1. No category

Ancient China
1. The origins of the society: fact and myth
2. Timeline of ancient China
3. Geography of the societal homeland
4. Social hierarchy
5. Government
6. Religion and beliefs
7. Foreign policy and contact
8.Work - urban and rural
9. Daily life of women
10. Warfare and the life of a soldier
11. An event: The unification of China
12. A person
13. The legacy
China
Compare the population of China with some other countries.
Source Wikipedia 2012
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population
World
= 6,973,738,433 (Trillions)
China
= 1,347,350,000 (Trillions)
India
= 1,210,193,422
USA
=
315,028,000 (Millions)
Indonesia =
237,641,326
Hong Kong=
7,136,300
Australia =
22,855,213
Malaysia =
22,591,154
Singapore =
5 312 400
Dubai
=
2,003,170
Fiji
=
868,406 (Thousands)
Tonga
=
104,509
The origins of the society: fact and myth
Social structure was very important in ancient China. The Chinese believed in
strict social groups and people were expected to behave according to their
social position.
This belief was further reinforced by the Chinese
philosopher Confucius, who taught that strict social
order and discipline was the key to a successful
society. Men and women in ancient China were not
equal and men were afforded far more privileges
than women. The Chinese strongly believed in the
wisdom of the elders and, as such, grandparents
were greatly respected.
Social hierarchy
Beneath the emperor, there were four main social classes in
ancient China. These four classes were nobles and officials,
peasants, artisans and merchants.
Imperial family
The emperor and his family were at the top of the social scale in ancient
China. The emperor ruled from a palace in the capital city.
Emperors believed that they were appointed by heaven and therefore
did not need to obey humans. An emperor expected his subjects to be
loyal and obedient.
It was common for an emperor to have many wives to increase his
chance of having a son.
Once the emperor chose the son that he wanted to succeed him, the
mother of the son would become the empress.
She was then able to grant favours to her family - often in the form of
posts in the royal household and plots of land.
Ancient China
Nobles
The noble class in ancient China was very privileged.
Nobles were typically the extended family of the emperor
and empress and those people that excelled in their fields,
particularly in the military.
The status of nobles, however, changed frequently
depending on who gained or fell out of favour with the
emperor. When a new emperor came to power, it was
common for him to favour a new set of nobles. Nobles
often became landowners and collected taxes from those
that lived on their land, meaning that they would become
wealthier.
They were required to give some of their income to the emperor and in return received
privileges and were afforded some protection.
Most nobles lived in extravagant homes and wore expensive clothing and jewellery. For
sport, they hunted wild animals. If nobles committed a crime for which they were
sentenced to death, the emperor could grant them a special favour that would allow
them to commit suicide, which was considered a much more honourable death.
Ancient China
Officials
Officials were another group that held high
social status in ancient China. Boys whose
families could afford to send them to school
began their education at an early age so as to
become officials and were required to pass a
difficult exam.
If they did not pass, however, they were usually
still able find jobs as they were considered well
educated.
Officials were arranged in ranks. The two most
senior officials acted as advisers to the emperor.
Most officials lived very comfortably and were
well-respected due to their position and
education.
Ancient China
Peasants
Although peasant farmers in ancient China were one of the
lowest social classes, they were still considered important as
they produced the food that sustained the society. Most
peasants were very poor and led simple lives.
They worked very hard and rarely had a day off. Peasant men
worked in the fields and had to endure harsh conditions. They
worked through the burning heat of summer and the bitter
cold of winter.
The harsh conditions could also ruin their crops and land. If the crops were ruined, poor
families had very little to survive on during the winter. Some peasant women also
worked in the fields but women's main tasks were confined to the household. It
became common for women to sew and weave at home.
By weaving and sewing cloth, women could provide clothes for the family and sell any
surplus to earn more money.
Even the poorest peasants were required to pay taxes, even if their crops had not been
successful. This often left many families with very little to eat during the winter
months.
Social hierarchy
Artisans
Artisans were part of the commoner class and included painters, carpenters, potters and jewellery
makers. Artisans earned more than farmers but less than merchants. They did not have a high
social status but were respected for their skills.
Metalworkers became very important during the Han period. They learned how to work with
metal moulds rather than shaping the metal while it was still very hot. Metalworkers produced
weapons and many useful everyday objects, such as cooking pots. Weavers worked with silk,
which was a very valuable product.
Merchants
Merchants were considered the lowest
social class in
ancient China.
People believed that they did not
contribute to the good of the whole
society but only worked for their
own gain. Despite their low social
status, some merchants became very
wealthy and
lived in luxury.
During the Han dynasty, some merchants became so wealthy that they were considered
a threat to the emperor and the nobles. In order to limit their wealth, merchants had
certain restrictions placed on them.
Such restrictions included heavy taxes and being sent away to join the army. The
richest merchants attained their wealth by investing their money in land. Many
merchants, however, were not as wealthy. Merchants such as shopkeepers made
smaller profits and led quiet, simple lives.
Social hierarchy
Slaves
Slaves did exist in ancient China but they
made up a very small percentage of the
population. Some slaves were the relatives
of criminals while other people sold
themselves or their children as slaves if
they were very poor.
Older generations
The Chinese believed that as people grew older, they gained
wisdom and knowledge. Older generations, therefore, were
highly respected as they were thought to be wiser than the
younger generations. People often looked to the older
people in their families for advice or to settle an
The Timeline of Ancient China
Xia Dynasty (approx 2000 BC - 1600 BC)
For many years experts believed that the Xia Dynasty was a
legend. Excavations in 1959, however, found what is thought to
have been the site of Yanshi, the capital of the Xia dynasty.
Carbon dating shows that people occupied the site from around
2100 BC and were the ancestors of the Shang people. The people
of the Xia were agricultural people who used bronze tools and
weapons and were governed by spiritual ruling families.
Shang dynasty (approx 1600 BC - 1027 BC)
The Shang dynasty is widely accepted as beginning the first
known line of rulers. Cities started to grow during this time. The
Shang is considered to have been the first real dynasty of China.
Writing in China developed during the Shang dynasty.
The Timeline of Ancient China
Zhou dynasty (approx 1027 BC - 221 BC)
The Zhou were a warlike people from Wei river valley. Zhou rulers
expanded the land of the Shang dynasty. The Zhou dynasty covered a
long period of time and is split into Eastern and Western periods:
Eastern Zhou 770-221 BC. The Eastern Zhou is further divided into:
Spring and Autumn period 770-476 BC
Warring States period 475 - 221 BC
Shi Huangdi became ruler of the Qin state in 246 BC. The Qin became
the most powerful of the warring states and in 221 BC Shi Huangdi
united the states. Shi Huangdi became the first emperor of a unified
China.
The Qin was a short-lived dynasty but it implemented many important
reforms. The Han defeated Shi Huangdi's successor and continued the
centralisation put in place by the Qin. One of the Han dynasty's main
concerns was defending China from the Huns of Central Asia. The Silk
Road was established during Han times.
The Timeline of Ancient China
Three Kingdoms (220 AD - 280 AD)
Following the fall of the Han dynasty, China fell into chaos again. Three
kingdoms emerged from the disunity and each controlled their own
land. The kingdoms were the Wei in northern China, the Shu in western
China and the Wu in the east.
Jin dynasty (280 AD - 420 AD)
Western Jin (280- 316)
Eastern Jin ( 317 - 420)
Southern and northern dynasties (420 AD - 589 AD)
Northern 386-581
Southern 420 - 589
During this time, China was split into north and south and was ruled by
separate dynasties.
Sui (589 AD - 617 AD)
Tang Dynasty (618- 907)
Five dynasties and ten states (907 - 979)
Song Dynasty (960 - 1127)
Geography of the societal homeland
Modern-day China has an area similar to that of Australia, though China has a much
larger population. China's climate and landscape varies dramatically across its regions.
The land of ancient China was a series of independent states that were united in 221
BC. These states did not cover the land that modern-day China does but over the
centuries, the dynasties gradually expanded China's territory. The people of early China
depended on the rivers to sustain them. The Chinese civilisation grew alongside its
agriculture, forming in areas where land was fertile and agriculture was productive.
Landscape
(Huashan Mountain below)
Mountains, plateaus and rivers make up China's
diverse landscape. In China's early history, these
features acted as natural barriers that caused
early communities to develop their own cultures
and traditions with very few outside influences.
China's landscape is often described as having
three 'steps'. The mountains in the west,
including the Himalaya mountain range, are the
top step.
The middle step can be found in central China
with smaller mountains and vast deserts. This
landscape gives way to the bottom step of
eastern China, with long rivers and the
surrounding flat plains.
China experiences climatic
extremes. The far north is
exposed to bitterly cold
winters China experiences
climatic extremes. The far
north is exposed to bitterly
cold winters and hot
summers.
Central China experiences
cold winters and hot
summers, though not to
the extremes of northern
China. The south of the
country has a subtropical
climate with hot summers
and rainy seasons and
tropical storms.
hina
Rivers
As with other early civilisations, the rivers were essential in the growth of the Chinese
civilisation. Around the fertile banks of these rivers, early communities were established.
Three of the major rivers were the Yangtze, the Xi and the Huanghe (also known as the
Yellow River).
The Yellow River
The Yellow River takes its name from the yellow dust
that blows across China from the dry flatlands of
Central Asia. This dust is known as loess and leaves the
land around the rivers very fertile.
Early farmers used the fertile loess soil around the
river banks to grow crops. The Yellow River is China's
second-longest river at around 5400 km long.
The river carries a large amount of sediment from the
loess which causes the riverbed to become built up
and prone to flooding.
The Yellow River is both a help and a hindrance to the
Chinese people and has become known as China's
Sorrow, due to its severe floods which cause
widespread devastation.
The Yellow River has many tributaries, one of which is
the Wei River, another centre of Chinese civilisation.
Ancient China
The Yangtze River
The Yangtze River is China's longest river
and is over 6380 km long. The climate of the
Yangtze Valley meant that rice was one of
the main crops in the south of ancient
China. The Yangtze was important in
providing irrigation to the paddy fields.
Once the rice had been harvested and the
fields dried out, they were used to grow
wheat and barley. Excavations have
unearthed the remains of a
number of towns and cities along
the Yangtze valley, dated to around
3000 BC.
The Grand Canal
China's Grand Canal is the world's
oldest and longest canal. It is over
1800 km long and construction of the
Canal began in 486 BC. During the
Spring and Autumn period of the
Eastern Zhou, the ruler of the Wu
state aimed to conquer the Qi state.
He ordered a canal to be built so that
soldiers could reach their target more
efficiently. Over the following centuries,
work continued on straightening
and
maintaining the canal.
The Sui dynasty was responsible for
building the greater section of the canal.
During Sui times, China's main
agricultural
region shifted further south as
rice
became plentiful. The Canal was
extended to create a more efficient link to
transport goods between north and south. Later
dynasties extended and modified the Canal to suit
their requirements. Today the Canal is divided into
sections, although not all sections are navigable.
Ancient Chinese Landmarks
China is known for its many ancient landmarks that continue
to serve as tourist and heritage attractions. These landmarks
range from natural to built landmarks. The table below
highlights some of the major well-known ancient landmarks.
The Great Wall of China
It is a great miracle in the world's ancient architecture.
The wall can be divided into two parts: southern part
and northern part.
· Southern part is very steep and dangerous with the
area being not so well constructed, so there are not
many visitors.
· The Northern part is safer; so many visitors prefer to
climb the Great Wall via this section.
During peak tourism periods, it is extremely crowded
as many people climb the Great Wall to add to their
sense of achievement.
Especially famous is the wall built between 220–206 BC
by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little of
that wall remains. Since then, the Great Wall has on
and off been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced; the
majority of the existing wall was reconstructed during
the Ming Dynasty.
The Forbidden City
The Forbidden City is the best preserved of all of China's ancient palaces. It now
functions as China's Palace Museum.
It is located in the center of Beijing city, and was built in 1406 based on the
concept of Feng Shui (Chinese geomancy) and completed in 1420. It was used as
the imperial residence for 24 emperors from Ming and Qing dynasties. It is the
palace most representative of Chinese civilization, and considered as a holy place
by the Chinese people.
The Terra Cotta Warriors
This is considered a great archaeological discovery in human history and
considered one of the eight wonders in the world. The astonishing discovery
was at Xi'an in 1974 by a local peasant. Chinese archaeologists excavated the
7,000 earth-made soldier and horse figures, which are taller and larger than
the real live ones at that time.
Anji Bridge
Anji Bridge located in
the Hebei Province
and was built in the
Sui Dynasty (581618).
It is a single span
stone arch bridge in
China, and it is also
the oldest extant
bridge of China. The Anji Bridge has a segmental deck and the
parapets are engraved with dragons and other animals. In 1991, it
was named among the world cultural relics of civil engineering.
Potala Palace
It is the symbol of Lhasa, the
regional capital of Tibet. The Potala
Palace was originally built as the
house for the marriage of Emperor
Songtsen
Gampoand
Princess
Wenchang in the Tang Dynasty.
It is a sacred place for Tibetan Buddhism, the hall and
corridors inside are decorated with master paintings,
reflecting Buddhist teachings and stories. The Potala Palace
is made up of 2 main parts: Red Palace and White Palace. In
1994, the Potala Palace has been listed by UNESCO as the
World Cultural Heritage.
Mogao Grottoes (Caves) - also known as “Thousand Buddha
Caves
They are located at the cliffs of the Soughing Sand Hill. Being the largest, the most wellknown grottoes of Buddhism art in China they are caved out on the third and fourth
floors, extending a length of 1.6 kilometers along the cliff.
There are 492 caves with a total of 45000 square meters of murals and 2400 colored
sculptures housed in them. The sizes of the caves vary and the sculptures are tall and
short. The Mogao Grottoes are the largest “World Treasure-house of Art” so far in
existence in the world and so the UNESCO listed it as one of the world cultural legacies
in December 1987.
Leshan Giant Buddha
It is the tallest stone
Buddha statue
in the world, and a
popular tourist
destination in southwest
China.
It was carved out of a cliff face by an 8th-century monk in southern Szechuan province,
near the city of Leshan. Construction on the Giant Buddha began in 713 AD.
It was the idea of a Chinese monk named Haitong, who hoped that the Buddha would
calm the turbulent waters that plagued the shipping vessels travelling down the river.
When funding for the project was threatened, he is said to have gouged out his own
eyes to show his piety and sincerity.
The massive construction project was finally completed by his disciples 90 years later.
The "Mount Emei Scenic Area with Leshan Giant Buddha" was listed as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site in 1996.
Expansion through the dynasties
Each new dynasty aimed to expand China's territory further than the
last dynasty, and often emperors of the same dynasty would seek to
outdo their predecessors. Once China was united, the capital city often
moved depending on the preferences of individual emperors.
Shang China centred on the Yellow River valley. The Shang capital
moved a number of times due to the flooding of the rivers. The Shang
nobility were warriors and they expanded China's territory further
south. The Zhou period of China was divided into the Eastern Zhou and
Western Zhou and each division had its own capital. The Zhou extended
China's territory into the Yangtze valley.
During the Qin dynasty, the Qin state gained control over west and
northwest states. It began to grow and eventually took control of the
other warring states. This was the beginning of a unified China. The Han
dynasty followed the Qin dynasty. The Han extended their power over
the Viet tribes that bordered the South China Sea. After the fall of the
Han dynasty, parts of China rebelled against the imperial centralisation.
China was not reunited until the Sui and Tang dynasties centuries later.
The dynasties continued to seek territorial expansion.
Dynasties
(Top) – Shang Dynasty
(Left) – Qin Dynasty
Government
During the Zhou dynasty, people began to
believe that the rulers of the Chinese states were
'sons of heaven', meaning that they were chosen
by the gods. This idea continued to gain
credibility.
Once China was unified, the emperors used this
belief to their advantage to help them retain
power. Any aspiring usurper had to prove that
the existing ruler had offended the gods before
he could rightfully claim the title of emperor. A
centralised government began with the rule of
Shi Huangdi.
The emperor
Shi Huangdi united the warring Chinese states, named
himself the first emperor and established an empire.
From this time, the emperor would be treated with
increasing reverence and would come to be
worshipped as a god.
The emperor ruled with the Mandate of Heaven, the
belief that he was only emperor because the gods
chose him to be. This belief developed into an
obligation for the emperor to rule as well as he could.
If there were any signs that the emperor was not ruling
well, such as failing to protect people from invasion, it
was believed to indicate that Heaven had taken away
the mandate. Natural disasters were also seen as a sign
that the gods were unhappy with the emperor.
It is thought that the Zhou came up with the Mandate of Heaven to
convince people of their right to rule but eventually the rulers came to
believe it themselves. The Zhou believed that the last Shang king was a
corrupt and ineffective leader who could no longer fulfil his role. The Zhou
believed that they had permission from heaven to seize power from the
Shang.
The first centralised government
Once the first emperor had unified China, the country came under a
centralised government. This government was based on the distinction
of social classes and emphasised individual responsibilities.
Shi Huangdi made many reforms and was considered a brutal ruler.
Under him, the principle of legalism became dominant.
The legalists were opposed to Confucianism. Both Confucians and
legalists believed in a united China but believed in different ways of
attaining this goal.
The legalists believed that most people were inherently evil and would
only work for their own gain, not the gain of the community. The
legalists believed that strict laws should be imposed with severe
punishments for anyone that broke the law. They also believed in
absolute obedience to the emperor.
Legalism became the ruling principle under Shi Huangdi but this
philosophy only lasted for 15 years until the legalists were overthrown.
The beliefs of legalism had a lasting effect on China and the imperial
system was to continue in China for many centuries.
Government officials
The government had a central administration in the capital city with
smaller divisions located in each province. The smaller divisions were
staffed by officials appointed by the emperor.
The central government had various departments that looked after
things such as religion and ceremonies, law and order, taxes and
agriculture. The officials of the central government were responsible
for discussing issues such as taxation, justice and defence with the
emperor and obtaining his permission to implement policies.
The emperor had two very close governors to advise him. These close
advisers communicated with the provincial officials. The governors
were permitted to tell the emperor if he was failing to carry out his
duties effectively.
From the beginning of the Han dynasty, every effort was made to
distinguish the emperor from the rest of society. The emperor was
removed from the people and lived deep inside a large palace, hidden
from commoners. He was provided with a huge household to attend to
his every need.
Crime and punishment
When a central government was established with the start of imperial China, officials
were placed in the provinces to implement law and justice on behalf of the emperor. It
was the responsibility of the officials to ensure that the population was aware of the
laws.
In rural areas, however, disputes were more often settled by the involved parties
making compromises, rather than taking it to the criminal courts. Disputes were often
taken to the village elders to resolve. This illustrated the respect for elders that was
deeply embedded in Chinese culture.
Many laws in ancient China were based on a moral code and central to this was the
belief in filial piety, in which children were expected to respect and obey their parents.
If a girl insulted her parents, for example, she would be strangled. The father of the
family was responsible for the behaviour of his servants and children. If they committed
a crime which the father could have prevented, then he was also punished. Other moral
crimes were punishable by being beaten and then sent away for a time.
Some crimes, such as armed robbery, were punishable by death.
Crime and Punishment (2)
Crimes that were considered more trivial incurred punishments such as being
beaten with a stick or being branded. Brandings were often on the cheek,
where the mark was more visible. Some criminals were sent into exile for a
number of years, while others could be banished for life. Manual labour was
also used as punishment.
Someone who committed murder in ancient China would be given a shameful
and humiliating punishment - he or she would be beheaded.
The ancient Chinese believed that the head was the noblest part of the body
and it was a mark of great shame to be executed by being beheaded.
The executioners were usually soldiers who used a sword wrapped in yellow
cloth. Yellow was recognised as the royal colour and showed that the soldier
was carrying out the orders of the emperor.
Many laws in ancient China concerned the emperor and his protection. Laws
and punishments were in place, for example, for those that entered the palace
without authority and used the main road that was reserved for the emperor.
Anyone that aimed to hurt the emperor would be allowed no support and
would be tortured and executed immediately.
Religion and beliefs
The ancient Chinese believed in numerous gods and goddesses. A
common belief was that people's ancestors became gods when they
died and ancestor worship was an essential part of daily life for many
people.
They would pray and make sacrifices to their ancestors and ask them
for help and advice in different areas of their lives. People also believed
in spirits and demons and in the power of nature. Many ancient
Chinese beliefs remain prominent today, such as Chinese astrology and
the Chinese New Year celebrations.
Oracle bones
The use of bones as a way of telling the future developed during the
Shang period. The ancient Chinese believed they could ask their
ancestors for advice by communicating with the bones of animals.
Diviners (professional fortune tellers) inscribed questions onto the
bones of oxen and the shells of turtles which were then heated over
flames until they cracked. The diviners then interpreted the cracks and
revealed the answers to the questions.
Yin and yang
The Symbol (Yin-Yang) represents the ancient Chinese understanding of how
things work. The outer circle represents "everything", while the black and
white shapes within the circle represent the interaction of two energies,
called "yin" (black) and "yang" (white), which cause everything to happen.
They are not completely black or white, just as things in life are not
completely black or white, and they cannot exist without each other.
Ancient Chinese philosophers spent centuries studying the
natural world. By around 500 BC they had determined that all
living things in the universe were a result of the relationship
between the forces of yin and yang.
Yin and yang were central to many ancient Chinese beliefs and
were represented by a black and white symbol. Yin and yang
are opposite but complementary forces.
Together they represent the opposites found in the natural
world and their harmonious existence together. Yin is
associated with all that is female, dark and cold and yang is
associated with masculinity, light and heat.
Religions and philosophies
The ancient Chinese were influenced by a number of
philosophies and religions.
Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism were
three of the most influential beliefs.
Buddhism and Daoism were considered to be
religions, whereas Confucianism was a
philosophy.
The ancient Chinese were not restricted to
following just one of these beliefs. In fact,
many people adopted the principles of all
three and applied them to different aspects of
their lives.
Confucianism, for example, became highly
influential in terms of family relationships, respect
and ancestor worship, whereas Daoism was
influential in spirituality and personal health and
Buddhism when someone died.
Daoism
The foundations of Daoism lie with the
teachings of Lao Tzu, who was born in around
604 BC. Lao Tzu was a contemporary of
Confucius and believed in the harmony of
nature.
He believed in yin and yang and that the
natural world was balanced between their
two opposing forces.
He thought that everything that was alive
shared a life force and that it was wrong for
people to take away the life force of others by
killing
them.
He therefore did not agree with war and violence.
He also believed that it was wrong for governments
to impose too many rules on people and that people
should be free to make their own decisions.
He believed that wealth and ambition were evil and
that people should lead simple lives.
Confucianism
Confucianism is based on the teachings of
Confucius, a famous Chinese philosopher.
Confucius stressed the importance of social
order and respect for ancestors.
He believed that a society could function
effectively if people knew their social status
and behaved accordingly.
He taught that people should respect and obey
their parents and honour their memories when
they died. Confucius's teachings influenced
many of the Chinese emperors.
Buddhism
Buddhism arrived in China through missionaries
that travelled the Silk Road.
The earliest Buddhist city was Loyang. Buddhism
caused some conflict in its early days in China as
many of its beliefs opposed those of
Confucianism.
Confucianism was concerned with social
structure and life on Earth whereas Buddhism
emphasised life after death, meditation,
enlightenment and nirvana.
Buddhism survived in China because the Chinese
adapted it and it became entwined with many
other Chinese beliefs and customs. Buddhism
thrived during the Sui and Tang dynasties.
Ancestor worship
It is thought that ancestor worship began at the
very start of Chinese civilisation.
The ancient Chinese believed that when their
parents and grandparents died they became godlike.
Each family had an altar in their home to worship
their ancestors.
The family believed that in return for their
prayers and offerings to their ancestors, the
ancestors would protect them and their home.
Afterlife
The ancient Chinese believed in an afterlife but
imagined that it would be very similar to their life
on Earth.
They believed that people would have the same
needs in the afterlife as they did when they were
alive, which is why many people were buried with
useful household items.
In early times, the servants and families of wealthy
people were expected to sacrifice themselves to
accompany their master into the afterlife.
Later, however, carpenters and sculptors were
commissioned to make statues of servants that
could be buried with the dead.
Symbolism
For thousands of years dragons have been, and still are
today, an icon of Chinese culture. Dragons are
traditionally considered to be auspicious and wise.
Statues and paintings of dragons traditionally adorn
houses as they are believed to ward off evil spirits and
bring prosperity and good fortune.
Dragons are symbolic of the natural world, particularly
of water, and are greatly respected. The ancient
Chinese believed that dragons controlled water and
were therefore able to create rain and prevent floods.
Temples and shrines were built as places to worship
and make offerings to dragons. Winged dragons were
thought to transport humans to the afterlife.
After the First Emperor, dragons came to be associated with
emperors and only the emperor was permitted to wear images
of dragons on his robes. Emperors came to believe that they
had dragon ancestors.
In Chinese astrology, the year of the dragon is thought to be
very lucky and anyone born in that year is thought to be
blessed with good luck, long life and wealth.
Chinese Astrology and Festivals and celebrations
The ancient Chinese divided time into 12-year cycles.
Each year within the cycle was represented by a
different animal.
People are thought to share the characteristics of the
animal that represents the year in which they were
born.
Chinese New Year is an ancient festival that is still
celebrated by Chinese communities around the world.
In ancient times, the festival took place at the first new
moon between 21 January and 19 February.
Traditionally it was a time where all accounts were closed and
all debts were paid.
At New Year, parents allowed their children to stay up late as
they believed that the longer the children stayed awake at
New Year, the longer the parents would live.
Foreign policy and contact
China's territory changed as various rulers came into
power. China's territory expanded and many
neighbouring states and tribes were absorbed.
Whilst China was establishing her civilisation, many
of her neighbours were nomadic tribes that moved
from place to place.
China developed a sense of its own superiority and
advancement compared to many of these tribes. For
a long time, China was isolated from the rest of the
world due to natural barriers. This gave people the
idea that they were at the centre of the universe.
Tribute system
Once China's warring states were united, its territory gradually increased as each new
emperor sought to outdo his predecessors and gain more land. A system was developed
whereby
China's neighbouring regions that were outside of her control were required to present
gifts to the emperor if they wished to trade with China. These gifts were known as
'tributes' and the system became known as the tribute system.
Over time, these tributes began to signify more than just trade relationships. Tribute
states were afforded a certain amount of protection and the tributes came to represent
a greater allegiance between the states and China.
The act of giving tribute, however, showed that the states and China were not equals
but that China was superior and the states were required to submit to her. China had a
certain amount of control over the tribute states and consequently did not expect to be
invaded or attacked by these states.
Those regions that were not part of the tribute system were not permitted to trade
with, and had no ties to, China. China was at greater risk of being attacked by nontribute regions. The tribute system was used early in imperial China but became
particularly prominent during Han times. Allegiances with the tribute states meant that,
over time, China was able to incorporate them more easily into her expanding territory.
Trade
Before the development of coins, traders in
ancient China bartered (exchanged) goods.
They then began to use tokens and shells in
exchange for goods.
Prior to imperial China, selling land became
very common and landowners could
become very wealthy.
By around 750 BC, a type of coin had been
developed but it was not until Shi Huangdi
became emperor and unified the states of
China that a standard system of round
metal coins was introduced.
These circular coins had a hole in the centre
which allowed them to be threaded onto a
string and kept together. The very first
paper money started to be used in China
from around 900 AD.
Silk Road
In around 139 BC, the Han emperor sent one of his generals on a mission to Central Asia to rally support against one of China's
northern tribal enemies. The general, however, was unsuccessful in his mission and was kidnapped and imprisoned by the tribe.
He eventually returned to China after ten years, having travelled through Burma and India. He had learned a great deal about
different cultures and peoples along the way. In around 114 BC, Chinese merchants set off to Central Asia to sell their wares to the
peoples that the general had spoken about. The route they took became an established trading route which expanded and became
known as the Silk Road, named after the fine silks and fabrics that the Chinese traded for other items.
The Silk Road continued to grow and it became the main overland link between the countries of Asia and Europe. The Silk Road
eventually grew into a series of interconnecting roads which were joined by trading posts.
During the Han dynasty, Chinese camel caravans transported silk, tea and spices to a trading post at Kashgar in Central Asia. From
Kashgar, these goods made their way to various other places, including Rome. The Chinese traders obtained wool, gold and silver
which they transported back to China.
The Silk Road not only served to facilitate trade between east and west but also allowed the exchange of cultures, traditions and
beliefs. It is thought that Buddhism came to China via the Silk Road. It was also a valuable route used many centuries later by the
European explorer Marco Polo.
War and defence
Before the states of China were unified in 221
BC, each state built defensive walls to protect
against invasion.
Once China was united, the first emperor Shi
Huangdi ordered the individual walls to be joined
together to form one long wall with the aim of
keeping nomadic tribes out.
This longer wall became the famous Great Wall
of China. China's main fear was the Mongol
tribes to the north, whom the Chinese believed
to be barbarians
Work: urban and rural
There were a variety of occupations in ancient China,
some more respected than others.
The majority of the population worked as peasant
farmers in rural areas, producing the food that
sustained the population.
Although often very poor, farmers were considered
important in ancient China. This was in stark contrast to
merchants, many of whom became very wealthy by
buying and selling goods but were not respected as
contributors to the society.
The ancient Chinese valued jade and bronze and
craftsmen were kept busy producing decorative luxury
items for the imperial household and wealthy families.
Rural work
Many early civilisations began when people made the transition from hunting
and gathering to settling in one place and cultivating crops. This was also the
case in ancient China. The fertile lands around the rivers were ideal places to
establish settlements and begin growing crops. Some of the earliest evidence
suggests that the ancient Chinese settled in the Yellow River basin in around
3500 BC.
As China's landscape and climate were so diverse, different crops flourished in
different regions of the country. Conditions in the south were warmer and
wetter than in the north so were good for growing rice.
Fruit and vegetables were also grown in the south. The cooler conditions in the
north were more suited to growing grains, such as wheat, millet and barley.
Chinese farmers also learned to use irrigation systems to transport water
between the rivers and fields.
Rural life for peasant farmers was difficult. They worked in harsh conditions
throughout the year and many lived with the threat of the rivers flooding,
which could potentially ruin their crops and land. Farmers had to work once a
month for the emperor.
Rural Work (2)
A few fortunate farmers could afford to buy iron ploughs
to be pulled by oxen which relieved them of some manual
labour. Most farmers, however, had very basic tools and
relied on manual labour. Before the Spring and Autumn
Period, farm tools were mostly made of stone or wood.
However, improvements in iron smelting technology
during the Warring States Period enabled farmers to use
more iron tools which boosted the economy.
It was common for families in farming communities to live
together and work the fields together. By working
together they were able to produce greater quantities of
food more efficiently. Men between the ages of 23 and 56
were required to serve in the army for a period of two
years. Men were also called on to fight in the case of a
large-scale attack.
Urban work
The cities of ancient China were well organised. They had
main streets and were protected by city walls.
There were many urban occupations in ancient China,
even though the minority of the population lived in the
cities. The majority of people lived in rural areas.
Artisans
Sculptors worked with jade and bronze and potters worked with
clay to produce a variety of items. Many everyday objects, such as
drinking vessels, pots and utensils, were made from clay. Richer families were able to
obtain the same items but made from more expensive materials. Jade was often used
to make ceremonial items. Dragons were an important Chinese symbol and featured
heavily in different crafts.
Early metal workers used bronze to produce weapons and armour
for the armies. Many commemorative statues were also made
from bronze. Craftsmen often worked in teams and did not take
individual credit for their work. Later in ancient China, craftsmen
often worked to create statues of servants and attendants for rich
families. These statues would then be buried with the families
when they died and were thought to assist them in the afterlife.
Gold and silver became more desirable than bronze and jade during the Tang dynasty.
The ancient Chinese learned how to work with finer metals from the Persians and used
this knowledge to craft more delicate jewellery and luxury items.
The early Chinese discovered that the sap from the lacquer tree could be used to
reinforce and preserve a range of items. Initially, items were coated with lacquer to
make them last longer. Eventually, using lacquer developed into an art. Bronze or wood
formed the basic shape which would then be given numerous layers of lacquer. Often
the lacquer would be coloured. Artists would then carve intricate designs into the
lacquer to create desirable decorative items. Different coloured lacquers were also used
to glaze pottery and ceramics.
Silk
Once the ancient Chinese discovered how to make silk, it
became one of their most valuable exports.
Legend tells that the wife of the Yellow Emperor was sitting
under a mulberry tree drinking tea when a silkworm cocoon
fell into her cup. The cocoon began to unravel in the hot tea,
leaving behind filaments of silk.
The Chinese then began to cultivate silkworms but kept their
industry secret. The filaments were spun to create threads
which were woven into fine cloth. Silk became very valuable
as demand for it both inside and outside of China increased.
Silk making became a job for groups of women. Silk was used
to make clothing and expensive quilts. Artists painted and
wrote on it and it was also embroidered to make fine garments
for the imperial family. This fabric gave its name to the Silk
Road. Silk making is also known as sericulture.
Painting and Writing
Before the development of paper, the Chinese wrote on
bamboo, carving the characters from top to bottom.
Paper was not invented until the second century AD.
Later in the same century, printing was developed. The
Chinese characters were cut into clay, brushed with ink
and then covered with paper. The ink on the characters
left an impression on the paper. Artists also used a
similar technique to write on silk.
Chinese writing and painting developed alongside each
other. Painting was a highly respected art and the Chinese
believed that it was a mark of their civilisation. Natural
landscapes and the concept of harmony were central to
many ancient Chinese paintings. Artists painted on paper,
walls, screens, fans and silk.
Other urban occupations
Other urban occupations included government officials,
doctors, healers, scholars and fortune tellers.
Most Chinese cities had a marketplace where people could buy
and sell goods.
Most merchants were considered to be of low social standing,
although some merchants did become very wealthy.
Daily life of women
The majority of women in ancient China lived oppressed lives. Even women of the nobility and the imperial family did
not escape the oppression, though life was possibly slightly easier for them than for the large population of poor women.
Women were considered inferior to men and from the moment of birth most women were treated as inferiors.
Family life
As women in ancient China were considered inferior to men, this meant that their whole lives were spent being
subservient to the men in their families. Generations of one family often lived in the same house together and older
people were greatly respected.
A grandmother became important if she outlived her husband as she would then be the oldest member of the household
and would be afforded the most respect.
Confucius taught that women's roles were to look after the men in their families. He believed that it was not acceptable
for a woman to have her own ambitions and that she should have barely any life outside her own home. He did,
however, teach that a woman's role as mother and mother-in-law should be respected. He taught that a 'woman's
greatest duty is to have a son'.
Marriage
Marriages were arranged in ancient China but they were also
carefully considered. The parents of the children to be married
consulted an astrologer who referred to the birth charts of each
child. The astrologer would determine if, by the time and date of
their births, the children were compatible.
As a woman's thoughts and opinions were not considered important, the
father's word was final on who his daughter would marry. The morning after
the marriage, the girl would bow and offer tea to her in-laws as a sign that she
now belonged to her husband's family.
Once married, a girl would live with her husband's family. She would be
required to obey all the members of his family, particularly his mother.
A girl often became the servant of her mother-in-law and was forbidden to
disobey her. A girl gained more respect in her husband's family if she gave
birth to a boy. The birth of a boy was always celebrated more than the birth of
a girl. If families were very poor, they would sell their daughters as servants to
rich families. If a wife did not give birth to a son, her husband often took other
wives.
Education and ancestor worship
The ancient Chinese did not think it was
important to educate women. Women also
did not practise ancestor worship as once
they married their loyalties would lie with
the families of their husbands.
Ancestor worship was important to men as they
remained loyal to one family.
Women were not allowed to take exams and
therefore could not enter into government
service. Most girls did not go to school. Some
girls who had scholars as fathers could learn
from them, but female scholars were very rare.
Foot binding
It is thought that foot binding began in
around 900 AD during the
Tang dynasty and continued until 1911
when it was finally banned.
There are various legends regarding the
origins of foot binding. Some suggest that
the practice became fashionable in the
emperor's court as small feel were considered to be a mark of exceptional
beauty. It is thought that the practice was initially taken up by wealthy families
and it became a symbol that a family was wealthy, as girls with bound feet
were barely able to walk, let alone work.
Girls with bound feet were considered very attractive and it became a
common practice. It also became common for girls without bound feet to be
rejected by suitors.
The custom of foot binding gradually spread to all social classes as many poor
people saw it as a way of improving their social status. This put great pressure
on poor families who needed all members of their family to work. Some
peasant families were so poor that the women continued to work in the fields
with their bound feet. As they were unable to stand, they had to work on their
hands and knees.
Foot Binding (2)
It then became necessary for families to bind the feet of their daughters in
order for them to find a husband. It had long been a belief in China that
women were inferior to men. The practice of foot binding further reinforced
this belief, as women with bound feet were debilitated and weakened and less
likely to be disobedient or rebellious.
Foot binding began for most girls when they were around six or seven years of
age, while the bones of the foot were still young and the arch had not yet fully
developed.
The process was excruciatingly painful. The toes were broken and bandages
were tightly bound around the foot to pull the toes back and restrict their
growth. The bandages were changed every few days and the process usually
continued for another ten years until the feet had stopped growing and had
become small and pointed.
In addition to the pain endured by the girls, their feet often became infected,
which in some cases proved fatal. In later years, women with bound feet were
more likely to fall and fracture their hips.
Women's work
Women's work was centred on the home. Tasks such
as preparing food, cleaning and looking after
children were the norm for the majority of women
in ancient China.
They were expected to have many children and
most women felt the pressure to bear a son. It was
common for women to take up manual labour in the
home. Spinning, weaving and sewing were common
occupations. Some peasant women worked in the
fields with their husbands.
Clothing
Clothing was important in ancient China as it
became symbolic of status. People from the higher
classes wore fine fabrics, whereas poorer people
wore cheaper fabrics that were rough to the touch.
Most people wore tunics, women wore long tunics
with belts and men wore shorter ones, usually with
jackets. Most people, including men, wore their hair
long. Many people believed that their hair was a gift
from their parents and considered it disrespectful to
cut it. Men were rarely seen in public without
headwear.
Colour was also an indicator of class. Some
emperors insisted that a certain colour became
the royal colour and could not be worn by
anyone other than the emperor. From the Sui
dynasty, the royal colour was yellow.
A secret language
Nushu was a secret language which is thought to have
developed in the Jiangyong county of Hunan province in
southern China. No one knows its exact age, but it is
thought to have developed over hundreds of years. Some
experts suggest that it began around 300 AD.
Nushu was a secret written language developed by
women who were not allowed to be educated. It was
different to the language that men learned and used and
therefore could only be understood by the small
community of women who communicated with it.
Knowledge of Nushu was passed down by grandmothers,
mothers, aunts and great aunts and was never shared
with men. For many women it was comforting to be able
to secretly share their feelings with other women.
Warfare and the life of a soldier
Before the warring states of China were united,
each state had its own territory and own
military for defence. Following the unification
of the states, a much more organised army was
established.
Although the states were united, emperors still
wanted to claim more territory and an army
was needed to conquer neighbouring peoples
and claim their land.
For many centuries, China was under threat of
attack from Mongol tribes to the north and much
of its military was involved with defending
Chinese lands.
The army
During the Han dynasty, China was frequently at war. It
was also under frequent threat from enemies to the
north. China's army was made up mainly of citizens who
served in the army for a period of two years at some time
in their lives. During times of peace, the army was
deployed to conquer peoples and bring more land under
Chinese rule.
If the army was on a specific military mission, an
experienced officer was appointed. For minor operations,
however, a junior officer was appointed to lead it. During
the Han period, the army was mostly infantry.
An advance party of archers and horsemen was often sent
ahead of the infantry and the infantry were armed with
spears
and
crossbows.
There is no evidence to suggest that ancient Chinese
soldiers fought in a particular formation.
Soldiers
During Han times all able men between the ages of 23 and
56 were obliged to serve in the army for a period of two
years. This meant that there was always a mobilised
fighting force in ancient China.
Men were also called to serve in the military in case of an
emergency, even if they had previously served their two
years.
Men who served their time as soldiers during peace time,
or when they were not needed on a campaign, were
required to perform guard duty, usually at points along
the wall or in the cities.
Soldiers had a relatively low status in society. They were
not paid for their service but they did receive food and
equipment. They were required to wear a full uniform
which was also provided. During conflict, the majority of
the military were infantry.
Weapons and Armour
China's early armies fought using chariots and
bronze weapons. Later, as weaponry and
metalworking developed, soldiers used iron
weapons and cavalry. Weapons included bows and
arrows and swords. The development of the
crossbow in the fourth century BC meant that
chariots became redundant. The crossbow had a
range of about 200 metres and could pierce armour.
It became a very valuable weapon in ancient
Chinese warfare.
Armour was usually made from metal or leather.
Small pieces of leather and metal were overlapped
and attached to cloth. This provided protection
but also allowed the soldiers flexibility of
movement. Leather armour was usually lacquered
to give extra strength. Dating from Han times,
helmets were also worn.
Defence
The army was often engaged in defending China's
northern frontier from enemy tribes.
Some of these tribes posed a particular threat as many of
the soldiers had grown up learning to fight and were
competent horseback fighters.
This was in contrast to China's army, many of whom had
little formal training or experience in battle and who were
only exposed to warfare when they were called up to
serve their two years.
Gunpowder
In the late 900s AD, China developed a substance that would
later become a very powerful weapon. Gunpowder was first
thought to have been used in alchemy and medicine. It was
discovered that amounts of sulphur, charcoal and saltpetre
could be combined to produce a powder, which when lit
caused an explosion.
Possibly one of the first military uses of gunpowder was the
creation of a flare that guards could use to warn each other of
an
approaching
attack.
It is thought that in around 1150 AD, the Chinese developed
the idea of attaching gunpowder to the shaft of an arrow and
setting fire to it. In doing so they developed a very powerful
weapon. They attached a weight to the arrow and made it into
a type of rocket. This arrow could then fly for about 335
metres. They further developed the technology and invented
launchers that could fire up to 300 arrows at once.
The Art of War
From later in the Warring States Period, it appears that the military
shifted its focus to more strategic warfare. This included deceiving the
enemy and obtaining information undercover.
It is thought that Sun Tzu was a military general during the Spring and
Autumn period. Most historians believe that he was born in around 544
BC and died in 496 BC, and was a contemporary of Confucius.
Sun Tzu is credited with writing The Art of War, believed by many to be
the oldest military treatise in the world. One legend tells that once he
had written the treatise, Sun Tzu presented it to the king of the Wu
state. The king asked if its principles could be applied to anyone and
Sun Tzu replied that they could.
In order to prove himself, Tzu took over 100 ladies of the king's court
and turned them into trained soldiers in one session. The king made
Sun Tzu a general in his army where he was able to implement the
strategies of his treatise.
The Art of War remains an influential text in our modern world. Many
of Sun Tzu's principles are commonly applied in areas such as business
strategy, sport and the achievement of personal goals.
An event: The unification of China
The unification of China by the king of the Qin state is one of the most
important events in China's history. The Qin dynasty was a comparatively
short-lived dynasty but it implemented landmark reforms and established a
model for China that would be used for centuries to come.
The states of China before unification
As we have discovered in previous chapters, ancient China was made up of a
number of states that were independent of each other. These states were in
the north of modern-day China.
The Shang and the Zhou were two particularly powerful states that had some
control over the other states. The Zhou began to weaken in around 500 BC and
the states fell into a period of war and chaos as each state tried to assert its
power over the others. During this time, the states were also invaded by
nomadic tribes to the north of China that had become aware of the
disharmony among the Chinese states.
Seven states emerged as key players in the fight for power. They were the Han,
the Chao, the Wei, the Ch'u, the Yen, the Ch'i and the Qin. The two main
competitors were the Ch'i and the Qin. It was the state of the Qin that was to
emerge as the most powerful of the warring states and it was the king of the
Qin who would ultimately unite the states and become ruler over all of them.
The Qin state
The Qin state was a comparatively
small state in the west, near the
Wei River. Between 328 and 308
BC, the Qin assumed control of
the north and northwest states.
The Qin began to rule from their territory and gradually
brought the other states under their control. By 256 BC
the Zhou had lost the last of their power and were no
longer influential.
The Qin adopted the then recent philosophy of Legalism
which was in favour of a centrally governed state.
A unified China
Historians date the start of the Qin dynasty to 256 BC but unification
did not take place until 221 BC. The Qin had been the most powerful
state in China from 256 BC, since the fall of the Zhou, but in 246 BC
power was handed to a 13-year-old boy named Ying Zheng.
Being only a teenager, Zheng was counselled by a number of advisers.
Among them was Li Su, one of the founders of Legalism. In 232 BC,
Zheng's advisers counselled him to unite the states. Many of the states
were very weak and could not stand up to the Qin military. By 221 BC
he had conquered the northern states.
Zheng then proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi, meaning First Emperor.
Once in this position of power and aided by his advisers, Shi Huangdi
put in place a system of rule and government that would be emulated
by all future Chinese dynasties.
The system of government placed the emperor and his officials at the
centre, with various other levels branching out to administer the
government in the newly-created provinces.
A secret language - Qin
The Qin implemented a number of reforms. They improved agriculture, built better
roads, introduced a single currency and consolidated the existing systems of law and
writing. Strict laws were put in place, particularly within the government, and any
corrupt officials were sentenced to death. The shift was made from the feudal
landholder system to a bureaucratic system, within which was a strict hierarchy. Land
was confiscated from the feudal nobles and shared among the peasants.
Before uniting the states, the Qin state had already adopted the beliefs of legalism.
Legalists believed that humans were essentially base and selfish and that they needed
to be strictly controlled and disciplined. These were the principles on which the Qin ran
their kingdom and went on to rule a unified China.
Shi Huangdi was considered a cruel and brutal ruler. In uniting the states, he abolished
local customs and aimed to minimise the differences between languages so that a
central system could be put in place which could be understood by everyone.
Anything that the Qin thought would help to centralise and unite the states was
implemented, such as standard weights and measures and a standard currency. In 213
BC, advised by a legalist, the First Emperor ordered the burning of all private libraries
and all books that included teachings that were not in line with the Qin government,
particularly Confucianist ideals.
A secret language – Qin (2)
This action was an attempt to extinguish any opposition to the
centralised government and to destroy anything that might
allow people to form their own ideas and might lead to
potential rebellion. Many scholars who tried to protect their
books were executed. The burning of the books was a tragic
loss for Chinese culture as the majority of early records,
teachings and philosophies were destroyed.
Once these reforms were in place, the Qin looked to take
control of territory further south. Qin Shi Huangdi was strong
but had many enemies. Nomadic tribes to the north had long
been a threat to China.
It is also thought that the thousands of ruling families who had
been overthrown when the Qin came to power also opposed
Shi Huangdi's rule. They were also angry as he had confiscated
much of the land belonging to them and redistributed it
among the nobles.
End of the Qin
Shi Huangdi died in 210 BC and his son assumed the
throne of the Qin dynasty. A large rebellion broke out
after the death of Shi Huangdi.
Many people were unhappy with the oppressive rule of
the Qin and the legalist government. The prince of the
Han defeated the Qin troops in battle and overthrew Shi
Huangdi's son to establish the Han dynasty.
Shi Huangdi's Qin dynasty fell only four years after his
death. Although it was a short-lived dynasty, it is a hugely
significant period in China's history.
The Qin dynasty also left a lasting legacy with its name.
Pronounced 'chin', it is from Qin that the modern-day
country of China takes its name.
A Person – Shi Huangdi
Shi Huangdi became the first emperor of a unified China; indeed he gave himself the
title 'the first emperor'. He founded the Qin dynasty, a short-lived but important
dynasty. He was an ambitious and feared ruler.
He implemented many reforms that helped to build the united China but often used
force to attain his goals. Shi Huangdi did not support the teachings of Confucius but
imposed the principles of legalism.
He built many imposing structures and is responsible for uniting the walls built during
the Warring States period, effectively beginning the Great Wall of China.
Shi Huangdi was born in 259 BC and was named Ying Zheng. His father was the king of
the Qin state. Zheng's father died when Zheng was only 13, leaving Zheng to become
king of the Qin at an early age. With the help of a number of advisers, he expanded his
kingdom and by the time he was 40 he had united the warring states of China.
As a ruler, Shi Huangdi was considered violent and brutal. He was disliked by many and
there were a number of attempts to assassinate him. He wanted to control the minds of
his subjects in order to prevent a rebellion against him.
This was one of the reasons for his burning of the vast majority of books in 213 BC.
Scholars were executed if they wrote or said anything unfavourable about him. Shi
Huangdi wanted to find a way to eternal life and travelled the country tracking down
apothecaries in search of a magical potion that would prolong his life.
He wanted to ensure that people remembered him, so he ordered the building of many
large and extravagant monuments in his name.
A Person – Shi Huangdi (2)
As the first ruler of a unified China, Shi Huangdi implemented a number of reforms that
were intended to align the various peoples and cultures of China. He made advances in
all areas of society. Most of these reforms were, however, forced on the population
with little regard for existing systems and traditions. He used the policies of the Qin
state as a basis for a unified China. The feudalism of the other states was abolished to
make way for a bureaucratic system.
Shi Huangdi implemented a standard system of weights and measures and a system of
currency. A system of taxation was imposed from which no one was exempt. The axel
length on wheeled vehicles was standardised so that vehicles could move freely around
the country. A standard system of writing was introduced so that orders could be
understood by everyone.
Shi Huangdi did not agree with the teachings of Confucius. He practised legalism and
believed in strict laws and punishments. He believed that his subjects should suffer so
that he could rule easily and lead a peaceful life. There are some reports of his ordering
protestors to be buried alive.
Burning of the books
In 213 BC, Shi Huangdi ordered the burning of all non-essential books. This included
history books, books relating to Confucianism and those written by anyone opposed to
legalism. By doing this, he aimed to silence any criticism of his rule. The only books that
were spared incineration were agricultural and medical books. Anyone that secretly
tried to save their books and was discovered was punished by death. A few lucky
people managed to rescue some books and hid them.
A Person – Shi Huangdi (3)
Legend says that Shi Huangdi's death came before his
advisers had decided what to do so they covered him with
rotten fish to disguise the smell of his decomposing body.
Shi Huangdi had already chosen the son that he wanted to
succeed him. His advisers, however, did not believe that
this son would make a good emperor as he had opposed
some of his father's actions, such as the burning of the
books.
Shi Huangdi's advisers convinced the chosen son that his
father had, in fact, wanted him to commit suicide so that
he could be with his father in the afterlife. Shi Huangdi's
advisers then chose another of his sons to succeed him.
This ultimately turned out to be unsuccessful as that son
was a weak leader and the Qin fell to the Han.
A Person – Shi Huangdi (3) – His Tomb
Although Shi Huangdi's Qin dynasty was short lived, the man himself put an indelible
stamp on China's history. He is famous for uniting China but it could be argued that he
is infamous for the construction of a vast mausoleum guarded by an army of thousands
of life-sized terracotta soldiers.
The tomb of China's first emperor is possibly China's most exciting archaeological find.
Soon after he claimed the title of the First Emperor of China, Shi Huangdi arranged the
building of an enormous tomb in which he would be buried when he died.
The site of his mausoleum covers an area of over 56 square kilometres - the size of a
small city. It has many sections to it, some of which remain unexcavated. Above ground,
the site of the mausoleum is marked by a hill. Underground, however, treasures
abound.
Shi Huangdi ordered work to start on his tomb a short time after he became emperor. It
took more than 700,000 workers over 36 years to create the enormous mausoleum.
Careful consideration went into the site of the tomb. Its location is considered
auspicious, with mountains to the south and a river to the north. The tomb has an inner
chamber surrounded by a replica of the Qin capital city, complete with gardens, palaces
and shrines.
The tomb lay almost forgotten for around 2000 years until 1974, when Chinese farmers
uncovered part of one of the terracotta warriors. Soon after the farmers' discovery,
over 7000 terracotta warriors were excavated. This then led to further excavations
which uncovered the main tomb.
The Legacy – The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China is one of the most
recognised wonders of the world and has
received World Heritage listing.
The wall has a complex history and was built intermittently over
2000 years.
The Great Wall is not one continuous wall that was built at a
specific period in history but is a series of smaller walls that were
built by different dynasties over many centuries.
Shi Huangdi of the Qin dynasty is often credited with building the
wall; however, the foundations which he built upon were already
in place.
History of the Wall
During the Warring States Period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, the states built walls to
protect themselves from invasion by other enemy states. Following the Warring States
Period, Shi Huangdi became emperor and founded the Qin dynasty.
He unified the states and ordered the walls built during the Warring States Period to be
joined together. This was intended to act as a defence against the nomadic Mongolian
tribes to the north. It is during this time that the Wall took its name of the Wall of ten
thousand Li. A li was a unit of measure and 10 000 li equates to around 5000 km. The
Wall during this period was relatively simple. There were no watchtowers and the
Chinese had not yet started to use bricks.
Structure of the Wall
During the Han dynasty, the Wall was extended further into the Gobi Desert.
Parts of the Wall were renovated occasionally during the Han dynasty but it
was not until the Ming dynasty that major renovations began. The Ming
extended the Wall, reinforced it and added fortifications.
The Great Wall of China is not one continuous wall. As the Wall was extended
during the Qin, Han and Ming dynasties, builders found that at certain points
the mountains were tall enough and the rivers wide enough to provide
sufficient defence. At these points there would be breaks in the Wall but
watchtowers were still built to ensure a continuous defence. Forts, passes and
watchtowers were structures that could be found along the Wall. Passes were
situated at intervals along the Wall, usually near a large town or city and
provided access to the Wall and the land either side of it.
The Wall acted as an important defence for the Chinese. The Wall allowed the
Chinese a clear view of any invading tribes. They had a clear height advantage
and were able to fire arrows down onto the enemy.
The watchtowers built along the walls acted as lookout points and allowed
people to stay in touch. If a guard on a watchtower saw the approach of an
enemy he would light a fire as a beacon to alert the guards on other
watchtowers. This method of communicating was faster than sending a
messenger on foot or horseback.
The building of the Wall
The style of the Wall and the materials used to build it vary according to the section of
Wall, its location and the dynasty in which it was built. Workers tried to use materials
that were readily available locally in order to minimise transporting goods from other
areas.
Workers during the Han dynasty came across the problem of how to build with sand, as
it was the only abundant material in the Gobi desert. They discovered that by adding
twigs and pebbles to the sand they could create a better structure.
Before bricks, wood, mud and stone were used as building materials. The early wall
builders used tamped (compressed) earth to build sections of the Wall. As the dynasties
developed, so did weapons. During the early history of the Wall, the weapons used by
China's rivals were mainly swords, spears and bows.
The Wall did not need to provide much defence against such weapons so mud was an
adequate material. Once gunpowder became available during the Ming Dynasty,
however, it became necessary to build the Wall of stronger materials that could
withstand the more advanced weaponry. The builders used stone slabs and developed
a way of firing bricks in a kiln to achieve greater support.
It is estimated that over one million men, women and children helped to build the Wall
at various points. Many, however, died as a result of exposure, exhaustion and
malnutrition. Some legends say that many of the dead were buried in the Great Wall.
The Great Wall today
The Great Wall today stretches for approximately
6500 km and runs from the east coast of China to
the mountains in the west.
Its height varies between five and seven metres.
The Great wall received World Heritage Listing
from
UNESCO
in
1987.
In July 2007, The Great Wall of China was chosen
as one of the modern day seven wonders of the
world by a poll of 100 million online voters.