CHAPTER FOURTEEN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 1. Begin writing up the report as soon as you can. Do not leave it until you have finished your data collection before you start writing up. Many sections, can be drafted during or even before data collection. 2. Write down ideas as soon as you get them, rather than leaving them to the writing-up stage. Keep a research diary where you can safely note any ideas. Not all of your ideas will be useful, but it is certain that some of them will be! Do not imagine that you will be able to remember these ideas at a later date. 3. Be aware of the nature of the report and the intended audience. If it is for a student research project, then ensure you have read and understood the criteria laid down by your institution in terms of content, presentation, length and so on. 4. If you are writing for a journal, ensure that your research fits within the scope of that journal’s objectives as well as its editorial requirements. If you are producing a report or piece of consultancy, ensure that you are clear about the requirements of your audience. 5. You will not be able to write the final report out first time. You will need to rewrite it a number of times before it reaches completion. You should allow for this when planning your research timetable, and not become discouraged when the first draft is not perfect. 6. Make sure before you begin writing up that you make backups of your work at every available opportunity. Whatever you do, do not assume that whatever you save on a hard drive will be safe! 7. You should keep your backups in a separate location. As a further safety measure, print out what you have written so far at regular intervals. THE STAGES OF WRITING A REPORT 1. First clarify the nature of the planned report, and its intended audience. If any examples of past reports are available, read as many as you can – both good and bad! 2. Identify any predetermined requirements, for example maximum word length, formatting, such as double spacing or required referencing style, and so on. Ideally you should familiarise yourself with past projects, etc. so that you have an idea of the final product before you start. 3. Throughout the duration of the research you should be collecting together the information necessary to complete the report, such as your review of literature, analysis of the primary data, list of references and so on. 4. Prepare an outline plan of the report. At the bare minimum, this should be a list of chapter headings. Ideally you should be able to have more detail – include likely subheadings as well. The more detailed your initial outline, the easier you will find the process of writing up the first draft of the report. 5. Write a first draft of the report. You should not anticipate the first draft being your final submission! 6. Evaluate the content of the first draft, either through reading it yourself or, preferably, getting somebody else to read it with a critical eye. 7. Rewrite and re-evaluate the report as appropriate. You may need to do this more than once! 8. Final editing and proof reading. Once you have got this far, the temptation is to skip over the final proof reading and simply submit the project. Do carefully read over to check spelling and grammar. 9. Submission of the report! TYPICAL RESEARCH REPORT STRUCTURE 1. 2. 3. 4. Title Page Abstract Acknowledgements (optional) Contents – – 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. List of Tables List of Figures Introduction Literature Review Methodology Results Discussion Conclusions + Recommendations Reference List Appendices ABSTRACT • What your research aim was. • Key background theory. • What data were collected from whom, and how. • How it was analysed. • Key findings. INTRODUCTION • WHAT you have done – aims/objectives. • WHY you have done it – justification. • HOW you have presented the report – structure/ signposting. LITERATURE REVIEW • What do we know. • What we do not know (research gap). • How your study fits the research gap. • What you may expect to find (hypotheses). • Relate the literature to your study. Be critical if appropriate. METHODOLOGY • Information needs. • Research design. • Research strategy. • Methods. • Sample. • Procedure. • Analysis. Is it repeatable to the reader? METHODOLOGY Have you explained the rationale behind your chosen means of collecting information? Are your research methods the most appropriate given your chosen hypothesis or research question, and your subsidiary questions or objectives? Are you making assumptions? You know what you did in terms of research methods – have you expressed yourself clearly and given adequate details? Would someone else be able to replicate your study on the basis of the information you have given? Any limitations? Anything you might have done differently? RESULTS There is no one correct way to present your results. Some ways could be: • Address each of your hypotheses, research questions. • By independent and dependent variable. • By research method. • By participant (qualitative interviews). RESULTS • Tables essential for quantitative data. • Graphs only if they add to understanding. • Use quotes sparingly for qualitative data. • Only report relevant results. PRESENTING TABLES Table 5.2.1: Summary of t-test for paired sample results comparing Gluten Free Diet Totals with Recommended Nutrient Intake Literature Values Nutrient Value of t Significance Level for twotailed test Significant p≤0.05 Protein 6.456 0.000 Yes Calcium 4.415 0.000 Yes Iron 1.902 0.073 No Riboflavin 4.858 0.000 Yes Folate 1.281 0.216 No These results show a significant difference for Protein, Calcium and Riboflavin. Gluten Free Diet participants consumed significantly more protein and calcium than is recommended by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (1991, cited Department of Health, 1991). WRITING THE DISCUSSION • Discuss the implications of your results in light of your research objectives. • Can be combined with results for a qualitative study. • Common error = Discussing your own findings without any reference to existing knowledge. • Your research should build on existing knowledge so refer back to the literature review. • Do your findings find support in the literature? • Were your findings predicted by the literature? • How does your research add to the literature? • If your findings differed from expectations, then are there any possible explanations why? • Does the particular theory or model you have used still hold true in light of your research? • If the theory or model seems flawed, then how can it be refined in light of your research? CONCLUSION • What the key findings were. • Should relate to aims/objectives in introduction. • May include recommendations for future research. REFERENCES Must be consistent with text. APPENDICES Must relate to the research, but not be directly related. KEY WEAKNESSES • Abstract – lacks specific detail. • Introduction – no justification, aim and objectives unclear. • Literature review – not related to the research question, no critical awareness, limited sources, limited relevance, inappropriate theory. • Methodology – lacking specific detail, justification, limited awareness of reliability, validity, generalisability. • Results – focus on graphs, limited analysis, lacking relevance. • Discussion – not revisiting the literature, simply repeating results, lack of awareness of the implications of the findings. • Conclusions – unrelated to results/discussion. GENERAL PRESENTATION WEAKNESSES • Word limits not adhered to. • Inappropriate formatting. • Inappropriate use of visual material. • Incorrect spelling and grammar. • Lack of signposting/linking. ASSESSING YOUR RESEARCH REPORT SETTING THE SCENE Does your abstract give a clear idea of what is in the report? Has it clearly described your objectives, the methodology adopted, and the main conclusions that have emerged? Is your table of contents well structured and does it give a picture of what is included? Have you included a list of tables and a list of figures if appropriate? In your introduction have you introduced your research adequately? FOCUS AND JUSTIFICATION Have you a clear focus? Is your research report tightly defined and contained or does it sometimes lack direct relevance, or stray off the point? Have you got a clearly constructed and suitable research question or hypothesis which leads to a set of clear and related subsidiary questions or objectives? YOUR USE OF THE LITERATURE • Is your issue or focus underpinned by theory? Is it clear which theory or model you have adopted? • How up to date are your references? Have you included the most up to date work in your area? • Have you managed to identify and get hold of the work of key writers in your particular area? Have you ensured that you have paid due attention to ‘classic’ sources? • Have you used a variety of sources or are you over-reliant upon certain authors? Have you included or acknowledged competing theories or viewpoints, or simply selected literature that supports your hypothesis? • Is it clear to the reader how your research relates to what has been done before, or builds upon existing knowledge? • In your literature review do you merely identify and describe, with no real critical edge? Have you been analytical enough? • How well have you researched the literature on your topic and on your specific focus? • Have you explored all possible sources? YOUR METHODOLOGY • Do you clearly identify and explain your choice of research design? • Are your research methods the most appropriate given your chosen hypothesis or research question, and your subsidiary questions or objectives? • Have you made it clear who the subjects are? And to what population these subjects belong? Is it clear how they were selected? • Have you explained the rationale behind your chosen means of collecting information? If it is an existing instrument, whose is it? Why did you choose it? Is it clear to the reader why your methods were the most appropriate ones for your research question? • Are you making assumptions? You know what you did in terms of research methods, but would the reader? Have you expressed yourself clearly and given adequate details? Would someone else be able to replicate your study on the basis of the information you have given? • Have you clearly identified the strengths of your methodology? Are there any limitations to your methodology? Is there anything you might have done differently? RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS • Are your findings clearly presented? Have you included tables for your descriptive and inferential analysis of quantitative data? • If you have included graphs, charts and so on, are these appropriate? Is the content of each chart clear? Is it clear how each chart relates to your research objectives? • How have you analysed your findings? If you have undertaken quantitative analysis, which statistical tests have you used? Are you sure these are the correct tests? Have you interpreted the results correctly? • For qualitative analysis, have you demonstrated that you have analysed your data in a systematic manner? • In your discussion, do you adequately revisit the literature and relate your findings to the literature, or do you simply discuss what you found? • Are your arguments coherent, logical and sound? Are they consistent with the evidence that you have collected? • Have your conclusions clearly emerged from the evidence collected and discussed? Have you acknowledged unexpected evidence, or evidence that contradicts your chosen theory or model? • Do you return to your research question or hypothesis? • Do you evaluate the research? Have you identified the strengths and the limitations of the project? GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE REPORT • Is your content well planned and logically structured? • Is the work well presented? • Have you made appropriate use of supportive materials to enhance presentation, i.e. graphs, tables, illustrations? • Have you conducted a thorough read through, to eliminate careless spelling and typographical errors, poor grammar and poor sentence construction? • Do you link your various chapters and make use of signposting to help the reader? Do you set out your intentions clearly in your introduction? • Have you set out your references and/or bibliography with the required detail and in the recommended format? • Have you acknowledged all sources used, and made it clear when it is your views that are being expressed, or the views of others? • Have you made appropriate use of appendices? Are there any unnecessary appendices? • Have you ensured that your report is as stimulating and as interesting as possible? Have you conveyed your enthusiasm to the reader throughout the project?