper to make than
other materials although the cost of printing
still meant that it took another few hundred
years before books were available to all.
What did early printers print on?
Answer: left to right,
rig
ght,, paper,
paper,
p ,p
parchment
archment and p
papyrus.
apy
pyrus.
py
3
Chinese
p
ing
apermak
Did you know…?
be two of
ing are considered to
Printing and papermak
e
of China, along with th
s
ion
nt
ve
In
t
ea
Gr
ur
the Fo
r.
compass and gunpowde
A screw press
similar to the
one
Gutenberg crea
ted.
…?
as they
Did you know
ful in China,
e
s
u
o
s
‛t
n
s
a
w
and so
Movable type
rent letters
e
f
if
d
f
o
s
d
n
he
have thousa
r each one. T
o
f
k
c
lo
b
a
to
eate
cated shapes
li
p
needed to cr
m
o
c
o
ls
a
rs were
g‛s
ks. Gutenber
Chinese lette
c
lo
b
e
th
to
tely in
reating
carve accura
tters made c
le
l
ta
e
m
g
n
sti
task.
method of ca
ers an easier
tt
le
d
te
a
c
li
p
com
Did you
kn
China wa ow…?
s also be
ginning t
than one
o print in
colour b
m or e
y 1340.
T best way to get an even print is to use a printing
The
press. A printing press applies pressure to the printing
pr
g
block to transfer the ink on to paper or cloth.
bl
G
Gutenberg, the German goldsmith, who invented the
movable metal type, also came up with the first
m
m
mechanical press. This had a screw to lower the plate
an
d
and add pressure to the inked surface. He created and
re
revealed his first press around 1450. By 1500 there
were printing presses in 60 German towns.
we
Pr
Printing Presses
Printing is thought to be one of the most important inventions ever made by
humans and started in China as long ago as 600AD. Early Chinese printing was
used to print playing cards and money but later they also used movable type long before Gutenberg came up with his idea of casting metal letters.
A Chinese inventor called Bi Sheng realised that instead of creating one big
block, if he created individual letters they could be put together and printed,
then rearranged to print something else. Printed books included classics by
Confucius,
books.
onfucius, Buddhist scriptures, dictionaries and mathematical
m
Who were the first people to use printing?
Printing is the method of reproducing text or images. Traditionally this uses
a wood or metal block or plate where the image or text you want to produce
is cut into the block. This is then coated in ink and pressed onto a surface.
Using printing methods usually means you can produce more than one copy
of something. For book making, methods where you can print many copies
before the block wears out are used.
What is printing?
Who invented printing?
4
ten on
bark
Did you know…?
y include
e John Rylands Librar
The collections at Th
ials
ole variety of mater
wh
a
on
ng
iti
wr
of
es
exampl
, bamboo
, papyrus, bark, bone
af
le
na
na
ba
g,
in
ud
cl
in
and clay.
ok, writ
Batak m
agic bo
What iis the
difference between a manuscript
Wh
h diff
nuscriptt an
and
d an e
early printed
book?
The word ‘Manuscript‛ means something ‘written by hand‛; in Latin
‘Manus‛ means hand and ‘Scriptum‛ means writing. A printed book is not
written by hand; instead it is printed from carved or cast letters and
images. It can get a little confusing as early printed books looked a lot
like manuscripts. When books first started being printed, some still had
hand-done decoration or illustrations.
An English
ish manuscriptt
Did you kn
ow…?
A handwritt
ten single
copy of
the Bible c
ould take o
ne person
2 to 3 year
s to write.
Manuscripts
Before the introduction of printing in Europe, books had to be written
by hand. Handwritten items were called manuscripts. Usually they were
produced by teams of people all working on different elements such as
the writing, drawing and
a colouring but even with a group of people one
book took a long time to produce. This meant that books cost a lot of
money and only the rrichest people would have been able to afford to
have them - not many were made. Some were beautifully hand
which made them even more expensive. Bibles or a
illustrated as well, wh
illu
Book
k of Ho
(conta
fferent times) were a common
c mmon
co
Hours (containing
prayers for different
thing to have
ve produce
produ
produced for rich families.
How did they make books before movable type printing?
Alphabet on bamboo
Since 30,000BC people have been communicating in recorded
ways such as cave paintings. Writing developed around 3,300BC
as marks pressed into clay then Egyptian hieroglyphs and other
similar languages and more recently letters similar to those we
use today. Before books (pages bound together) people wrote
on other materials and scrolls.
How did people communicate before printed books?
How and why did printing start in Europe?
5
ficult as
if
d
e
?
.
it
.
u
know.
n be q
Did you rinting block ca back to front.
ap
rved
Making
to be ca
s
a
h
g
in
everyth u think this is?
yo
Why do
Did yo
u
Compli know...?
cated a
nd det
take on
ail e
e man
o
ver a m d woodblocks
long ho
urs eve
o
c
ry day. nth to carve, ould
workin
g
Did you know…?
Often the finished bo
ok was bought as just
the printed pages.
The owner then had to
take it to be bound and,
if they chose,
decorated.
Can you tell wh
which one of these page is a manuscript and which one is printed?
Because it was much cheaper to print items than write them out
by hand, more people started producing books. A lot more
passed
information was suddenly available to people and could be passe
ed
from place to place.
Because they were so expensive and took such a long time to
produce the number of manuscript books in Europe was limited.
People were looking for a quicker, cheaper way to produce books.
Printing allowed many books to be produced quickly and made the
e
process cost less, which meant more people (although still only
rich people) could afford them. By 1500, after only 50 years of
printing, millions of books had been produced using the new
movable type method. The first printed books looked a lot like
manuscripts in appearance.
Why print books?
Eventually people thought of the idea of printing to make multiple
copies of a book. The printing method they used was called
woodblock printing. Woodblock printing was not that effective
for making books as not many copies could be made and it was still
stiill
very expensive. The design for a page had to be carved into a
wooden block. This meant you needed a different block for every
y
single page of a book. The wood was also not very strong and afte
er
after
10 - 50 prints bits would start to break and fall off. Woodblock
type..
printing came to Europe only a few decades before movable type
Woodblock printing
Answer: the one on the left is a manuscript and the one on the right a printed book.
6
age
Did you know…?
type in the English langu
ble
va
mo
th
wi
ed
int
pr
is held by
The first book
e book, a copy of which
Th
.
es
ug
Br
in
ed
int
pr
y
ies
was actuall
e Recuyell of the Histor
Th
d
lle
ca
s
wa
,
ry
ra
Lib
The John Rylands
by Caxton in 1471.
of Troye and was printed
The Recuyell of the Histories
of Troy
Mainz
Did you know..
.?
Printed items b
etween 1450 an
d 1500
are collectively
known as incuna
bles
from the Latin
word for cradle
because they w
ere produced d
uring
the early years
of printing.
Johnann Gutenberg was a goldsmith by trade who came
from the town of Mainz in Germany. He is thought to be
the first person in Europe to use movable type. He revealed
ng movable type around 1450 and it
his idea for printing using
didn‛t take long to spread
ad across Europe.
Where did movable printing start?
Over the following centuries printing became simpler and less
expensive and pamphlets, newspapers and magazines all began
to appear as well as books.
By 1476 an Englishman named William Caxton, who had seen
the new printing invention in the printing workshops of Europe,
set up a printing press in Westminster. Caxton was England‛s
first printer.
By 1471 presses using Gutenberg‛s method had been set up in
Bamberg, Nuremburg, Augsburg, Cologne and Strasburg.
Others were set up at a similar time in Basel and Konstanz in
Switzerland; Subiaco, Rome, Venice and Bologna in Italy;
Seville in Spain; and in Paris, France.
Word spread about the new way to produce books. Handwritten
books could not compete with the low cost and speed of making
printed books although manuscripts still remained popular with
some rich people.
How did printing get to England?
Westminster
7
(c1400-1468)
Less than 48 copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to still exist and of
these only
The John Rylands
Library
one.
y 21 are complete.
p
y
y has a complete
p
What did he print?
Gutenberg printed 180 copies of the Bible in
n Latin between 1450 and 1455.
1455
Coloured illuminations and initials were hand drawn after the pages were
printed and the text is printed without paragraphs or spacing as we are
accustomed to today. Most copies of the Gutenberg bible were printed on
paper with a few copies on vellum. He also printed other items although
the Gutenberg Bible is the most famous.
Gutenberg Bible
Who was he and why is he important?
Johan
nn G
Johann
Gutenberg was born in Mainz in Germany in
aroun
nd 1400.
1
around
Gutenberg is known as the inventor of
Europ
pe‛s first movable type printing press.
Europe‛s
This m
mac
machine meant the mass production of printed
bookss wa
ossible for the first time.
was possible
Joha
Johann
ann Gutenberg
Did you kno
w…?
Gutenberg g
rew up in an
area well kn
and was pro
ow for wine
bably familia
making
r
with the pr
getting the
esses used
juices from
f
or
the grapes.
where he go
This is likely
t the idea f
t
o be
o
r
a screw prin
You never k
now where y
ting press.
ou might fin
idea!
d your next
good
8
The cost of his invention and a shortage of customers
meant that Gutenberg made very little money.
Gutenberg had borrowed money from a man called
Johann Fust for his new invention but couldn‛t afford
to pay the money back so he had to give the presses to
Fust. This means that despite coming up with such an
amazing invention he didn‛t sell very much at all and
died poor. It was only after his death that his
accomplishments were recognised.
What‛s his story?
Not much is know about Gutenberg‛s early life for
sure but it is thought he moved from Mainz in 1430
to Strasburg to work with gold and metals where he
was known for coming up with new technology in
jewellery-making techniques. His work as a goldsmith
and knowledge about casting metal must have helped
him to come up with the idea of casting movable
letters.
The men who developed printing left very little evidence about their lives. This is very different to today when the inventors of new
technology are better known and their life histories and achievements can be accessed through a click of a mouse. Printers often had
their own mark, a symbol that was put on all the books that they printed. This can help us to identify who printed a book.
Important printers working between 1450 - 1500
A bible printed by Nicolas Jenson.
What did he print?
Jenson‛s early Roman typeface was first used in a book he
printed in 1470. The book was by a Classical author called
Eusebius and a copy is held at The John Rylands Library.
What‛s his story?
Jenson learned how to use movable type printing when he
worked in Mainz where Gutenberg had set up the first
movable type press. He could have even studied with
Gutenberg but this is not known for certain. He moved to
Venice in 1467, opened his own print shop and remained
there until his death in 1480.
Who was he and why is he important?
Born in France in 1420, Nicolas Jenson was an engraver, printer
and typeface (letter) designer. He is thought to have designed
the first ‘Roman‛ typeface. This was similar to the ‘Times New
Roman‛ font that we still use today. This typeface was widely
copied and inspired other typefaces. Jenson‛s early Roman
typeface was first used in a book he printed in 1470. He also
designed a Greek typeface which he used for quotations in his
books and a Black Letter typeface which he used specifically
for books on medicine and history.
Nicolas Jenson (1420-1480)
An illustrated letter from
Historia Naturalis.
turalis.
9
Psalter pr
rint by Fust and Schöffer.
printed
Did you know
…?
Some people
think Johann
Fust tried to
more for the
trick people in
first Gutenbe
to paying
rg Bibles by p
handwritten m
assing them o
anuscripts an
ff as
d that it was
began to see
only when cust
that every co
omers
py was exactl
found out and
y the same th
forced to bri
a
t
he was
ng down the p
rice.
er Schöffer.
S höffer.
Schöffe
Book printed by Fust and Peter
What did they print?
The first book published by their firm was a Psalter (a volume
containing the Book of Psalms, used in church services).
The 1459 Psalter is the first printed book to bear a date.
Only ten copies survive, all printed on vellum and the Library
has one.
Fust died in 1466 and Schöffer continued the business under
his own name and in partnership with Fust‛s sons. In 1470 he
issued the first bookseller‛s advertisement, which listed the
printed books available from his print shop.
Schöffer‛s close relationship with Fust has led some people
to believe that Schöffer had been sent to spy on Gutenberg
and learn about the new printing process. Whatever the true
story, Fust and Schöffer entered into partnership and made
lots of money using the new process.
Peter Schöffer worked in Gutenberg‛s print shop. When he
was young he had been sent by Fust to Paris, to train as a
calligrapher and engraver. Later he married Fust‛s daughter,
Christina.
What‛s their story?
Johann Fust lent Gutenberg the money to set up his first
printing press and when Gutenberg couldn‛t afford to pay
him back Fust took over the presses.
Who were they and why are they important?
Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer printed the first book to
bear a date. They also developed the process of printing in
more than one colour.
Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer (c1425-1503)
10
nter‛s
n‛s pri
o
t
x
a
mC
Willia
mark.
What did he print?
Caxton produced more than 100 titles in his lifetime
including Chaucer‛s The Canterbury Tales. His books
were known for their craftsmanship and careful editing.
He also translated many of the books he published using
his knowledge of Latin, Dutch and French.
During his work in Europe he became associated with
the sister of the English king, Edward IV. She became
one of his most important patrons and encouraged him
with his translation of The Recuyell of the Histories of
Troye, from French into English. Caxton spent time in
Germany where he became really interested in the art
of printing. He then returned to Bruges in 1472 where
he set up his own press with the Flemish calligrapher
Colard Mansion. He realised his English translations
would be most appreciated in England and so in 1476 he
returned to London and set up a press in Westminster,
the first printing workshop in England.
What‛s his story?
Caxton was born in Kent in 1422 but moved to London
at the age of sixteen and became apprentice to a
merchant. He moved to Belgium several years later
and became a successful and important cloth merchant.
W
Who was he and why is he important?
W
William Caxton was an English merchant who lived
a
and studied in Germany in the early 1470s. This is
w
where he learnt how to print. Caxton was the first
person to print a book in the English language and
p
tthe first person to bring movable type printing
tto England.
William Caxton (c1422-1492)
The
ok called
o
b
a
d
e
d by
int
is create
axton pr
e
C
g
a
m
a
im
li
il
W
. The
ry Tales
Canterbu odblock.
wo
a carved
Did you know
…?
The collectio
n of Caxton‛s
printed work
The John Ryla
at
nds Library is
one of the be
and most com
stt
plete in the w
orld.
11
A book printed by Sweynheym and
nd Pannartz.
Pannartz
z.
The decoration would have been added after
printing.
What did they print?
In Rome they printed a series of twenty-eight books in editions
of up to 300 copies, which equals 8,400 books! They must have
over-estimated the market for their books, as they failed to sell
and in 1472 they applied for money from the Pope. Luckily the
Pope had an interest in printing and with his help they were able
to print more books. After they went their separate ways
Sweynheym took up metal engraving and printed some fine maps.
The two printers were asked to set up a press at the Benedictine
Monastery of Subiaco in Italy by the Cardinal in 1464.
Sweynheym and Pannartz printed just three books in Subiaco
before relocating to Rome and then finally going their separate
ways; although both continued printing.
What‛s their story?
Not much is known about the early lives of these two printers
but it is believed that Pannartz was born in Prague and
Sweynheym in Germany. It is unknown how the two met but it
is believed that Sweynheym worked with Johann Gutenberg.
Who were they and why are they important?
Sweynheym and Pannartz are credited with bringing Gutenberg‛s
printing press invention to Italy. They also developed a more
rounded, less ‘spiky‛ typeface than those used in Germany.
Konrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannartz
Rome
12
A bound copy of an Aldus
Manutius printed book.
A Greek mythology book printed by Aldus
Manutius.
Ald s Manuti
M
utiuss
What did he print?
Before Manutius, books were normally printed in runs of 100 to
250 books - his press issued runs of 1,000 books. He printed many
first editions of literary and philosophical texts including five
volumes of Aristotle‛s work. Manutius is believed to have
produced an estimated 120,000 books. The John Rylands Library
has a world-class collection of Aldine Press books.
He was a teacher, scholar and translator as well as an important
printer. His work bears his printer‛s mark of a dolphin wrapped
around an anchor.
He formed a partnership in 1495 with his future father-in-law
Andrea Torresani and Pierfrancesco Barbarigo. He is known for
designing the book as we know it today, as his classical texts are
similar in size and format to modern paperbacks. The production
of these books was made possible by the creation of a new style
of typeface – italic. This typeface was smaller and took up less
room on the page which meant that books could be made smaller
and also cheaper.
What‛s his story?
Born in Italy in 1449, he studied in Rome and Ferrara. He moved
to Venice in 1490 set up the Aldine Academy of Hellenic Scholars
(promoting the works of the great Greek classical philosophers
and scientists) and started to publish their texts.
Who was he and why is he important?
Aldus Manutius is an important figure in early Italian printing.
He is remembered for his passion to print the Greek classics
and for his many typeface designs including his ‘italic‛ typeface.
He started a printing company called the Aldine Press.
Aldus Manutius (1449-1515)
113
inter‛s mark.
Aldus Mautius‛s Pr
Did you kn
ow…?
The first E
uropean Un
iversity wa
By the end
s founded
of the 13t
in Bologna
h century
in many cit
in 1119.
u
niversities
ies across
h
ad been st
E
urope - inc
in England.
arted
luding Oxf
They provid
ord and Ca
ed new pla
demands f
m
bridge
ces to lear
or books o
n and crea
n all subje
ted new
cts.
ent
as entertainm
s
.?
e
..
ri
w
o
o
st
n
k
g
u
in
o
ll
y
Did
round te
ssible
ad travelled a
the more acce
d
se
u
m
e
th
f
Storytellers h
eo
read
of years. Som
orally or even
ll
te
to
s
e
for thousands
ri
o
meant
r write. This
to gain more st
o
s
d
k
a
o
o
re
b
t
d
o
n
te
n
ld
pri
o co u
ase in
any people wh
rom the incre
f
it
f
e
n
e
b
them to the m
ld
u
co
very poorest
that even the
subjects.
books on new
A woodcut of someone reading.
di
As books and other printed material became cheaper,
reading and writing became more common. Books and
other reading matter were no longer available only to
the wealthiest. The middle classes became one of the
largest sections of society to take up reading and book
collecting. People began to learn about subjects they
had not had access to before - such as science,
geography, and history. Previous generations had rarely
gone more than 20 miles from their birthplace, whereas
now whole families became interested in travel, other
cultures and exploration.
Could everyone read?
The first mass-produced printed work was Gutenberg‛s
Bible of 1455. Although it was a cheaper process you still
had to have plenty of money to own one. There must have
been enough people with enough money as all the copies he
made were sold. Over the following centuries - as it
became simpler and less expensive to print items pamphlets, newspapers and magazines all began to appear
as well as books.
What did they read?
Although early printed books were cheaper than manuscript
books they were still expensive. The Roman Catholic Church
had the money and interest to buy books. Printers sometimes
set up their presses near important churches so they were
close to their customers, and as a result a lot of printed
material was religious.
Who read the books?
Who read the books?
14
Today we often take the availability of information for granted.
Most people can now read and own books and magazines. In the
way it allowed access to new information we could compare the
invention of the printing
ng press to the invention of the internet.
We often associate technology with speed. Today information
in the form of text messaging means that the communication of
thoughts and ideas can be almost instantaneous. The technology
of the printing press allowed the printed word to reach its
audience far more quickly than in the days of manuscripts – in
days rather than months or years. These days it is often carried
out as a large-scale industrial process producing thousands of
copies of a document or book in a very short space of time.
Printing has become a global business with books often getting
typeset in one country and printed and bound in another, then
sent all over the world for sale.
Printing today
Graham Moss operating the Britannia printing press at The John Rylands Library.
Look out for demonstrations and a chance to have a go at creating your own print.
It took several centuries before reading matter became
available to all through places such as public libraries.
Many early printers left the trade as quickly as they had
taken it up, as there was no established way of selling the
books although there were plenty of customers. There was
no advertising as we know it today and people were reliant
on producers of new goods travelling far and wide to sell
their wares. Gutenberg didn‛t manage to make enough
money to keep his workshop in business.
Selling books
Printing large quantities of books could make money for
a printer as long as there were customers who could buy
them. In Gutenberg‛s lifetime, books were still too
expensive for most people to afford and therefore
remained the pleasures of the wealthy and literate.
As we have discussed, book making was very expensive.
The introduction of movable type, printing presses and
paper made it cheaper but it took several more centuries
for printed material to be affordable for everyone.
The cost of making a book
Who paid for the books?
15
Columbian Press.
The Columbian Press is a magnificent machine. It is sometimes
called an ‘Eagle Press‛ because of the American eagle perched
on the counterbalance. The Columbian Press was developed by
an American, George Clymer. Clymer came to England in 1817
after being unable to find a market for his invention in the
USA. By the end of the following year he was successfully
manufacturing presses in this country, and finding a ready
market for them. The Rylands press is particularly important
as it is one of the early machines, probably dating from the
1820s. The press is situated at the end of one of the
Library cloisters.
The Columbian Press
it
i Press.
P
Britannia
There are less then ten known surviving Britannia Presses.
The Britannia Press was made in Leeds by Benjamin Porter, who
was a press manufacturer between 1837 and 1847. Although its
full history is not known, it remained in use as a proofing press
in a commercial print shop until the 1970s, when the owner made
it a gift to the Library. The Britannia Press can be found in the
e Library.
historic entrance to the
The Britannia Press
Although iron hand presses replaced wooden machines at the beginning of the 1800s, they operated on the same general principles
as the presses used by Gutenberg and Caxton over three hundred years earlier. These two presses are therefore not only
interesting historical artefacts in their own right, but they are also working presses - enabling us to recreate the processes by
which printed books were made from 1450 until the 1800s.
The John Rylands Library has an important collection of historic printing presses. Two presses are particularly significant: the
Columbian Press of c.1820 and the Britannia Press of c.1870.
Printing presses at the John Rylands Library
16
The Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist scripture, the first dated example of block printing
Gutenberg reveals his new invention of movable metal type
1999 Johann Gutenberg is voted Most Important Person of the Millennium in
internet competition
1565 The modern-style pencil was invented
1499 An estimated 15 million books have been printed, covering 30,000 titles
1499 Printing has become established in more than 2500 cities in Europe
1492 Columbus lands in the Americas
1485 War of the Roses ends. Tudor dynasty begins.
1476 Caxton sets up first printing press in Westminster, England
1470 Caxton moves to Cologne and begins learning the art of printing
1457 Fust and Schöffer produce the first known two-colour printing
1455 War of the Roses begins in England
1455 Gutenberg completes work on his Bible
1450 Gutenberg forms partnership with the wealthy Johann Fust
1440
1423 Europeans use block printing to produce books
1422 William Caxton born in Kent, England
1400 Johann Gutenberg born in Mainz, Germany
1041 Bi Sheng invents movable clay type in China
888
The important dates in early printing and other things happening at the time
Timeline:
1
17
A picture that helps to explain something.
Books printed between 1450 and 1500AD.
A language which is no longer spoken. Many early books were written in Latin and some people still
Illustration
Incunables
Latin
A machine used for applying pressure to make sure an item is printed evenly.
A symbol designed by the printer to identify their work
A way of reproducing words and pictures, usually multiple times.
Any soft or soggy mass. In paper making today it is usually wood pulp.
The style of letter (font). Such as Times New Roman or Arial.
A surface on which to write or print made from animal skins. Widely used before the invention
on of paper.
paper
Printer‛s mark
Printing
Pulp
Typeface
Vellum and parchment
Greeks and Romans.
A writing surface made from strips of the papyrus plant pressed flat, it was used by Ancient Egyptians,
or write on.
Paper is made from a pulp of organic materials such as wood, fabric or grasses and is used to print
Press
Papyrus
Paper
A way of printing using a combination of blocks (usually metal) with words and pictures that can be
movable type
reused in different combinations.
A handwritten book or document.
Manuscript
learn to read it.
An illuminated book is one that has had decoration added such as fancy letters and borders.
s.
Illumination
Glossary of printing words
18
5) You now have a simple blank book
card (too many pages makes it harder to stitch through)
4) Carefully stitch along the fold through the paper and
3) Thread needle with double cotton and knot at the end
2) Fold paper exactly in half and place it inside the card
1) Fold card exactly in half
Instructions:
Strong neutral coloured thread
A sharp sewing needle
Card (thick but so you can push a needle through)
is authentic to the period)
A4 or A3 off-white paper (white will do but off-white
Materials needed:
Option A
people who were skilled in illustration, writing or bookbinding.
Activity 1
(rather than your finger) when you push it through.
through, put a blob of blue tac or plasticine underneath
If the needle feels stiff when you try to push the needle
Top Tip
Every small detail and decoration was applied by hand. Sometimes manuscripts were worked on by two or three
Early manuscript books were completely handmade, from the handwritten texts to the binding of the pages.
Bookmaking
19
Thread needle with double cotton and knot.
Stitch through the pages carefully so that the stitches run from top to bottom (or vice versa).
Repeat this several times until you have enough stitched sets of pages to fill your cover spine.
Stick a length of double-sided tape the exact width of your spine (in this case 25mm) to the
3)
4)
5)
6)
9)
Begin to lay and stick in you sets of pages sticking only the spine of your page sets to the tape from one side to the other until
8)
You now have a blank bound book.
no more sets will fit (make sure you cover all the double sided tape as any sticky areas left will stick to the inside of your cover).
Remove the top surface of the double sided tape.
7)
length of the spine.
Fold the about 3 paper sheets exactly in half and place on top of each other.
the tape must fit this space exactly).
This gives you a 25mm ‘spine‛ to hold your pages. (This can be made wider or thinner but
Draw lines from those marks from top to bottom of the card and fold along these lines.
Measure to the centre of the card and mark 12.5 mm either side of the centre point.
2)
1)
Instructions:
25mm double sided tape
Strong neutral coloured thread
A sharp needle
Card (same height as A4 or A3 but wider to allow for spine fold)
A4 or A3 off-white paper
Materials needed:
of stitched pages to be assembled together giving the maker a thicker and fuller book.
The next task is slightly more complex and introduces the concept of a ‘spine‛ to enable groups
Option B
20
Activity 2
Use the opening page of your handmade book or an off-white sheet.
Draw very faint lines where your lines of text will go making sure there is enough space to fit your writing in.
Draw a square or rectangle where your first capital letter will be at the start of the text (this where a decorative or
3)
4)
5)
6)
Practice (using a quill pen or metal nibbed pen) on scrap paper first; it‛s not as easy as those manuscript writers make it look.
2)
Begin carefully writing out your text being aware of neatness and space.
‘illuminated capital letter will go - see Activity 5).
Find a suitable text to copy (research early printed texts or select, write your own).
1)
Instructions:
Ink printing pad
Pre-cut rubber stamp letters or own cut letters
Your handmade books
Bottles of waterbased ink
Feather quill pens or wooden ‘dip nib‛ pens and nibs
Materials needed:
used in the same way. These were made in various widths so that words could be written thicker or thinner.
Medieval writers used quills (feathers cut to a ‘v‛ shape point with a slit in) that were dipped in ink. Later pens with metal nibs were
manuscript there will be slight differences.
lettering of handwritten books was copied by the first printers. In a printed book the letters look the same everytime, whereas in a
The early medieval handwritten manuscripts and the first printed books looked very similar.The style of the
Manuscripts
21
When you are sure that you have gone over all the lines lift your paper off and go over the lines again to ensure they have a
3)
Wipe across the surface with the scrim, which will remove the ink off the flat areas but leave it in the grooves.
Place the printing plate you have created on the press with dampened paper on top. Adjust the pressure and roll the plate and
5)
6)
Peel the paper off the printing place.
Leave to dry and admire your work!
7)
8)
paper through the press.
Cover the whole of the design in a thin layer of printing ink.
4)
deep enough groove.
Place the paper over the metallic card and using a blunt nail go over your pencil lines.
letters are backwards). Use a mirror to check they will print how you want them.
Draw your design on paper, in pencil, at the size you want to print (remember it will be printed in reverse so make sure all
Activity 3
2)
1)
Instructions:
Mirror
Scrim (a type of fabric)
Printing press
Good quality paper (e.g. cartridge paper)
Printing ink
Blunt object for engraving the design
Metallic card
Materials needed:
press to use this method.
rinting. You will need a
Using metallic card and a blunt nail or pencil you can create your own engraved plate for printing.
Printing: Engraved plate
22
Activity 4
11)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
1)
2)
3)
Create a simple image. You could use just about anything for inspiration! (tip: letters need to be backwards).
Transfer your design on to the lino piece by pressing on your existing traced lines or hand draw it on.
Use your lino cutter to carefully and slowly cut away the lino around the image leaving it raised about 1 to
2mm above the surface.
Squeezing a small ball of ink onto a flat surface and roll the ink roller in the ink until the roller has a thin even coat of ink.
Roll it across the raised lino image until it is coated with the same amount of ink all over.
Lift the lino up and place face down onto the paper.
With a clean roller, roll over the lino back and forth applying pressure all the time.
Lift up the lino from one end carefully and check that your image is consistent in darkness and that all of it has printed.
This is a good time to see if any further lino needs to be removed before further printing (tip: clean your lino after each print).
Practice this as many times as necessary until you are confident you can produce a good clean print.
Instructions:
Pieces of lino (dependent on image size to be printed)
Lino cutter handles and blades
Hand protectors (optional but advised) (available from school supply catalogues)
Lino printing black ink
Hand rollers
Pencils
Your handmade books or sheets of paper
Materials needed:
This task demonstrates how early printed images were produced using block prints. Even after Gutenberg‛s press
was invented, images still had to be produced either by woodblock printing or hand drawing. The St. Christopher
woodcut in the John Rylands Library, is the earliest surviving European woodblock print that bears a date (1423). This is a great image to
reference as a starting point for image printing. Remember, images or lettering must always be cut in reverse to produce an image the
correct way round. This technique was often used for printing the basic line image of the capital letters at the beginning of each page,
which could be hand-coloured after printing. Remember cutting tools are sharp, supervision and a safety
y briefing
g for the children
is essential.
Printing: Lino
23
Either work on the spaces you have left at the beginning of the texts in your handmade books or create as an individual
2)
Decide on a colour scheme for your letter and choose whether to paint it in or use coloured pencils to fill in.
When you have added all the colour and let it dry, you may wish to enhance your capital by using a gold marker to edge
5)
6)
the paint will cause the pen to run.
permanent ink to draw your letter or
Only use watercolours if you have used
TopTip
When you are happy, try using your quill/ dip nib/ fine line marker to go over the line drawing.
4)
the letter or fill in small areas.
Use a pencil to sketch lightly your letter form.
3)
artwork on a single sheet of paper.
Have a look at as many decorative capitals as you can to get ideas for your own.
Activity 5
1)
Instructions:
Handmade books or sheets of paper
Metallic gold markers in varying nib sizes
Coloured pencils or Water-colour paints
Pencil
Feather quills/ dip nib calligraphy pens/ fine line marker pen
Materials needed:
These decorative capitals were often hand drawn and painted, and were sometimes decorated using gold leaf.
Decorative capitals appear in nearly all of the early printed books and range from simplistic black and white large
letter forms to large, hugely colourful and highly illustrated capitals.
Lettering: Decorative capitals
24
Activity 6
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Decide on a set size for every letter.
Use squared paper to measure out that size as a square or rectangle.
Sketch your design using a sharp pencil.
Use a ruler to firm up you design or protractor to make it as exact as possible.
Decide whether to fill in your letter as a solid shape or leave it as an outline only.
You may wish to add colour but think about the reason behind it.
Try writing in your font.
Instructions:
Pencils
Rulers
Squared paper
Plain paper
Quills
Calligraphy pens
Graphics pens or fine nibbed felt pens
Handmade books if required
Materials needed:
Top Tip
Get each pupil to design a different
letter to create the whole alphabet
and then try writing words or
making posters in the font.
We often take lettering for granted. It is around us all the time, but certain fonts have certain meanings or associations to us.
Some are designed for very specific purposes. Investigate different fonts before have a go at designing your own. Designing a
font for a particular reason or use is a good starting point (ie: to warn people, to remind us of a period
history,
easily
read)
riod of
f histor
ory,
y, tto
o be
ee
asil
as
ily
y re
read
ad))
ad
The first movable type fonts were based on existing handwriting styles from the time of the early printers.
For instance, William Caxton‛s first font design was based on the writing of Dutch monks from the early 1400s who copied texts
by hand. These fonts were beautiful but complex to produce as metal type blocks. As printing progressed through the ages, fonts
changed dramatically and we now have thousands of letter designs available to us in the 21st Century.
Typefaces and fonts
25