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Ethical theories
Lecture 2, MS008A
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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Today
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Ethical Theories of
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Duty (Kant)
Virtue (Aristotle)
Consequence (Utilitarianism) John Stuart
Mill
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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Ethical theories
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The formal study of ethics goes back
to the greek philosopher Socrates.
Philosophers have proposed many
ethical theories
Why study these theories?
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A useful ethical theory makes it possible
for us to examine moral problems, reach
conclusions through logical resoning and
defend the conclusions.
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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Moral Truths
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Are there certain moral truths?
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Human rights
The ’law’ of nature: the behaviour and doings
of humans that enable us to develop the
potential and talents that nature has given us
Deeds that create peace and harmony between
people
Moral truths are those that are accepted by
many people, despite differences in culture and
religion
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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The problems of Ethical
Behaviour
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Not always a question of what is difficult to
decide, that is, the difference between right
and wrong, ’good and bad’
Sometimes we are tempted to do something
– knowing that it is not right
There is a thing called common sense
Although: ’Common sense is not so
common’
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Example
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An obviously good deed: The classical
’seeing an old woman across the road.’
We do this good deed, encounter a friend
who says. ’Why did you do that? You have
other things to do, don’t waste your time,
you should be out there making money!’
The problem: You are forced to defend your
good deed.
The deed in itself is good, unquestionably.
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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Turning the tables
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When the person doing good is made to
answer
Hypothesis: The scandals of WorldCom and
Enron.
Figures were manipulated, the people on
the inside got away with fortunes before the
crash
What if the responsible had said: No, we
will not do it. It is wrong! With no further
explanation.
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How does it really work?
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Many large companies today are being
pressured into acting morally
They are forced to take ethics seriously, as
a part of their culture
Attitudes change – ethics are placed higher
than profit
Corruption will be more easily revealed
Insight: Good ethics will pay in the long run!
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Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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The Ethics of Duty
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Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804).
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Immanuel Kant was born at Königsberg in East
Prussia, 22 April, 1724; died there, 12 February,
1804.
There are two periods of Kant's literary activity. The
first, the pre-critical period, extends from 1747 to
1781, the date of the epoch-making "Kritik der
reinen Vernunft"; the second, the critical period,
extends from 1781 to 1794.
Good Will and the Categorical Imperative
Peoples actions should be governed by moral laws
that are universal
Principles of morality must be based on reason
Kantianism explains why an action is right or
- Siri Fagernes
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wrong, does not Kirsten
justRibustate
that
Good will
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The only thing that can be called good
without qualification.
Is not the same as good deeds, but good in
itself.
Intelligence and courage are good qualities,
but can be used in harmful way: robbing
banks, fraud etc.
Focus is on what we ought to do, not what
we want to do =dutifulness = acting in a
certain way according to moral rules.
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The Categorical Imperative
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First formulation: Moral rules =
universal laws. ’Act only from moral
rules that you can at the same time will
to become universal laws’.
Second formulation: ’Act so that you
always treat both yourself and other
people as ends in themselves, and
never only as a means to an end.’
Example: The Carla case –
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The Carla story
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………….
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Analysis:
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Plagiarism evaluated using the
Categorical Imperative:
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First formulation: Use the rule: I can
claim credit for a report written by
someone else. Reports would cease to
be valid as indicators of knowledge if
everyone followed this rule.
Second formulation: Carla is using her
professor as means to an end.
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Utilitarianism (Theory of
Consequence)
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A philosophy that is in contrast to duty ethics
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart
Mill (1806-1873) (english philosophers)
Two philosophies:
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Act utilitarianism- an action is good if its overall effect is to
produce more happiness than unhappiness
Rule utilitarianism – We ought to adopt those moral rules
which if everyone follows them, lead to greater increase in
total happiness
Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill:
http://www.utilitarianism.com/mill1.htm
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Utilitarianism
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Utilitarianism (from the Latin utilis, useful)
is a theory of ethics based on quantitative
maximization of some good for society or
humanity.
It is a form of consequentialism.
This good is often happiness or pleasure,
Utilitarianism is sometimes summarized as
"The greatest happiness for the greatest
number."
Wikipedia
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Cont…
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The philosopher John Stuart Mill:
 [Utilitarianism is ] … ’the creed which
accepts as the foundation of morals,
utility or the greatest happiness principle,
holds that actions are right in proportion
as they tend to promote happiness,
wrong as they tend to produce the
reverse of happiness. By happiness is
intended pleasure and the absence of
pain; by unhappiness, pain and the
privation of pleasure’
(Utilitarianism, ii, 1863).
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Hume
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The philosopher Hume did not see any
religious source or sanction of morality in
utilitarianism
In his ‘Inquiry concerning the Principles
of Morals (1751)’ he carried out an
extensive analysis of the various judgments
which we pass upon our own character and
conduct and on those of others
He drew the conclusion that virtue and
personal merit consist in those qualities
which are useful to ourselves and others.
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Act Utilitarianism
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Principles of Utility
An action has nothing to do with the
attitude behind the action
Bentham: No motive is in itself a
bad one. If motives are good or bad,
it is because of their effects.
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Pros and cons of act
Utilitarianism
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Pro:
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It focuses on happiness
It is down to earth – where to build a prison,
where to treat drug-addicts- the metadon –
programme (but: Not in my back yard)…
Con:
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It is not practical- too much energy goen into
every moral decision
Ignores our sense of duty
The problem of moral luck – the effect decides
whether the action is moral or not
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Rule Utilitarianism
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Weaknesses of Act Utilitarianism has lead
to Rule Utilitarianism
Everyone should follow rules that lead to
the greatest increase in total happiness
Applies the principle of happiness to the
effect of moral rules, act utilitarianism
applies the principles to individual actions
Focuses on rules like duty ethics:
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Rules should be followed without exception
Rule utilitarianism looks at the consequenses
Duty ethics looks at the will motivating the action
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Rule Utilitarianism - pros and
cons
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Pro:
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General consequences on society by adopting a universal
rule
Solves the problem of moral luck – the occasional atypical
result does not affect the goodness of an action
Example – sending flowers to a sick person is always a
good action (even though she may be allergic to
flowers…)
Con:
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We must use a single scale to evaluate completely
different kinds of consequences – for instance building a
new motorway: cost and benefit in money, vs people
losing their homes
Think of more cons!
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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Virtue Ethics
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Virtue ethics may be identified as the one
that emphasizes the virtues, or moral
character
In contrast to the approach which
emphasizes duties or rules (duty,
deontology)
or that which emphasizes the consequences
of actions (consequentialism).
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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Virtue ethics
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In philosophy, the phrase virtue ethics
refers to ethical systems that focus
primarily on what sort of person one
should try to be.
According to virtue ethicists the aim of
all humans is to lead a good, happy
and fulfilling life.
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Example
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Suppose it is obvious that someone in need
should be helped:
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A utilitarian will point to the fact that the
consequences of doing so will maximise wellbeing
A deontologist to the fact that, in doing so the
agent will be acting in accordance with a moral
rule such as "Do unto others as you would be
done by”
A virtue ethicist to the fact that helping the
person would be charitable or benevolent.
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Honesty
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An honest person cannot be identified
simply as one who always tells the truth,
for one can have the virtue of honesty
without being tactless or indiscreet.
The honest person recognises "That would
be a lie" as a strong reason for not making
certain statements in certain circumstances
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Relativism
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There are no universal moral norms of
right and wrong
Different people/groups of people can
have opposite views of a moral
problem – both can be right.
Two kinds of relativism:
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Subjective relativism
Cultural relativism
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Subjective relativism:
pro and con
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Pro:
 Each person creates his/her own
morality ( example: views on abortion).
 If morality is relative, we do not have
to agree – for instance if abortion is
right or wrong. Both sides are right.
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Continued…
Con:
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A line of defense for doing what you want to do: ”
Who are you to tell me what to do and what not to
do?” Morality = doing what you want to do
Doing what you want as long as it does not hurt
anybody: What does it mean to harm somebody?
The question is NOT subjective!
Tolerance is not the same as subjective relativism.
Does being tolerant mean that you accept that
others are intolerant, racist etc:
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Relativism = no universal rules.
’People ought to be tolerant’ = a universal rule.
Inconsistant.
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Cultural relativism
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Different views of right and wrong held by different
societies
The meaning of right and wrong rest with a society’s
moral guideines
Right and wrong varies in time and place
Example: Circumcision of African women
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Anthropologists have defended a culture’s right to stick to
tradition
Cultural differences concerning truthfulness,
stealing and cheating:
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Example: testifying to lower speed after a car accident.
90% of Norwegians would not, 10 % of Yugoslavians
would not. (Ethics for the Information age. Michael Quinn)
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Cultural Relativism – pro
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Different social contexts demand different
moral guidelines
It is arrogant for one society to judge
another – we have more technology than
others, but we are not ’better’, more
intelligent, more moral etc.
Morality is reflected in actual behaviour: ’Do
as I say, do not do what I do’ – but does this
work?
Kirsten Ribu - Siri Fagernes - HiO 2005
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Cultural relativism: cons
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Different views on right and wrong does not imply
that there ought to be different views –
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Societies share core values, therefore, they may
exist a universal ethical theory – opposing cultural
relativism. Examples of core values:
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Example: How to solve the drought problem:
Aquaduct vs. sacrifice to rain gods
care for newborn,
not telling lies,
prohibition against murder.
Moral guidelines are a result of tradition, not
necessarily based on reason.
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Next week
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Censorship and Freedom of Speech.
Intellectual Property.
Privacy.
Excercises: Find examples of good ethical conduct.
Use Wikipedia to find out more about ethics of duty,
consequence and virue, and criticism of these
theories. Write a page or so about the likenesses
and differences in these three theories.
To be discussed in class.
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