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FJL.2 – LEARNING BY OBSERVATION:
CAN A COGNITIVE PROCESS BE TRANSFORMED
INTO A POWERFUL REHABILITATION TOOL
IN THE PRESENCE OF INTELLECTUAL
DISABILITIES?
Responsabile scientifico del progetto
FRANCESCA IRENE FOTI
Università Sapienza di Roma – Fondazione Santa Lucia
Fondation Jérôme-Lejeune – Finanziamento 2013
Sezione III: Attività per progetti
PARTNERS
1 – Fondazione Santa Lucia, Università Sapienza di Roma (Dipartimento
di Psicologia): Francesca Irene Foti
2 – Università Sapienza di Roma (Dipartimento di Psicologia), Fondazione
Santa Lucia: Laura Petrosini
3 – Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Roma: Stefano Vicari
4 – Università di Napoli Parthenope (DiSIST), Fondazione Santa Lucia:
Laura Mandolesi
5 – Università di Napoli Parthenope (DiSIST): Giuliana Valerio
6 – Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Palidoro (Roma): Antonino Crinò
7 – Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Roma: Deny Menghini
8 – Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Roma: Paolo Alfieri
RATIONALE
New competencies may be learned both through active experience and
observation of others’ experiences. Observing another person performing a
complex action accelerates the observer’s acquisition of the same action,
multiplies learning opportunities, limits the time-consuming process of learning
by trial and error, and reduces the practice needed to learn the skill [Bird, Heyes,
2005]. So, learning by observing and imitating experts is an accelerator of
learning [Meltzoff et al., 2009; Petrosini, 2007]. Observational learning does not
just involve copying an action but it requires that the observer transforms the
observation into an action as similar as possible to that of the actor in terms of
the goal to be reached and the motor strategies to be applied [Meltzoff, Decety,
2003]. Observational learning requires the coordination of complex cognitive
functions such as action representation, attention, effort and motivation and at
same time understanding others’ gestures, reading their minds and emotions
and making inferences about their behaviors [Gallese, Goldman, 1998; Grezes,
Decety, 2001]. Observational learning is already present at birth [Meltzoff et al.,
2009; Nadel, Butterworth, 1998] and it is crucial for developing complex abilities
such as language, social responsiveness, the use of instruments to get things done
[Meltzoff, Decety, 2003]. In children, learning new competencies by observing
adults or peers is a central process in cognitive development [Fenstermacher,
Saudino, 2006]. Despite its central role in both learning and social cognition,
developmental studies of observational learning still are rare and even more rare
are studies documenting the capacities of children and adolescents with
intellectual disabilities (ID) to learn by observation.
The objective of this research project is by means of innovative learning
tasks, to analyze the ability to learn by observation or by trial and error in Down
syndrome (DS), Williams syndrome (WS) and Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS), in
order to facilitate interventions that develop the acquisition of new cognitive and
motor abilities permitting better social integration and development of selfefficacy and self-confidence as well as devising new methods of teaching and
educational practices.
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Learning by observation and by trial and error will be assessed through
two innovative tasks: the first one (LEGO) requires to assemble structures
with geometric properties (Lego® bricks), while the second one (v-LEGO)
requires to detect a visuo-motor sequence (virtual squares). The employment
of two tests designed for different age ranges appears to be a strength point of
the present research project. In fact, the LEGO task is designed to analyze
performances at an early age (from 2 to 5 years). Since this task does not
include verbal instructions can be given even to non-verbal children. v-LEGO
task is suitable and qualified to analyze performances in older children and
adolescents (from 5 years onwards).
Importantly, it will be possible to investigate how the abilities of learning by
observation exhibited by individuals with DS, WS and PWS might be used to
acquire new competencies during the difficult process toward autonomy.
Moreover, the results of the present research project will allow developing
specific programs to facilitate the acquisition of new cognitive and motor
competencies allowing better social integration and development of self-efficacy
and self-confidence. Furthermore, the results will allow devising new methods of
teaching and educational practices.
The project main purpose is to develop specific strategies to treat and
improve the learning and memory processes of individuals affected by genetic
illness, with focus also on the early childhood.
CURRENT STATUS OF RESEARCH ON THIS SUBJECT
As underlined in the previous section, developmental studies of observational
learning still are rare and even more rare are studies documenting the capacities
of children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID) to learn by
observation [Menghini et al., 2011; Nadel et al., 2011].
By employing an innovative task based on learning to detect a visuo-motor
sequence of correct items either by seeing do it or by actually doing it, our
research team recently demonstrated that in the presence of developmental
dyslexia the ability to learn by observation a previously observed visuo-motor
sequence is markedly impaired, while the ability to detect the sequence of correct
items by trial and error is preserved [Menghini et al., 2011]. Furthermore, their
impaired ability to learn by observation can be reversed by a previous actual
execution of the task that may supply a powerful learning mechanism.
These results that have had important implications for developing
interventions stimulating and improving learning in dyslexic population, will allow
also people with ID an increase of their possibilities of learning in various domains.
Learning abilities will be analyzed in three different populations with ID,
whose cognitive profile is known but learning properties require further analysis.
Namely, WS subjects are severely impaired in visuo-spatial processing
ability, number manipulation, planning and implicit learning [Atkinson et al.,
2001, 2003; Bellugi, St George, 2001; Vicari et al., 2001, 2007]. WS subjects
have difficulty in maintaining visuo-spatial, but not visuo-object, information
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in working memory and in performing long-term memory tasks [Vicari et al.,
2005, 2006]. Furthermore, WS individuals have difficulties on spatial tasks
including remembering locations [Paul et al., 2002], judging spatial relations
between stimuli presented simultaneously [Farran, Jarrold, 2005], and
exploring to search multiple rewards [Foti et al., 2011; Mandolesi et al., 2009].
People with DS show reduced performance in both visual-spatial and visualobject tests as well as reduced verbal short-term memory span [Menghini et al.,
2011; Vicari, Carlesimo, 2006]. Taken together, these results reinforce the view
that intellectual disability is not a unitary condition with homogeneous slowness
of cognitive development but encompasses a variety of conditions in which some
cognitive functions may be more disrupted than others. Actually, despite the
cognitive profiles of WS and DS people are deeply studied, there are no studies
that assess their observational learning.
Conversely of WS and DS syndromes, the cognitive profile of PWS syndrome
is not yet well investigated. In addition, not all PWS patients exhibit the same
cognitive profile. The differences in specific cognitive domains have been
correlated with different genotypes of this syndrome [Dykens, 2002]. Very
recently we investigated PWS spatial abilities by using a Radial Arm Maze
(RAM) task [Foti et al., 2011]. We trained PWS individuals with the deletion
subtype in two different RAM paradigms that tapped different aspects of spatial
memory. The findings evidenced the impairment of PWS individuals in solving
the RAM task. Their spatial deficits may be related to the malfunctioning of
spatial and motor integrative processing.
Given the almost total lack of studies that investigate observational learning
in the presence of specific ID, seems mandatory to investigate the abilities of
learning by observation of DS, WS and PWS individuals to promote specific
therapeutic intervention programs focused mainly on acquisition of new
abilities and competencies.
PROJECT OBJECTIVES
The present project is aimed at studying the learning by observation or by
trial and error in DS, WS and PWS individuals in order to create effective tools
of intervention to improve the acquisition of new abilities and competencies.
With this goal, we will proceed following the outlined steps below.
First, the individuals with DS, WS and PWS will be submitted to an extensive
neuropsychological battery to delineate their cognitive profile. Afterwards, they
will be tested through the two tasks of learning by observation and learning by
trial and error according to their mental and chronological age. Finally, the
results will be analyzed in order to provide a more detailed picture of their
cognitive abilities and to promote therapeutic intervention programs that
develop and improve the acquisition of new abilities and competencies as well
as the best teaching approach. In fact, the results obtained with the two tasks will
have important implications for developing interventions to stimulate and
improve learning. In school, teaching may be based on first showing how a task
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should be executed and then allowing to actually perform it. Conversely, teaching
may be based on first allowing to actually perform a task and then showing how
to perform the task previously experienced. The data that will be obtained will
be able to indicate which teaching strategy has the superior learning power
according to the specific learning disabilities. Furthermore, the results of the
present project will allow to verify whether a specific teaching strategy may be
extended to different learning practices.
MATERIAL, METHODS AND METHODOLOGY
Participants and neuropsychological assessment
Forty children and adolescents with DS, 40 with WS, 40 with PWS, and 40
with typically developing (TD) individuals will be recruited. All the individuals
with DS, WS and PWS come from the Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù of
Rome and Palidoro (Rome), where periodically receive medical examinations
and neuropsychological assessments. The control group will be comprised of 40
TD children and adolescents to match the DS, WS and PWS groups on the basis
of mental age (MA) and socio-economic criteria. Individuals with DS, WS and
PWS will be tested at the Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù in Rome or
Palidoro (Rome), while TD forming the control group will be individually
evaluated at school in a quiet room. Informed consent will be requested from
each child and their parents.
A short description of the neuropsychological battery that will be
administered to individuals is reported below.
– Cognitive global level: Stanford-Binet intelligence Scale, Form L-M, [Bozzo,
Mansueto Zecca, 1993]; Raven’s progressive Matrices [Raven et al., 1986].
– Linguistic abilities: Boston naming test [Nicholas et al., 1989]; Peabody
Picture Vocabulary Test [Dunn and Dunn, 1981]; Grammar Comprehension Test
[Rustioni, 1994].
– Verbal fluency: This task is organized into two different subtests: the
categorical subtest (CAT) and the phonological subtest (FAS) [Riva et al., 2000].
– Short-term memory: Digit forward span test; spatial forward span is
established according to the procedure devised by Corsi [Orsini et al., 1987].
– Visual-spatial abilities: Block Design [WBD; Wechsler, 1986]; Visual Motor
Integration Test [VMI; Beery, 1997].
– Long-term memory: A Visual-Object and a Visual-Spatial Learning Test
[Vicari et al., 2005].
Behavioral learning tasks
After the neuropsychological testing, all individuals, according to their
mental and chronological age, will be tested in the tasks below described.
– LEGO (Learning Enhancement by a Game Observation) – This task does
not include any verbal instruction, so it is also suitable to test very young
children or non-verbal individuals with severe language delay representing
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thus a powerful tool to study the development of the imitative abilities.
Designed to foster creativity and learning, Lego® bricks allow the children to
play and to design different structures and in parallel to develop their motor
skills and problem-solving skills. The subject’s task is to build structures with
geometric properties by assembling bricks.
The task consists in building a little house with some Lego® bricks provided
to child by the experimenter. The participants learn to build the house either by
assembling the bricks after an observational training in which they observe an
actor who builds the house by using the same pieces (Learning by Observation) or
by assembling the bricks to build the house without any demonstration (Learning
by Trial and Error). The behavior of the children will be video-recorded during the
entire trial. All actions of the children will be coded according to three categories:
moves leading to correctly build the house; moves incorrect but related to build
the house; fully inappropriate moves. We will calculate the time employed to
construct the structure, the number of moves to construct it and the number of
demonstrations necessary to build it. The data obtained will be first tested for
normality and homoscedasticity and then compared by using analyses of variance
(ANOVAs) and correlated with data of neuropsychological tests.
– v-LEGO (virtual-Learning Enhancement by a Game Observation) – A 8×8
black matrix appears on a computer touch screen. The individual will be asked
to find a hidden sequence of correct squares prepared in advance by the
experimenters. The sequence will be composed of 10 adjacent spatial positions
in the matrix, which formed a complex snake-like pattern. The participant starts
by touching a grey square, which is the first element of the sequence and is
always lit up. In the search for the second correct position, the participants
touch one of the four black squares bordering the grey square by moving
vertically or horizontally, but never diagonally, in the matrix. If the correct
position is discovered, the touched square turns grey; conversely, if an incorrect
position is touched the square turns red and the last correctly touched square
turns grey until a new correct position is touched. Each touched square (correct
or incorrect) is lit up for 500 ms and then becomes black again; thus, no trace
of the performed sequence remains on the screen. Participants have to start the
sequence again each time they find a new correct position. The same rules are
applied in searching for all new positions [Menghini et al., 2011].
Once again, the participants will learn the sequence either by performing the
task after observing an actor detect the sequence of correct items (observational
training) or by actually performing the task by trial and error. For each trial, errors
and times will be calculated. The data obtained will be first tested for normality
and homoscedasticity and then compared by using analyses of variance
(ANOVAs) and correlated with data of neuropsychological tests.
EXPECTED OUTCOMES
The present research project has the potential to single out the learning
deficits in DS, WS and PWS subjects focusing on their spared learning
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capabilities. Their learning profile will make it possible to build interventions
tailored to each individual affected by DS, WS and PWS in order to facilitate the
acquisition of new cognitive and motor competencies and permit better social
integration and development of self-efficacy and self-confidence. Namely, the
results of the present project can promote progress in three areas: early
intervention programs, learning outside of school, and formal education.
Children are born learning, and how much they learn depends on environmental
input. The recognition that the right input at the right time has cascading effects
can lead to early interventions in children at risk for poor academic outcomes.
Indeed, programs enhancing early social interactions and contingencies do
produce significant long-term improvements in academic achievement and
social adjustment.
WORK PROGRAM
Step 1 (0-10 months):
Participants selection and neuropsychological evaluation.
Step 2 (10-20 months):
Administration of LEGO or v-LEGO task in according to their mental and
chronological age.
Step 3 (20-24 months):
Data analysis and planning of therapeutic interventions.
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