From Fantasy to Action Gabriele Oettingen New York University/University of Hamburg
From Fantasy to Action Gabriele Oettingen New York University/University of Hamburg Positive Thinking is Positive: Self-Help Literature Norman Vincent Peale The Power of Positive Thinking (1985-1994) Napoleon Hill Success of Positive Thinking (2005) Mathias Matuschka The Happy-End Universe (2004) Annemarie Trixner (2003) Be Happy, You will Succeed! Overview Expectation versus Fantasy Mental Contrasting of Fantasy and Reality Intervention and Individual Differences Positive Thinking: Expectations versus Fantasies Expectations versus Fantasies Expectations: Probability judgments Fantasies: Free thoughts Everyone knows the difference between imagining a thing and believing in its existence, between supposing a proposition and acquiescing in its truth. James, 1890, p. 283 Positive Expectations … reflect past success … signal that acting is worthwhile and necessary … predict more motivation Positive Fantasies … independent of past success … fail to signal that action is worthwhile and necessary … predict less motivation Entering Professional Life How probable do you think it is that you’ll find an adequate position in your field? very probable not at all probable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Work in a biochemical laboratory After my graduation a member of the research group is leaving, the vacant position gets advertised, and I succeed to take over the position due to my achievements in the past and my ability to fit in. Entering Professional Life as Predicted by Expectation and Fantasy .50 Number of Applications Amount of Salary Number of Job Offers p < .001 .40 p < . 05 .30 .20 .33 .41 .10 .0 -.04 -.10 -.20 -.29 -.39 -.30 -.40 p < .05 -.40 p < .01 p < .01 -.50 Expectation Fantasy Oettingen & Mayer (2002, Study 1). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1198-1212. Recovery from Hip Replacement Surgery How likely do you think it is, that 2 weeks after surgery you will be able to go for a brief walk using an assistive cane? not at all likely 1 2 3 4 very likely 5 How likely do you think it is, that 2 weeks after surgery you will be walking on stairs up and down with the help of an assistive cane? not at all likely 1 2 3 4 very likely 5 At the end of your hospital stay you want to buy a newspaper in the hospital shop ... I am walking on the stair-ways downwards without help, and I walk easily and quickly to the newspaper stand. How positive were these thoughts or images? not at all positive 1 2 3 4 very positive 5 How negative were these thoughts or images? not at all negative 1 2 3 4 very negative 5 At the end of your hospital stay you want to buy a newspaper in the hospital shop ... Negative Fantasy (Recovery ) I am trying to walk to the door first, using my cane. But how shall I open the door? Uh, and then walking until the elevator? How would I ever do it? How positive were this thoughts or images? not at all positive 1 2 3 4 very positive 5 How negative were this thoughts or images? not at all negative 1 very negative 2 3 4 5 Recovery from Hip Replacement Surgery as Predicted by Expectation and Fantasy .50 General Recovery Walking on Stairs Hip Joint Motion p < . 01 .40 p < .05 p < .05 .30 .20 .10 .30 .37 .27 .0 -.10 -.20 -.36 -.43 -.31 -.30 p < .05 -.40 p < .01 p < .001 -.50 Expectation Fantasy Oettingen & Mayer (2002, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1198-1212. Supportive Evidence Academic/ vocational: Academic achievement Professional achievement Health: Obesity Chronic disease: Asthma, Colitis, Cancer Hip replacement surgery Interpersonal relations: Finding a romantic partner Findings are Replicated Across Different Age groups Domains Cultures Measures of Fantasy Measures of Motivation & Success Turning Fantasies into Goals: Mentally Contrasting Fantasies with Reality Mental Contrasting Strong Goal Setting Positive Future Mental Contrasting Negative Reality Expectations are Activated No Goal Setting Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129. Indulging Positive Future Indulging Expectations are not Activated Moderate Goal Setting Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129. Dwelling Dwelling Expectations are not Activated Moderate Goal Setting Negative Reality Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129. Typical Experiment Independent Variables • Measure: Expectations • Manipulate: Goal-setting strategies Dependent Variables • Goal commitment and achievement Exemplary Experiment: Interpersonal Concern Interpersonal Concern improve relationship to partner get to know better someone I like get along with my mother How likely do you think it is that the named problem will have a happy ending? 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Aspects of Positive Future not being lonely anymore feelings of being loved feelings of being needed Aspects of Negative Reality feelings of insecurity feelings of unattractiveness being too emotional Inducing the Three Self-Regulation Strategies of Goal-Setting Mental Contrasting Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. feelings of being loved Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Mental Contrasting Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . feelings of unattractiveness Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Negative Reality Mental Contrasting Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. not being lonely anymore Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Negative Reality Positive Future Mental Contrasting Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . feelings of insecurity Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Negative Reality Positive Future Negative Reality Indulging Write down on the line below the fourth positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. being well-balanced Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Indulging Write down on the line below the third positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. feelings of being needed Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Positive Future Indulging Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. feelings of being loved Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Positive Future Positive Future Indulging Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. not being lonely anymore Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Positive Future Positive Future Positive Future Positive Future Dwelling Write down on the line below the fourth negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . being too funky Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Dwelling Write down on the line below the third negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . being too emotional Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Negative Reality Dwelling Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . feelings of unattractiveness Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Negative Reality Negative Reality Dwelling Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . feelings of insecurity Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Negative Reality Negative Reality Negative Reality Reverse Contrasting Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . feelings of unattractiveness Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Reverse Contrasting Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. feelings of being loved Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Positive Future Reverse Contrasting Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending . feelings of insecurity Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Positive Future Negative Reality Reverse Contrasting Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending. not being lonely anymore Now really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign. Negative Reality Positive Future Negative Reality Positive Future Interpersonal Concern Feeling Energized 7 6 5 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality Control group 4 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Pak & Schnetter (2001, Study 3). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753. Interpersonal Concern Immediacy of Action 0 3 6 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality Control group 9 12 15 18 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Pak & Schnetter (2001, Study 3). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753. Exemplary Experiment: Improving in Mathematics How likely do you think it is that you will improve in mathematics? very unlikely 1 2 3 4 very likely 5 Aspects of Positive Future passing final exams feelings of pride being qualified for the job Aspects of Negative Reality being lazy being absent-minded distraction by other students Mathematics Feeling Energized 5 4 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753. Mathematics Effort 5 4 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753. Mathematics Achievement (Course Grades) 1 2 3 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 4 5 6 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753. Supportive Evidence Academic/ vocational: Vocational training Combining work and family life Studying abroad Learning a foreign language Impression formation Mathematics Professional relations Health: Cigarette reduction Interpersonal relations: Problem solving Social responsibility Help seeking Findings are Replicated Across Cultures Time Spans Settings Paradigms Measures of Goal Commitment Dealing with Negative Feedback: Recall of Information on Relevant Shortcomings Please look at this picture for a minute. Then answer – without much thought – the following question. 1. Please estimate the characteristics of this woman by circling the appropriate number. warm cold fragile strong passive active impatient dependent jealous patient independent faithful Please look at this picture for a minute. Then answer – without much thought – the following question. 4. What will this person do in the next five minutes? Please jot down what came to your mind when you were looking at the picture. Negative Feedback in challenging situations you are tense. when interacting with other people you are reserved. in stressful situations you react impulsively. N e Cued-recall 1. in interpersonal interactions you are … 2. towards others you behave ... 3. in challenging situations you are ... tense 4. when interacting with other people you are ... reserved 5. in stressful situations you react … impulsively 6. others think you are a … person. Recall of Negative Feedback 3- 2- Mental Contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 1- 0Low Expectation High Expectation Pak & Oettingen (2007). Dealing with Negative Feedback: Sustaining a Sense of Competence Regarding your Social Competence your test result was 18 points (0 = lowest to 60 = highest) Your test result as compared to the female population (age from 20 to 35 years) is at a very low level. Persons with comparable results usually have conflictual and disharmonious interpersonal relationships. Your result comprises points achieved on the items below, measuring your social competence. Your result: 0: very bad 10: very good persuasive power 3 communication 2 cooperation 3 openness 4 self confidence 3 problem solving 3 How would you estimate your social competence? very low very high How would you estimate your interpersonal intelligence? Please list a number from 0 to 100 Subjective Competence Change After Negative Feedback 1- Mental Contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 0- -1 Low Expectation High Expectation Pak & Oettingen (2007). Dealing with Negative Feedback: Optimistic Attributions Optimistic Attributions after Negative Feedback What is the major cause of your performance in the test? the unusual context Please rate the cause along the following dimensions. The cause is … something about me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 something about other people or events permanent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 transient something about many or all situations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 something about this particular situation Dickhäuser & Stiensmeier-Pelster, 2000, adjusted from Peterson et al., 1982 Optimistic Attributions after Negative Feedback 7 6 5 Mental Contrasting Indulging in positive future 4 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Pak & Oettingen (2007). Procedural Transfer: Performance on RAVEN Test Procedural Transfer Number of Solved Raven Items 9 8 7 6 Mental Contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 5 4 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Coping with Chronic Stress: Improving Communication with Patients’ Relatives How confident are you, that you can improve your relationship with patients’ relatives? not at all confident 1 very confident 2 3 4 5 6 7 Aspects of Positive Future contentment affection evenness of temper Aspects of Impeding Reality lack of time too many patients impatience Coping with Chronic Stress Effort to Improve Communication 7 6 5 4 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 3 2 1 0 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 2). Coping with Chronic Stress Remedial Action to Improve Communication 7 6 5 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 4 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 2). Coping with Acute Stress: Giving a Talk in Front of an Evaluative Audience How well would you like to do in your talk? sufficient 1 excellent 2 3 4 5 6 7 l o f P e r f o r m a n c e ( How confident is it that you achieve your desired level of performance as indicated in question # 1? very unlikely 1 very likely 2 3 4 5 6 7 Aspects of Positive Future good for my self esteem overcoming my shyness good exercise ( Aspects of futu Aspects of Impeding Reality not being prepared to be dressed unsuitable that stupid camera Coping with an Acute Stressor Performance 7 6 5 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future 4 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1). Coping with an Acute Stressor Self-Evaluation 7 6 5 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future 4 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1). Coping with an Acute Stressor Feeling Energized 7 6 5 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future 4 3 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1). Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting: Feeling Energized ( Energization as a Mediator: Performance Feeling Energized .50*** .34* Sobel-Test: z = 2.05* .24 Expectation *p < .05, ** p < .01 , *** p < .01 .42** Performance Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1). Energization as a Mediator: SelfEvaluation Feeling Energized .50*** .38*** Sobel-Test: z = 2.84** .50*** Expectation .69*** *p < .05, ** p < .01 , *** p < .01 SelfEvaluation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Studie 1). Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting : Systolic Blood Pressure Change Time Table (Mental Contrasting) Start of the Experiment Measure of SBP 1. Aspect 2. Aspect 3. Aspect 4. Aspect Positive Future Negative Reality Positive Future Negative Reality Time Table (Indulging) Start of the Experiment Measure of SBP 1. Aspect 2. Aspect 3. Aspect 4. Aspect Positive Future Positive Future Positive Future Positive Future BSP Change (in mmHG) 4 2 0 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future -2 -4 -6 -8 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 2). BSP Change as a Mediator: Goal Commitment 7 6 5 Mental contrasting Indulging in positive future 4 3 Mediation by BSP Change: 2 Sobel-Test: z = 1.76 (p < .10) 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 2). Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting : If-Then Plans Number of If-Then Plans 7 6 5 4 Mental contrasting 3 Dwelling on negative reality Control group 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 3). Number of If-Then Plans as a Mediator: Goal Commitment 7 Mental Contrasting Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality Control group 6 5 4 Mediation by If-Then Plans: 3 Sobel-Test: z = 1.73 (p < .10) 2 1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 3). Mental Contrasting of Negative Future with Positive Reality and Prevention Goals: Smoking Cessation How likely do you think it is that you will reduce your cigarette consumption or that you will stop smoking? not at all likely 1 very likely 2 3 4 5 6 7 Aspects of Negative Future cancer bad model for children lifelong addiction Aspects of Positive Reality healthy lungs pretty skin physical endurance Mental Contrasting of Negative Fantasy Negative Future Negative Future Positive Reality Positive Reality Indulging in Negative Fantasy Negative Future Negative Future Negative Future Negative Future Dwelling on Positive Reality Positive Reality Positive Reality Positive Reality Positive Reality Smoking Cessation Immediacy of Action 4 6 8 10 Mental contrasting Indulging in negative future Dwelling on positive reality 12 14 16 18 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer & Thorpe (2007). Translational Research Interventions Development Mental States Interventions: Success in Everyday Life Interventions: Mental Contrasting as Meta-Cognitive Strategy 7 6 Time Management Ease of Deciding Project Completion Project Relinquishment 5 4 3 2 1 Indulging in positive fantasies Mental contrasting Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 3). Interventions: Enhancing Health Behaviors Lifestyle Intervention by Self-Regulation of Action (LISA) Intervention group: Information + MCII (Mental contrasting/Implementation Intentions) Control group: Information Time Table Intervention Control group: Information MCII-group: Information + MCII Diary 1 2 1 week 3 4 5 1 month 2 months 4 months Time after the intervention My sport concern: exercycling in the evening The very best: feeling balanced Hindrance: Key: If tiredness, bad mood Overcome/Prevent/Seize Oportunity I come home at 7 pm situation (when and where) exercycle , then I take my i-pod and behavior My nutrition concern: eat today 2 portions of fruits and 3 portions of vegetables The very best: well-being Hindrance: Key: no fruits and vegetable at home Overcome/Prevent/Seize Opportunity If I leave for the office at 8 am situation (when and where) vegetables on the way , then I pick up fruits and behavior Diary (LISA) Ihr erster Tag Bewegung Exercise Uhr- Ausdaueraerobic training exercise Anderer other Sport exercise 6 time zeit 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 weekday: Wochentag: Ernährung Diet Bewegung Obst & & Süßes low daily fruits sweets Fettim Alltag vegetables Gemüse armes fat exercise date: Datum: 0 3 Genussmittel Substitutes Fettes high fat Alkohol Rauchen alcohol smoking 6-12 6-12 Uhr am __ __ Anzahl number of smoked gerauchte cigarettes Zigaretten 12-18 Uhr 12-6 pm __ __ Anzahl number gerauchte of smoked cigarettes Zigaretten 18-6 6-12 Uhr pm __ __ 120 Enhancing Health Behavior Exercise Intervention 105 90 75 60 45 Intervention group 30 Control group 15 0 1 week 1 month F(1,214) = 9.65, p .01 2 months 4 months Stadler, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005). Enhancing Health Behavior 1.0 Intervention Healthy Nutrition 0.5 0 Intervention group -0.5 Control group -1.0 1 week 1 month F(1,224) = 5.13, p .05 2 months 4 months Stadler, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005). Mental Contrasting as Intervention: Improving Self-Discipline and Self-Esteem Time Table Intervention Control group: Description of a picture MCII group : MCII (mentally and in writing) day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 6 day 7 1 week later MCII-Intervention A todays pressing concern : clearing up my desk The very best: relief Hindrance: I‘m not in mood for it If I‘m not in mood for clearing my desk this evening , then Situation start sorting my documents. I immediately Handlung Self-Dicipline time management (“I kept my appointments easily”) project completion (“How many projects did you complete?”) feeling on top of things (“How often did you feel in control?”) never very often Self-Esteem “I have high self-esteem” 1 2 not very true of me 3 4 5 6 7 very true of me Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski (2001). Improving Self-Discipline MCII group 43 Control group M = 42.0 41 39 M = 38.2 M = 37.2 37 M = 36.4 35 Baseline After one week Oettingen, Barry, Guttenberg, & Gollwitzer (2007). Improving Self-Esteem MCII group Control group 5 M = 4.75 M = 4.5 4.5 M = 4.45 M = 4.25 4 Baseline After one week Oettingen, Barry, Guttenberg, & Gollwitzer (2007). Mental Contrasting as Intervention: Preparation for an Exam Time Table Intervention Control group: Writing an essay MCII group : MCII (mentally and in writing) May Distribution of the workbooks Collection of the workbooks July October Preparation for an Exam 225 Number of Test Questions Completed 200 175 150 125 MCII group Control group Duckworth, Grant, Loew, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2007). Mental Contrasting as Intervention: Chronic Back Pain Patients Physical Capacity of Chronic Back Pain Patients Intervention 50 45 40 MCII group 35 Control group 30 25 20 0 3 weeks later 3 months later Schramm, Oettingen, Dahme & Klinger (2007). Physical Capacity of Chronic Back Pain Patients Intervention 150 140 130 MCII group Control group 120 110 100 3 weeks later 3 months later Schramm, Oettingen, Dahme & Klinger (2007). Strengths of the MCII Intervention Meta-cognitive strategies Cost effective in teaching + application Across domains Across samples Development Measuring Spontaneous Use of Mental Contrasting Please write down one of your named aspects. Think about this aspect and depict the respective events or experiences in your thoughts as intensively as possible. Choose the aspect that first comes into your mind. Frequency of the Spontaneous Use of Mental Contrasting Mental Contrasting (N = 55) was chosen more frequently than Indulging (N = 34), Reverse Contrasting (N = 30), Dwelling (N = 21), χ²(3, N = 140) = 17.77, p < .001 Spontaneous use of Mental Contrasting and Goal Commitment (Anticipated Dissappointment) 0.7 0.6 0.5 Mental contrasting Reverse contrasting 0.4 Indulging in positive future Dwelling on negative reality 0.3 0.2 0.1 Low Expectation High Expectation Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 1). Contextual Influences You Take A Tour Through a Coal Mine... …suddenly a deafening sound erupts around you… You find yourself standing in total darkness, enveloped in dust. …You realize you are trapped… Two Conditions (Contextual Influences) Priming: Ideal Course Priming: Obstacle Priming: Ideal Course Your flashlight starts to flicker. You screw the cap on tighter and the flashlight stays lit. Priming: Obstacle Your flashlight starts to flicker. You screw the cap on tighter, but the flashlight goes out. Contextual Influences of Mental Contrasting Mental contrasting 40 30 20 Indulging in positive future N = 26 N = 25 N = 18 N = 16 10 0 Priming: Obstacle Priming: Ideal Course χ²(1, N = 85) = 3.74, p < .09 Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 2). Socialization: School Children Design Children Spontaneous mental contrasting Self-assessment Mothers Assessment of the child Children A major goal I have in my courses is to perform really well. In school I am focused on demonstrating my intellectual ability. Mothers A major goal my son/daughter has in his or her courses is to perform really well. In school my son/daughter is focused on demonstrating his or her intellectual ability. Grant & Dweck (2003). Socialization Influences: Match in Goal Orientation Mothers‘ estimation of students‘ achievement goal orientation 7 6 School Children: Mental Contrasting 5 No Mental Contrasting 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 School children‘s achievement goal orientation Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 3). Socialization Influences: Match in Grades Mothers‘ estimation of students‘ last years grades 6 5 School children: Mental Contrasting 4 No Mental Contrasting 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 School children‘s estimation of their own last year`s grades Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 3). Socialization and Mental Contrasting: Students Socialization Influences of Mental Contrasting: Students Mental Contrasting .35* .32* .39* Responsive Parenting *p < .05, ** p < .01 .45** Achievement (GPA) Grant, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005, Study 3). Mental States and Mental Contrasting: Alcohol Alcohol and Mental Contrasting 25 20 15 10 5 0 Alcohol Placebo t (58) = 2.48, p < .05 Sevincer & Oettingen (2005). Conclusion Positive fantasies Mental contrasting Interventions One needs serenity to accept the things one cannot change, courage to change the things one can change, and wisdom to know the difference. Thank you to: Christina Bardong Heather Barry Babette Brinkmann Angela Duckworth Heidi Grant Katie Guttenberg Meike Hagenah Hanna Janetzke Aylin Lenbet Solvig Lorenz Annette Losert Doris Mayer Hyeon-ju Pak Karoline Schnetter Christiane Schreiber Timur Sevincer Gertraud Stadler The research was supported by: Karl Heinz DitzeStiftung From Fantasy to Action Gabriele Oettingen New York University/University of Hamburg
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