ELF TEST STUDY GUIDE Source Materials: 1.) “Teaching” textbook, Sharleen Kato, Goodheart Wilcox. ISBN 978-1-60525-291-9 2.) Educators Code of Ethics Texas Administrative Code Title19, Part 7, Chapter 247, Rule 247.1-2. 3.) Child Development, Celia Decker, ISBN 978-1-60525-293-3, 4.) Introduction to Teaching 3rd edition Kauchak and Eggan ISBN 13: 978-0-13-199455-3 5.) Early Childhood Education- Jo Ann Brewer-Pearson- ISBN 0-205-49145-6 6.) Children the Early Years- Celia Decker-Goodheart Wilcox- ISBN- 1-56637-945-8 7.) Parents and their Children- Ryder and Decker- Goodheart Wilcox- ISBN- 1-59070-116-X Child development: Concrete Thinking is thinking about actual experiences and tangible things. Abstract Thinking is thinking about ideas and concepts apart from their concrete existence. Four types of development are: • Cognitive development -‐ The development of a child’s thinking and reasoning ability. • Physical development – The development based on growth of the body • Social development – The development based on the environment and relationships • Emotional development – The development of feelings about oneself and other people. It is also about the growth of confidence and independence. • Symbolic Pay -‐ The developing ability to use actions, objects, or ideas to represent other actions, objects, or ideas. At around 18 months of age, children use one object to represent another object and engage in one or two simple actions of pretend play. For example, the child may: Build a fort out of dominoes Normal growth patterns follow a predictable sequence. Future teachers should study developmental theories because having a basic understanding of child behavior will they help them understand what students are doing and why. It will help them know how to interact with the students, help them plan activities and help them understand the behavior of the students they are teaching. While slight variations in development are normal, significant discrepancies may signal a developmental delay. Developmental delay is a noticeable lag in a particular aspect of development. An example would be children begin walking between 10-‐15 months on average but a child who is not walking by 18 months has a developmental delay and should be evaluated. Kindergarten readiness skills include all of the following: • uses bathroom without help • correctly holds a crayon or marker • can tell a simple story The physical growth and development in children ages five to seven includes all of the following: • Height is largely determined by heredity. • Weight is dependent on nutrition and exercise. • Boys and girls are similar in size. Children in full day kindergarten have an easier transition to first grade. The effects of full day kindergarten are still being studied to determine if full day kindergarten is appropriate for all children. Characteristics of 10-‐12 year olds: • They are called preadolescents or preteens. • They have traits of both children and adolescents. • They are capable of more complex thought. • They focus on their own limitations. Many school districts divide middle school students into their own schools because the brain development at this stage is very different. They are more able to think at a higher level. They began to think faster and are more creative than younger children. However, they lack the mental maturity of the older children. Physical growth and development in adolescence • is marked with rapid increases in height and weight • does not always occur in an orderly pattern • shifts in hormones trigger sexual development During the early teen years, teens gain more independence, but still need to be kept safe. The parent’s and teacher’s role is to set rules and stick with them consistently so the teen is kept safe, while still learning to be independent. Older teens focus less on appearance and more on character, personality and common activities. Conflicts among teens and parents are common because of the struggle for independence and autonomy of teens. This is normal and can impact the classroom because these conflicts also carry over to the teen-‐teacher relationship. Risk-‐taking behavior is common during adolescence for all of the following reasons: • teens feel nothing bad will ever happen to them • teens have more independence and, therefore, opportunity to become involved in risky behaviors • taking risks gives teens a sense of self-‐control Peer pressure plays a large role in risk-‐taking behavior. Teens with a high self-‐esteem are less likely to be involved in risky behavior. Researchers have identifies all 3 behaviors as increasing the likelihood that teens will engage in high-‐risk behavior. These behaviors are: • have low self-‐esteem • have poor grades and struggle in school • do not communicate well with parents Portfolios: The purpose of a portfolio is to highlight your strengths and should prove why you should be chosen for a job because an effective portfolio should reflect your uniqueness. It should include: • a list of your high school classes • examples from your experiences showing your skills • community service activities you have done. Philosophy of Education: Developing a philosophy of teaching helps you to think seriously about your beliefs and values. It requires a great deal of soul searching and observation of best practices. It is a personal statement that should reflect your personal beliefs and values as they relate to teaching. Child Development Theorist’s: B.F. Skinner found that when you have a pleasant experience, such as receiving a compliment you internalize the experience as positive. This is known as operant conditioning In the 1950s, many educators embraced B.F. Skinner’s theory of behaviorism. They used rewards and punishments to control students, because they believed that by controlling the environment, they would produce well-‐educated students. Jean Piaget believed that young children base their thinking on what they know. This thinking can only improve if they have new experiences. He believed that children learn through continuous exposure to experimentation, discovery and first-‐hand experiences. In the Preoperational stage of Piaget’s Cognitive development children do not recognize that number, mass, area, length, weight and volume are not changed by physically rearranging the objects. When children are presented with the same amount in two different ways and they don’t understand the equality between them. (ex. 4 quarters spread out on a table to them seems like more than 4 quarters that are side by side) This is called conservation. As part of his formal operational stage, Piaget, believed the development of abstract thinking allows the adolescent to: • grasp concepts such as honor and freedom • consider multiple solutions to problems and their consequences • figure out why things are the way they are • think about the future. Erikson's theory: • Initiative versus guilt is the psychological conflict of early childhood (ages 3-‐6). It is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of initiative and through development of a conscience that is not overly strict. • Industry vs. Inferiority is the psychological conflict of 6-‐12 year olds as 7. Erikson noted that during elementary school years, children need to develop competency both at school and at home. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: when teens are able to think in a more abstract way they make moral decisions based on principles, such as justice and individual conscience, they are at the level of post conventional morality. Froebel developed the idea for kindergarten based on the belief that children learned best through play. He is credited with creating the first kindergarten. Vygotsky believed that children’s intellectual development is influenced more by the role that a child’s social context (including friends, family, school, and community) plays in their intellectual development. Alfred Adler-‐ First-‐born children, as a result of feeling a sense of power and then being dethroned often become authoritarian and strict later in life. Learning Styles: Learning styles is defined as: preferred methods of absorbing and processing information. Visual, auditory and kinesthetic-‐tactile are all ways different people learn. Howard Gardner (1980) included all of the multiple intelligences: Logical-‐mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-‐ kinesthetic, Linguistic, Musical, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Naturalistic, and Existentialist. Individuals have a broad range of types of intelligences. Gardner stated, “Sadly, schools often focus on only a few of the intelligences.” He believed that the more types of intelligences a lesson incorporates, the greater the chance of students learning the material. History of Education in America: During the Early National Period: • America was primarily a rural nation with people living on farms or in small towns • Schools were seen as a vehicle to make society better • The traditions of Europe were starting to have less influence on education • Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson helped shape the development of schools • School was a tool to promote the nations new ideas of freedom and liberty Horace Mann, “The Father of American Education” believed that everyone had a right to a free education common to all. As the Secretary of Education in Massachusetts, he was able to get state funding that allowed all children to go to school regardless of their socio-‐economic level. Prior to this, schools were funded by local communities and families. Therefore, many families could not afford to put their children in school. After the Civil War was a time of growth for education especially for African Americans. However, not all were in agreement on what type of education was best. The following are all true of that time period. • Educated African Americans set up schools • Some northern churches sent missionaries to the South to set up schools • African Americans did not agree on the best type of education • The first African American colleges were founded Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), held that segregated public facilities were constitutional so long as the black and white facilities were equal to each other. John Dewey is connected with the progressive education movement; the term "progressive education" arose from a period (roughly 1890-‐1920) during which many Americans took a more careful look at the political and social effects of vast concentrations of corporate power and private wealth. It has been used to describe ideas and practices that aim to make schools more effective agencies of a democratic society. Dewey, in particular, saw that with the decline of local community life and small scale enterprise, young people were losing valuable opportunities to learn the arts of democratic participation, and he concluded that education would need to make up for this loss. Career and technical education was established by the Smith-‐Hughes Act in 1917 to train people for career opportunities in specific trades. It is widespread in today’s educational system. During the 1940s and 1950s, education in America was affected by world events and social change. The end of WWII brought about a new era in education. Families being brought back together started the baby boomers era which caused an increased in need for schools and teachers. West Virginia State Board of Education V. Barnette (1943) allows students the right to not say the pledge of allegiance based on religious belief. The Civil Rights Act of 1954 was widely implemented in school districts. It called for an end to segregation in schools and allowed for separate but equal education. It took many years for it to be accepted across the county. Brown v. Board of Education (1954) unanimously held that the racial segregation of children in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Although the decision did not succeed in fully desegregating public education in the United States, it put the Constitution on the side of racial equality. Title I, Part A (Title I) of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965), as amended (ESEA) provides financial assistance to local educational agencies (LEAs) and schools with high numbers or high percentages of children from low-‐income families to help ensure that all children meet challenging state academic standards. Some of the programs Title I mandates are: • Dropout prevention • Education of migrant students • Free and reduced lunch • Intervention programs for At-‐Risk students Title 9 (IX) of the Education Ammendments (1972) grant women equal access to facilities and programs. The Equal Opportunity in Education Act of 1974 prohibited discrimination based on gender in all programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance. The computer revolution began in the 1980’s. As the cost of computers declined they became more affordable for schools and families. More and more educational programs were also being developed which gave schools more incentive to start using them with students. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 made many changes for public education. Some are these changes are: • increased the accountability for teachers • increased the focus on math and science • increased the choices parents have for choosing schools for their children The Board of Education V. Earls (2002) allows for schools to drug test within their sports programs. Safety in Schools: Poverty affects school children the following ways: • They are more likely to be “At Risk” of failing academically resulting in school failure. • Children become aware of differences in social and economic status, which could result in a struggle with emotional security and self-‐esteem. • The children may move frequently or may be homeless which often results in poor attendance. Students are not coded at risk for living with just one parent, but they are coded at-‐risk for: • failing a core class • failing a state assessment required for graduation • being homeless according to TEA guidelines. Bullying and intimidation include spreading rumors, can be physical and/or verbal. Both bullying and intimidation can cause the abused children to become withdrawn. Teachers administrators are VERY concerned with any abuse. Some ways schools can help prevent violence or gang activity are: • Sticking to the district’s policy. • Implementing dress codes for students. • Eliminating lockers. Dropping out of school is never a good idea. Especially because the long term job market potential will have a lower lifetime earning potential. Multicultural education focuses on teaching children respect for all people and their cultures. With many diverse backgrounds in our classrooms teachers and students are challenged. However, listening to different ideas and opinions, learning to understand others, and trying new experiences all stimulate thought and learning. This results in a unified rich learning environment. Teachers who model acceptance, develop policies of tolerance, and incorporate interest in culture create a positive atmosphere for learning and student know they are respected and feel valued in these classes. If teachers truly want to help more of their student’s they should: • allow student choices in ways to investigate topics • help student understand their strengths and weaknesses in learning • provide practice in multiple ways Teachers should NOT tell students exactly what and how to do things. Instead, they should encourage them to analyze, create, and synthesize. Communication: There are three main types of communication • Written • Verbal • Non-‐verbal To communicate well, we all need to listen, speak, and write well. The definition of active listening is asking questions and restating ideas to discover the true message of the sender by giving verbal feedback. Active listening encourages children to behave appropriately in school. Some barriers to effective communication are: • Gossip • Stereotypes • Prejudices • Fear Lesson Planning: When designing a course plan, teachers should consider all the following: • Schedules • Units of study • Personal characteristics Lesson plans must always include how the lesson will be evaluated or assessed. It is a good idea to begin with the end in mind. Knowing what you want them to be able to do in the end will help determine what and how the lesson is taught. Instructional objectives are clear statements of what students will achieve as a result of a lesson. They must be observable and measureable. Instructional objectives should include: • Audience – Who is the objective for? • Behaviors – What is the behavior or the performance the learner is expected to do? • Condition – What are the conditions (if any) under which the performance is to occur? • Degree -‐ What degree must the behavior be performed to constitute an acceptable performance? The degree can include criterion such as speed, accuracy, and quality. Effective teachers find inspiration for ideas everywhere! Teacher guides, other teachers, magazines, TV, and Websites all offer fabulous resources for teachers. It might take some experimentation to learn the best pace for your lessons. In some classes the pace will be faster than others with the same content. IF the pace is too slow, students become bored. If it is too fast, they cannot keep up and fail to learn all that they should. Teachers need to be cognizant of what all the students are doing so students are not bored or getting left behind. At the end of an activity, closure is essential to help students reflect on what they have learned, its purpose, and meaning. Closure helps students draw conclusions and apply what they have learned. Closure lends to a sense of achievement. Students should be able to answer the question, “What did I learn and what does it mean to me today?” There are six levels of questioning in Blooms taxonomy. These levels are: 6. Evaluation 5. Synthesis 4. Analysis 3. Application 2. Comprehension 1. Knowledge Differentiation is using multiple instructional approaches by giving everyone a different assignment. This does not mean more work for some and less work for others, but instead, it encourages students to think and perform in a way that they work best. According to Carol Ann Tomlinson, the following are principle of differentiated education: • Flexible grouping • Respectful tasks • Ongoing assessment and adjustment Types of Instruction: Some types of instruction are: • Lecture -‐ In teacher-‐centered methods, the teacher’s role is to present the information that is to be learned and to direct the learning process of students. Students then practice what they have learned. For example, with lectures, the teacher provides information, and students learn by listening. • Discussion • Demonstration -‐ A demonstration is the best way to teach a process. Students see how to complete each step, helping visual and kinesthetic learners. At the same time, the accompanying verbal explanation helps auditory learners. • Simulation – o Games actively involved students and should be used at all grade levels. o Case studies involve groups of students working together to analyze a situation, called a “case”. • Labs -‐ Labs require careful planning and clear instructions. All types of curriculum classes from science to math to reading to social studies can use lab experiences. o Experimental labs – a lab experience that use formal processes to research problems answering “what if” questions. o Productive labs – a lab experience that focuses on producing an end product focusing only on the finished end product. Lesson plans must always include how the lesson will be evaluated or assessed. Assessment: Assessments determine how much a student or class has learned or is in the process of learning. Sometime assessment results in a grade and sometimes it does not. Two types of assessments are: Formal assessments – include written tests and quizzes Alternative assessments -‐ include real-‐life tasks, student demonstrations, portfolios Assessment involves determining how much a student or class has learned or is currently learning. Therefore assessment should occur at various times throughout a lesson or unit. Assessments are effective when done not only by the teacher but also by the students assessing their own work or the work of their peers. Not all assessments are linked to grades Providing students with personalized feedback about their learning is more effective at improving learning than assigning grades. The goal of feedback is to help students know what they are doing well and what they need to do to improve and can happen at any time during the learning cycle. A simple grade only tells a student how they did. Thoughtful specific comments, particularly written comments, can help students do better. It is important to give positive feedback that will lead to improved student work. The following statements are all positive reminders and encouraging: • “You made a very good point.” • “Read all the directions carefully.” • “Check your work before turning it in.” Giving clear directions is a critical skill for teachers because: • Directions can affect the success or failure of learning activities • Unclear directions can prevent accurate assessment of learning • They tell a person how to complete a task A rubric is a scoring tool that lists the criteria for judging a particular type of work. A good rubric also describes levels of quality for each criterion. When students are given grading rubrics before they begin their work, they can think critically about their work. They know what characteristics are identified with quality and can base their efforts on an established criterion. Course evaluations can be used to evaluate a teacher’s motivational methods, classroom management skills, classroom arrangement, schedule, or other factors that might improve teaching and learning. Course evaluations are important for several reasons: • Course evaluations help teachers improve their teaching and the course. • They can identify what worked and what did not work in the classroom. It is important to remember that change does not take place without taking time to reflect. Classroom Management: Creating a classroom environment takes careful planning. Teachers must think of how the room will be used, ages of the students, abilities of the students, and how people will move about the classroom in transitions. When developing a behavior management plan for their classes, teachers should ask themselves all of the following: • What are realistic expectations for my students? • How will I reward students for appropriate behaviors? • What steps will I take when an inappropriate behavior occurs? When establishing classroom rules, teachers should: • Establish class rules during the first few days of class • Involve students in setting rules and procedures • Keep the rule list short • State rules and procedures in positive terms • Define the terms • Adjust rules and procedures if they are not working well. Frequently misbehavior can be redirected with non-‐verbal clues. Some ways of doing this are: • Proximity -‐ Moving near a student will often help the student get back on track. • Dimming the classroom lights is a non-‐verbal way to redirect the attention of the entire class. • The “teacher look” often will help a student that is off task or misbehaving redirect himself/herself. Minor classroom disruption or common behavior problems can and should be handled quickly and consistently. Effective teachers know that handling transitions from one activity to another or one classroom to another place in the school effectively results in down time being kept to a minimum and fewer behavior problems. While each teacher manages his or her classroom differently, experts feel that the most effective style pf teaching is the authoritative style which utilizes high expectations and sets guidelines. The following are ways that a teacher can minimize problem behaviors in the classroom: • Utilize routines so students know what is expected of them. • Assigned seats and modifying the seating arrangement as needed. • Using nonverbal clues to remind students of expected behaviors. An approach to behavior management that helps children gain self-‐esteem, learn to cooperate, and gradually learn the skills necessary for taking responsibility for their own behavior is commonly called guidance. Guidance is positive discipline and involves setting clear, consistent limits that have reasons and striving to foster self-‐esteem and independence. Documentation is the very important in serious situations that may involve due process and a burden of proof. Ethics: Professional ethical standards do not clearly cover all possible situations, but they do give teachers the guidance for important aspects of being an educator and making decisions. They should not keep teachers from developing rapport with their students, but rather discourage them from developing inappropriate relationships with their students. Gossiping is not a skill or characteristic of effective teachers, but time management, ethical standards, and effective communication are. By definition ethics are moral principles. Withitiness is the teacher’s ability to know everything that is going on in the classroom or playground. It is often referred to as a teacher’s superpower. Professional Development: While teachers should have an understanding of the subject matter, professional development is what a teacher does in order to continue their education and advance their understanding of the field, given that it will change over time. It also helps teachers keep pace with changes, such as technology. Professional organizations can help teachers stay updated in their field. One of the following essay questions may appear on the State ELF exam. 1. A teacher’s reputation is important for success as a professional. What types of actions of students in high school and college potentially affect their reputation into the future, positively or negatively? 2. How has your philosophy of teaching changed since you began working with TAFE? What has influenced that change? 3. Many colleges and universities offer at least some of their courses online. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of taking teacher education courses online? 4. Why is it important to each of the following groups that teachers are certified: states, schools, parents, students? 5. Give an example of a sequence of development (physical, cognitive, or social-‐emotional). 6. According to cognitive theory, why do young children think differently than teens? 7. Taking Erikson’s theory into consideration, how might a child who has not successfully developed trust have a more difficult time starting kindergarten than a child who had developed trust?