1. education
2. school

2014-02-07
Kognition interaktion design
Vårterminen 2014
Ståndpunkt
…the significance of actions, and their
intelligibility, resides neither in what is
strictly observable about behavior, nor in a
prior mental state of the actor, but in a
contingently constructed relationship
between observable behavior, embedding
circumstances and intent
Suchman, 1988, 118
Alternativ syn på
interaktionsdesign
The second view focuses on the ways in
which interactional success comprises
responses that are occasioned by, and
responsive to, unanticipated actions of the
other. This focus recommends an interactive
interface that maximizes sensitivity to
actions actually taken, by minimizing
predetermined sequences of machine
behaviour.
Suchman
•  Om planning view of
interaction är riktig
borde interaktiva
kopieringsapparater
funka bra.
•  Det gör de inte
Manual-version av
interaktionsdesign
The first perspective ties successful
interaction to each participant s [human and
machine] success at aniticipating the actions
of the other, and recommends an interactive
interface based on a preconceived model of
the user that supports the prediction of
actions, the specification of recognition
criteria for the actions predicted, and the
prescription of an appropriate response.
Problem med kopiatorn
•  Förstår inte det situerade i
användarnas frågor, hur de tolkar
information etc.
1
2014-02-07
Påverkas av tidigare
interaktion
Tolkas i relation till den fysiskt
närvarande kontexten
Most generally, designer and user share the
expectation that the relevance of each utterance is
conditional on the last; that given an action by one
party that calls for a response, for example, the
other s next action will be a response. The
expectation does not ensure that any next action in
fact will be a response to the last, but it does mean
that, wherever possible, the user will look for an
interpretation of the next action that makes it so.
Suchman, 1988,144
Sekvens XXII
E: Is this what you do? Oh my gosh …while instructions answer questions
about objects and actions, they also pose
problems of interpretation that are solved in
and through the objects and actions to
which the instructions refer Suchman, 1988, 142
Konversation mellan
användare och maskin
• 
• 
• 
• 
Ett antal exempel som visar detta:
Situated inquiry
Conditional relevance of response
Communicative breakdowns
Tolkas om nästa gång
•  Actually re-doing an action frequently
uncovers problems of understanding, not
just because the same terrain is considered
again, but because, considered again, the
terrain is seen differently
•  Sekvens XXI!
Observation
Frequently, it is not simply that we try an
alternative formulation of what we intended
before, but that what we intend is conditional
on the others response. In that sense, our
own intentions are clarified for us by the
response of the other .
2
2014-02-07
Observation
Annat exempel
Most generally, designer and user share the
expectation that the relevance of each utterance is
conditional on the last; that given an action by one
party that calls for a response, for example, the
other s next action will be a response. The
expectation does not ensure that any next action in
fact will be a response to the last, but it does mean
that, wherever possible, the user will look for an
interpretation of the next action that makes it so.
Suchman, 1987, 144
Sammanfattning av
Suchmans ståndpunkt
… in planning to run a series of rapids in a
canoe, one is very likely to sit for a while
above the falls and plan one’s decent. The
plan might go something like: “I’ll get as far
over to the left as possible, try to make it
between those two large rocks, then
backferry hard to the right to make it around
that next bunch.”
But…
“But however detailed, the plan stops short
of the actual business of getting your canoe
through the falls. When it really comes
down to the details for responding to
currents and handling a canoe, you
effectively abandon the plan and fall back
on whatever embodied skills are available to
you.”
Situated action
“The purpose of the plan in this case is not
to get your canoe through the rapids, but
rather to orient you in such a way that you
can obtain the best possible position from
which to use those embodied skills on
which, in the final analysis, your success
depends.”
“I have introduced the term situated action.
That term underscores the view that every
course of action depends in essential ways upon
its material and social circumstances. Rather
than attempting to abstract action away from its
circumstances and represent it as a rational
plan, the approach is to study how people use
their circumstances to achieve intelligent
action”.
(Suchman 1987, p. 50, my italics)!
3
2014-02-07
Mot Lave
Vi börjar med ett exempel
•  Viktväktarpoäng – laga del av en rätt
•  Ta tre fjärdedelar av två tredjedelar av
ett paket keso
•  Hur mycket?
Faktisk lösning
•  Ta två tredjedelar av paketet
•  Lägg i en hög
•  Ta tre fjärdedelar av detta
Ett annat exempel
Thus, take three quarters of two-thirds of a
cup of cottage cheese was not just the
problem statement but also the solution to the
problem and the procedure for solving it (p.
165).
Varför gör han så?
•  Konsument hittar en ost han tror är
felmärkt
•  Letar igenom kyldisken efter en i
liknande storlek för att kolla priset
4
2014-02-07
Det unika i situationen
•  De andra ostarna finns där
•  De har samma storlek ungeför
•  Priset spelar roll för mannen
Men
•  Jämförelsen verkar bara vettig givet en
viss kombination av intressen
(felmärkningen) och situation (ostarna i
kyldisken).
•  Vad hade hänt om han jämfört
Hushållsost med Gruyere?
Jämför med Suchman!
Actually re-doing an action frequently
uncovers problems of understanding, not just
because the same terrain is considered again,
but because, considered again, the terrain is
seen differently
Standardlösningen
•  Jämföra utfall för att ta reda på att en
procedur är korrekt
•  Räkna igenom ngt två gånger
•  Kolla observation med annan
Lave
Also basic to a dialectical approach is a
view that unfolding activity is an open
ended structure-in-progress, and that
reproduction of activities over time is a
production
Lave
…problem solving is never only that,
partly because its routine production also
entails producing conditions for its
reproduction 5
2014-02-07
Laves ståndpunkt
cognition” is constituted in dialectical
terms among people acting, the contexts of
their activity, and the activity itself
Lave, 1988, 148
I can read and knit. Sometimes the process of
knitting gives shape to the reading. I might read
while knitting a row, but wait to turn the page
until the row is finished, or stop reading in order to
pick up a dropped stitch. At other times I read to
the end of the page before starting a new row,
knitting faster if the plot thickens, slightly tighter
when it gets tense. Knitting projects look more
promising if they don’t require constant attention,
hard-cover books appeal partly because their
pages stay open better. Lave, 1988, 89 - 99
Exempel
Thus to say that grocery displays in supermarkets
influence shoppers’ choices, while these affect
how the store displays products, implies causal
relations between the two, but not a dialectical
relation. A dialectical relation exists when its
component elements are created, are brought into
being, only in conjunction with one another. Lave, 1988, 146
… a shopper pauses for the first time in front of
the generic products section of the market, noting
both the peculiarly plain appearance of the
products … and the relatively low prices… This
information provides potential new money-saving
strategies. This in turn leads the shopper to attend
to the generic products on subsequent shopping
trips. The setting for these future trips is thereby
transformed; any change in the setting within the
arena transforms the activity of grocery shopping
Lave, 1988, 151
Arithmetic in the store
•  Shopper: Now these enchiladas, they re around 55
cents. They were the last time I bought them, but
now every time I come … a higher price
•  Observer: Is there a particular kind of enchilada
you like?
•  Shopper: Well, they come in a, I don t know, I
don t remember who puts them out. They move
things around too. I don t know. •  Observer: What is the kind you are looking for?
•  Shopper: Well I don t know what brand it is.
They re just enchiladas […] Here they are! They
were 65 cents the last time I bought them. Now
they re 69. Isn t that awful?
I shall argue that grocery shopping in the
supermarket acts on price-arithmetic indirectly, by
giving shape to the situation-specific generation of
what it means for something to be problematic in
the supermarket setting. This in turn shapes the
character, meaning and fields for action of price
arithmetic
Lave, 1988, 152
6
2014-02-07
In general, through time, the experienced shopper
transforms an information-rich arena into an
information-specific setting. These
transformations of past experiences, fashioned in
relation with the supermarket setting, form the
basis of what appear to be habitual procedures for
collecting items purchased regularly.
Lave, 1988, 158
… for individual shoppers, the supermarket is a
repeatedly experienced, personally ordered and
edited version of the arena. In this aspect it may be
termed a “setting” for activity. Some aisles in the
supermarket do not exist for a given shopper as
part of her setting, while other aisles are rich in
detailed possibilities. Lave, 1988, 151
Med andra ord (inte Laves)
Med Laves ord
•  Varje konsument möter en annan
uppgift än de andra också när de
närmar sig samma hylla och köper
samma sak
•  Och varje konsument möter en ny
uppgift varje gång hon närmar sig hyllan
This view specifically opposes assumptions either
that activities and settings are isolated and
unrelated, or that some forms of knowledge are
universally insertable into any situation. Different
situations, and indeed different occasions
subjectively experienced as ”the same,” are instead
viewed here as transformations of structuring
resources given a realized form through their
mutually constitutive articulation, weighted in
different proportions from place to place and time
to time. (Lave, 1988, 122)
Jämför!
Jämför!
If there were no such similarities, if each
subject and each task were completely
idiosyncratic, there could be no theory of
human problem solving
Newell et al, 1958, 152
Either we must give up the notion of task
environment as a useful explanatory construct
or grant that there is a core task environment
shared by all performers of a task, and that a
variety of actions may be performed that do
not fall within that task environment,
narrowly construed, but that alter is cognitive
congeniality (Kirsh, 445).
7
2014-02-07
Problemlösning i affären
In sum, an activity-insetting that is labeled by
its practitioners as a
routine chore is in fact a
complex improvisation
Lave, 1988, 159
Likewise, in this specific setting, the
articulation between person-acting and
setting is such that the problem-solving
processes are on whole malleable…
Persons-acting are free to transform, solve
or re-solve a problem, or abandon it in favor
of other options. Lave, 1988, 156
Jämför
Jämför
…definiteness of problem structure is
largely an illusion that arises when we
systematically confound the idealized
problem that is presented to an idealized
(and unlimitedly powerful) problem solver
with the actual problem that is to be
attacked by a problem solver with limited
(even if large) computational capacities Simon, 1973, 186
We may ask instead how problem solvers of
familiar kinds can go to work on problems
that are, in important respects, ill strucured
… perhaps we have exaggerated the
essentiality of definte structure for the
applicability and efficacy of these
techniques. Simon, 1973, 187
Jämför
Vad är problemet?
This way of thinking treats the agent as having a
more cooperative and interactional relation with
the world: The agent both adapts to the world as
found and changes the world, not just
pragmatically, which is a first-order change, but
epistemically, so that the world becomes a place
that is easier to adapt to.
K&M 1994, 546
Shopper: I ll get the one that talks back
[referring to commercial]
Observer: Why?
Shopper: Others would have been more
trouble
8
2014-02-07
Vad är problemet?
Jämför med Just say no
Observer: So what are you going to do in this case?
Shopper: In this case what have we got here? I ll try
to do it quickly in my head… They don t have the
large, um –
Daugher: Kraft Barbecue Sauce?
Shopper: Yeah, so what I m going to do is, I m
going to wait and go to another store, when I m at
one of the other stores, because I d like to try this.
…circumstances that make it feasible to
abandon a calcuation lead to fewer completed
calculations, but more correct ones, than if no
option but calculation were available (p.
167).
Very often a process of resolution occurs in
the setting with the enactment of the
problem, and it may transform the problem
for the solver. These relations are, finally,
generative and dialectical in nature. Lave, 1988, 169
9