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VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN AFRICA
A Compilation of the main findings of the various research projects
conducted by the African Child Policy Forum (ACPF) since 2006
MARCH, 2011
1
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 3
I. PHYSICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST
CHILDREN ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.1. PHYSICAL VIOLENCE ..................................................................................... 4
1.1.1. Prevalence of physical violence .................................................................... 4
1.1.2. Perpetrators of physical violence ...................................................................... 5
1.2. PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE........................................................................ 5
1.2.1. Prevalence of psychological violence ........................................................... 6
1.2.2. Perpetrators of psychological violence ......................................................... 7
1.3. SEXUAL VIOLENCE ......................................................................................... 8
1.3.1. Prevalence of sexual violence ........................................................................... 8
1.3.2. Perpetrators of sexual violence ....................................................................... 10
1.3. SCHOOL-RELATED VIOLENCE (Sierra Leone) ............................................... 10
1.3.1. Physical violence in schools ....................................................................... 11
1.3.2. Psychological violence in schools .............................................................. 11
1.3.3. Sexual violence in schools .......................................................................... 12
II. HARMFUL TRADITIONAL PRACTICES ............................................................ 14
1.1. EARLY MARRIAGE ........................................................................................ 14
1.2. FGM ................................................................................................................... 15
1.3. MODELLING OF THE BREAST ..................................................................... 18
1.4. SON PREFERENCE .......................................................................................... 18
III. VIOLENCE AGAINST VULNERABLE GROUPS OF CHILDREN ...................... 20
3.1. CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES ..................................................................... 20
3.1.1. Prevalence of physical violence ...................................................................... 20
3.1.2. Perpetrators and vulnerable age groups .......................................................... 20
3.1.3. Prevalence of psychological violence ............................................................. 21
3.1.4. Perpetrators of psychological violence ........................................................... 21
3.1.5. Prevalence of sexual violence ......................................................................... 22
3.1.6. Perpetrators and vulnerable age groups .......................................................... 23
3.1.7. Children with disabilities: the case of Ethiopia. ............................................ 23
3.2. CHILD TRAFFICKING ........................................................................................ 30
3.2.1. Prevalence of child trafficking ........................................................................ 30
3.2.2. Perpetrators of trafficking ............................................................................... 32
3.3. DOMESTIC WORK .............................................................................................. 32
3.4. CHILD PROSTITUTION ...................................................................................... 33
3.5. HIV/AIDS, ORPHAN AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN ................................. 34
3.6. FORCED BEGGING ............................................................................................. 35
3.7. CHILDREN IN CRISIS/CONFLICT SITUATION .............................................. 35
3.7.1. Labor and sexual exploitation ......................................................................... 35
3.7.2. Child Soldiers.................................................................................................. 36
3.8. CHILD LABOUR .................................................................................................. 36
2
INTRODUCTION
This compilation highlights the main findings of the various research reports produced by the
African Child Policy Forum (ACPF) on violence against children. Most of the studies involve
direct interviews with children and young adults and are designed to result nationally
representative and quantitative estimates on physical, sexual and psychological violence.
The compilation, we believe, will lessen the burden of reviewing the bulk of reports and
enables the International NGO Advisory Council to glean the main results relatively easily. For
details on each of the studies, the researchers can still go into each of the respective reports
which have also been made available through the link (http://www.box.net/shared/dxczumnolf)
to serve as reference materials. The compilation contains all the studies carried out after
2006 as a follow up to the UN Secretary General‟s Study on violence against children. It
highlights the scale and extent of all forms of violence against children in a number of
countries in Africa almost in all settings: home and family, schools, care and justice systems,
places of work and the community.
For easier navigation, the document has been organized into three sections. The first part
contains information on the prevalence of violence against children and particularly in
relation to different forms of physical, psychological and sexual violence experienced by
children. The second part focuses on harmful traditional practices affecting children in the
African continent. The third and final part covers violence experienced by the most vulnerable
groups of children. In this part, we have included the findings of our surveys on violence
against children with disabilities, which is a new attempt in the African context.
This document is compiled based on the following research reports produced by ACPF since
2006.
1. ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa: a retrospective study on Violence against girls in
Burkina Faso, Cameroon, democratic republic of Congo, Nigeria and Senegal, (2010)
2. ACPF:National Study On School-Related Gender-Based Violence In Sierra Leone,
(2 0 1 0 )
3. ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa: A Summative Analysis of the
Legal and Policy Strategies in Seven African Countries, (2010)
4. ACPF:Documentation of Laws, Policies and Administrative Framework on Violence
against Children in Zambia, (2010)
5. ACPF:Desk Review on Laws, Policies, Strategies and Programmes Relating To
Violence against Children In Malawi, (2010)
6. ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa: A Summative Analysis of the
Legal and Policy Strategies in Seven African Countries, (2010)
7. ACPF:A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in
Ethiopia, (2010)
8. ACPF:Breaking the silence: violence against children with disabilities, (2010)
9. ACPF:Desk Review On Laws, Policies, Strategies and Programmes Relating to
Violence Against Children In Malawi, (2010)
10. ACPF:Documentation of Laws, Policies and Administrative Framework on
Violence against Children in Senegal, (2010)
11. ACPF:Promising Actions against FGM, (2009)
12. ACPF:Violence Against Girls In Africa: A Retrospective Survey In Ethiopia, Kenya And
Uganda, (2006)
13. ACPF:Born to High Risk: Violence Against Girls in Africa,(2006)
14. ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa,(2006)
3
I. PHYSICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SEXUAL
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN
1.1.
PHYSICAL VIOLENCE
1.1.1. Prevalence of physical violence
A study conducted by ACPF in 2010, (ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa: a retrospective study
on Violence against girls in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria
and Senegal, (2010)) sought to determine the occurrence of physical violence as well as its
dominant forms.1 Accordingly, from the responses of 3,025 young women aged between 18
and 24 years, drawn from the capital cities of the selected countries of study, beating closely
followed by hitting were the most reported forms of physical violence in almost all the
countries studied. Beating was the most reported form of physical violence in Nigeria (90%),
Senegal (83%) and Cameroon (79%). Hitting on the other hand was highest in Burkina faro
(91%) followed by Nigeria (84%) and DRC (74%) whereas in Senegal (52%) and Cameroon
(43%) the incidence is lower though it still affects nearly half of the girls covered by the study.
The third most reported form of physical violence is the denial of food which was meted out
against almost three quarters of girls in Burkina Faso (71%), nearly half in Nigeria (51%) and
DRC (48%); “kicking” also registered a high incidence, particularly in Burkina Faso (51%) and
Nigeria (55%). Other forms of physical violence reported included “hard work”,
“choking/burning”, “tying” and the use of “hot chili” though relatively less reported in all the
countries studied.
Table 1: frequency of physical violence
Types of physical violence
Country
Burkina
Faso
Cameroo
n
DRC
Frequency
of
occurrenc
e of abuse
Hittin
g
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
Kickin
g
Beatin
g
13%
53%
25%
20%
22%
23%
6-10 times
11%
6%%
14%
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
6-10 times
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
57%
23%
15%
11%
50%
27%
24%
19%
33%
26%
14%
28%
62%
26%
38%
22%
19%
15%
45%
41%
26%
Hot
chil
i
Choke
/ burn
Denie
d food
Hard
wor
k
64%
67%
92%
51%
34%
15%
11%
%
10%
55%
26%
4%
15%
60%
25%
24%
4%
27%
26%
4%
1%
9%
7
5%
67%
12%
12%
9%
77%
12%
3%
73%
18%
5%
4%
78%
9%
14%
39%
21%
16%
23%
63%
23%
11%
16%
24%
19%
27%
32%
33%
Tyin
g
ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa: a retrospective study on Violence against girls in Burkina Faso, Cameroon,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria and Senegal, (2010)
1
4
Nigeria
Senegal
6-10 times
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
6-10 times
17%
32%
34%
25%
15%
3%
9%
42%
28%
16%
11%
21%
17%
18%
18%
6%
9%
62%
29%
4%
2%
9%
56%
29%
4%
3%
9%
71%
15%
8%
7%
8%
50%
32%
8%
5%
13%
40%
29%
13%
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
26%
23%
19%
15%
48%
24%
45%
17%
21%
5%
60%
19%
11%
77%
22%
6%
80%
12%
11%
56%
27%
12%
23%
19%
6-10 times
20%
7%
25%
15%
-
2%
7%
14%
> 10 times
39%
21%
37%
6%
4%
10%
18%
2%
In a similar study conducted by ACPF earlier In Ethiopia, Kenya And Uganda, (ACPF: Violence
against Girls in Africa: A Retrospective Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, (2006)), in
terms of prevalence of physical abuse, beating emerges as the most frequent form of
violence, while giving hot or bitter drinks or food is the least common in the three countries.
Among the three countries, beating is most prevalent in Uganda (85.8 per cent) followed by
Kenya (80.8 per cent) and then Ethiopia (71.1 per cent). Punching or hitting the girl is the
second most prevalent form of physical abuse with rates in Ethiopia and Kenya at 59.5 per
cent. Compared to the other two countries, abuse in the form of being denied food is much
more prevalent in Uganda (52.3 per cent). Respondents also reported substantial cases of
abuse in the form of hard labor with more incidences in Uganda (47.8 per cent) and Kenya
(43.8 per cent), and relatively fewer incidences in Ethiopia (28.6 per cent).
1.1.2. Perpetrators of physical violence
In the study conducted by ACPF in five African countries, most of the physical violence
inflicted on girls by females is from their mothers who ranked highest in all the five countries:
Burkina Faso (85%), Cameroon (71%), DRC and Senegal (70%) and Nigeria (60%). Within the
male category fathers emerged as the highest perpetrators of physical violence against girls
in all the five countries with the highest incidences being reported in Cameroon (64%) and
Burkina Faso (61%). Among the males, brothers and male teachers come second and third.
Other categories of perpetrators include children in the neighborhood (especially in Burkina
Faso – 25%), other relatives, peers and adult neighbors. (ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa,
2010).
In similar study conducted by ACPF, the main perpetrators of physical abuse against girls in
the form of hitting or punching are mothers. In Ethiopia they account for 27.2 per cent, while
in Kenya female teachers (16.1 per cent) take the lead. Abuse in the form of kicking is
mainly performed by brothers in all three countries. Violence in the form of beating is
predominantly perpetrated by mothers in Ethiopia and Kenya accounting for 45.2 per cent
and 23.5 per cent respectively. On the other hand, male teachers are the main perpetrators
of beating in Uganda. (ACPF: A Retrospective Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, (2006))
1.2.
PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE
5
1.2.1. Prevalence of psychological violence
According to study conducted by ACPF in 2010, being insulted was considered the most
common form of psychological abuse. In Nigeria, where it was least reported, 84% of the
respondents acknowledged having been insulted. In the rest of the countries it was reported
by over 94% of the respondents. Being insulted is closely followed by “being shouted or
glared at” which was reported by 96% of the respondents in Burkina Faso, 85% in Nigeria,
84% in DRC and Senegal, and 73% in Cameroon. The third most reported form of
psychological violence was “witnessing severe beating/hitting” which was reported by 89% of
the respondents in Burkina Faso, 84% in DRC and Senegal, 64% in Cameroon and 62% in
Nigeria. Being embarrassed in front of others was fourth and was mostly reported in Burkina
Faso and Nigeria, both with 73%, Senegal and DRC at 57% each and Cameroon with 43%.
Being forced to use physical force on another person was mostly reported in Burkina Faso
(71%). This was followed by DRC and Senegal (53%), Cameroon (47%) and Nigeria (26%).
“Being ignored” was significantly reported in Senegal (65%), DRC and Nigeria (36%), Burkina
Faso (30%) and Cameroon (23%). (ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa, 2010).
Table 2. Frequency of psychological violence2
Country
Burkina
Faso
Cameroon
DRC
Nigeria
Senegal
Made to
use
physical
force
Frequency
of
violence
Embarrassed
Insulted
Shouted/
glared at
Ignored
Witnessed a
severe
beating/hitting
1 or 2 times
32%
2%
12%
38%
19%
12%
3-5 times
23%
7%
15%
25%
25%
31%
6-10 times
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
6-10 times
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
6-10 times
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
6-10 times
10%
35%
28%
24%
18%
30%
38%
29%
16%
17%
33%
25%
14%
7%
87%
4%
9%
10%
79%
8%
14%
65%
27%
13%
28%
13%
14%
60%
11%
14%
18%
58%
17%
28%
28%
39%
10%
17%
15%
14%
26%
22%
25%
19%
34%
34%
28%
16%
23%
29%
36%
19%
14%
44%
24%
25%
15%
37%
17%
26%
21%
37%
28%
23%
20%
11%
29%
31%
21%
17%
31%
44%
27%
11%
17%
43%
27%
11%
> 10 times
1 or 2 times
3-5 times
6-10 times
28%
36%
26%
12%
49%
7%
15%
15%
59%
13%
18%
15%
19%
24%
21%
15%
30%
25%
26%
20%
20%
24%
29%
18%
> 10 times
28%
61%
54%
39%
30%
30%
ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa: a retrospective study on Violence against girls in Burkina Faso, Cameroon,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria and Senegal, (2010)
2
6
In earlier study conducted by ACPF in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, the most prevalent form
of psychological abuse across all three countries is being shouted or glared at, ranging from
67.6 per cent in Ethiopia to 88.8 per cent in Uganda. In addition, abuse in the form of insults
was widely reported in all three countries with Uganda at 76.2 per cent, Kenya at 70 per cent
and Ethiopia at 71.5 per cent. (ACPF: A Retrospective Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda
(2006))
The frequency of psychological abuse fluctuates depending on its type. The most frequent
abuse in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda was found to be insulting at an average of 51.7 per
cent followed by being shouted at with a prevalence of 45.5 per cent. Generally,
psychological abuse is at its highest between the ages of 14 and 17 years. In this age group,
the most prevalent forms of abuse are being threatened with abandonment or thrown out of
home as well as personal threats of physical harm. Respondents receiving threats of
abandonment were reported at 67.5 per cent in Ethiopia, 61.8 per cent in Uganda and 53.7
per cent in Kenya. Further, threats of physical harm are highest in Uganda at 59.9 per cent,
followed by Kenya at 57.1 percent and Ethiopia at 43.2 per cent. (ACPF: A Retrospective
Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, 2006) .
1.2.2. Perpetrators of psychological violence
As per the study conducted by ACPF in 2010, among males, fathers are the main
perpetrators (79% in Burkina Faso, 76% in Nigeria, 66% in Cameroon, 63% in DRC and 52%
in Senegal). They are followed by brothers and other relatives such as grandfathers, uncles
who were also significantly reported. A similar trend was evident among the female category
where mothers were also the major abusers (88% Burkina Faso, 73% in Cameroon, 68% in
Senegal, and 63% in DRC and Nigeria). The mothers are followed by sisters and other
relatives such as grandmother, aunt and female cousin. Generally, in all countries studied;
parents, peers and close relatives are the major perpetrators of psychological abuse. (ACPF:
Childhood scars in Africa, 2010).
ACPF‟s study in 2006 revealed that psychological abuses in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda
generally are committed by very close family members. Taking the lead in insulting their
daughters across the three countries are mothers at 34.4 per cent in Ethiopia, 31.5 per cent
in Uganda and 17.8 per cent in Kenya. They are closely followed by fathers, older siblings
and female relatives. The most alarming result is from Ethiopia where mothers ranked as the
leading perpetrators in almost all forms of psychological abuse. Stepmothers and other
relatives also ranked highly as perpetrators of psychological abuse. In Uganda, stepmothers
ranked highest as perpetrators of abuse in the form of expressing the wish the girl had not
been born or was dead at 33.5 per cent and threatening with abandonment at 28.7 per
cent. Both male and female teachers are ranked as the second highest perpetrators of
embarrassing girls across all three countries with Ethiopia at 19 per cent, Kenya at 23 per
cent and Uganda at 18 per cent. Other than teachers, perpetrators outside the family are
boyfriends, girlfriends and occasional male sex partners. In Kenya and Ethiopia, 29 per cent
and 16 per cent of respondents respectively indicate that they were forced to run way from
home by either their boyfriends or occasional male sex partners. (ACPF: A Retrospective
Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, 2006)
7
1.3.
SEXUAL VIOLENCE
1.3.1. Prevalence of sexual violence
According to the study conducted by ACPF, generally, being talked to in a sexual manner was
reported as the most widespread form of sexual abuse against girls in the five countries. It
was reported in Burkina Faso (81%) but was also significant in Nigeria and Senegal (65%) as
well as Cameroon and DRC (59%). Overall, the second most reported form of sexual violence
was being touched or fondled in the private parts. Between 38% and 52% of the girls in the
countries studied reported having been sexually touched. Burkina Faso ranked highest with
52% of the girls reporting this type of sexual violence. The most devastating form of sexual
violence in form of forced sexual intercourse/rape was most highly reported in Burkina Faso
and Nigeria (40%) followed by Cameroon (30%), DRC (27%) and Senegal (17%). (ACPF:
Childhood scars in Africa, 2010).
All types of sexual abuse were most pronouncedly reported within the age group of 14-17
years. Within this age group between 60% - 99% of girls covered by the study reported having
experienced one form of sexual abuse or the other. Higher number of girls reported having
experienced sexual violence either between 1-2 times or over 10 times. (ACPF: Childhood
scars in Africa, 2010).
Table 3: Frequency of Sexual Violence3
Country
Burkina
Faso
Cameroon
DRC
Age at
which
Sexual
abuse
Occurred
1 or 2
times
3-5
times
6-10
times
> 10
times
1 or 2
times
3-5
times
6-10
times
> 10
times
1 or 2
times
Types of sexual violence
Spoken
to in
Sexual
Manner
Expose
to
Private
parts
Of
others
Made
to look
At
sexual
Scenes
Made to
pose
Indecently
Touched
or
Fondled
Private
parts
Made
to
Touch
genital
With
mouth
Made
to
Touch
genital
With
hand
Forced in
to
Sexual
Intercourse
25%
47%
47%
59%
47%
47%
42%
57%
25%
20%
18%
31%
25%
30%
18%
23%
11%
7%
6%
4%
5%
4%
7%
40%
27%
32%
10%
35%
34%
35%
14%
9%
13%
23%
14%
31%
46%
28%
17%
18%
14%
23%
36%
20%
32%
25%
24%
19%
9%
15%
35%
13%
10%
6%
10%
51%
60%
40%
15%
35%
15%
45%
35%
20%
52%
55%
71%
49%
54%
42%
57%
8%
3
ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa: a retrospective study on Violence against girls in Burkina Faso, Cameroon,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria and Senegal, (2010)
8
Nigeria
Senegal
3-5
times
6-10
times
> 10
times
1 or 2
times
3-5
times
6-10
times
> 10
times
1 or 2
times
3-5
times
6-10
times
> 10
times
20%
24%
27%
15%
27%
14%
27%
26%
19%
5%
18%
-
11%
11%
18%
44%
20%
14%
15%
16%
23%
28%
17%
30%
29%
41%
34%
50%
48%
49%
40%
27%
27%
30%
47%
30%
38%
30%
24%
18%
15%
12%
16%
10%
-
6%
15%
29%
33%
19%
18%
12%
17%
19%
23%
18%
46%
38%
57%
46%
26%
47%
31%
19%
25%
25%
11%
22%
19%
15%
20%
15%
3%
10%
3%
9%
10%
10%
11%
39%
28%
29%
28%
23%
46%
29%
35%
4%
In a previous study by ACPF, the most prevalent form of sexual abuse is that which is verbal
where girls are spoken to in a sexual manner. The second most prevalent type of abuse is
indecent sexual touching with 52.6 per cent of respondents in Uganda reporting cases, 43.6
per cent in Kenya and 41.8 per cent in Ethiopia. One striking revelation is that rape is the
third most prevalent type of abuse with Uganda leading at 42.6 per cent, while Kenya and
Ethiopia have rates of 26.3 per cent and 29.7 per cent respectively. Information collected
from the 2004 Cameroon Demographic and Health Survey shows that in 2004 alone, 13.0%
of Cameroonian women had sex under physical constraints while sex under other form of
constraints amounted to 3%. (ACPF: A Retrospective Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda,
2006).
In relation to frequency, the study revealed that most of the sexual abuses occur once or
twice. But being spoken to in a sexual manner is experienced by girls more than 10 times.
This is the most frequent form of sexual abuse in Kenya at 41.8 per cent and in Ethiopia at
26.8 per cent at the >10 frequency. The study also shows that all the forms of abuse are
more prevalent between the ages of 14 and 17 in all of the study sites. Sexual abuse is more
prevalent in Kenya than in the other two countries within the 5-9 years age group. All forms
of abuse significantly increase between the age of 10 and 13 years and escalate to very high
levels within the 14 to17 age group as shown in Figure below. (ACPF: A Retrospective Survey
in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, 2006)
In Zambia, (ACPF:Documentation of Laws, Policies and Administrative Framework on
Violence against Children in Zambia, (2010) on the other hand statistics from Young Women
Christian Association (YWCA) on children that were sexually abused and physically assaulted,
reported to them in 2008 gives the following picture:
2009: reported cases of sexually abused children (girl child)- 3, 456
2008: reported cases of sexually abused children (girl child) 2,873
2009: reported cases of physical assault involving a boy child210
2008: reported cases of physical abuse involving a girl child151
9
The YWCA has observed that the organization in each province of Zambia receives at least 8
reported cases every week where a child has been sexually abused. These statistics
translates to 228 cases recorded for all provinces every month thereby meaning that each
year the number of cases recorded on average is 3,456 cases. The YWCA acknowledges that
in all the cases recorded, 75% of the sexually abused children who are mostly girls contract
sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS. .”4
In a desk review conducted by ACPF (ACPF: Desk Review On Laws, Policies, Strategies and
Programmes Relating to Violence Against Children In Malawi, (2010)), child sexual abuse is a
serious problem in Malawi although accurate statistics on the prevalence of the
phenomenon have proved difficult to collect due Largely to problems of underreporting and
the lack of a legal definition of what constitutes the term.5 The country report of the United
Nations Secretary General‟s Task force on Women, Girls and HIV and AIDS in southern Africa
states that 46% of Malawian women perceive gender-based violence to be normal and
acceptable.
1.3.2. Perpetrators of sexual violence
The findings of ACPF‟s study in 2010 show that male perpetrators (boyfriends) are reported
at much higher rate compared to the female equivalents. The most reported male
perpetrators of sexual abuse against girls in the five countries were boyfriends (71% in
Nigeria, 66% in Senegal, 61% in Cameroon, 58% in DRC, and 44% in Burkina Faso). Other
male perpetrators include adult neighbors who were reported by 51% of the respondents in
DRC and 36% in Senegal and Burkina Faso. Male strangers were reported by 37% of the girls
in Senegal and DRC. (ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa, 2010).
In a previous survey, in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, boyfriends are considered the main
perpetrators of most types of sexual abuse in all the countries. Sexual abuse in the form of
being spoken to in a sexual manner is predominantly perpetrated by male friends in the case
of Ethiopia and Kenya at 31 per cent and 20 per cent respectively, while male adult
neighbors are the main perpetrators in Uganda at 48 per cent. (ACPF: A Retrospective Survey
in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, 2006).
1.3. SCHOOL-RELATED VIOLENCE (Sierra Leone)
A 1994 African Rights Report calls the sexual abuse of girls at school “an extremely grave
problem” in a number of African countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo,
Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan and Zambia.30 In the 10 years since the report was published,
little progress has been made. A 2005 survey in Cameroon found that 16 per cent of
secondary students questioned had experienced sexual abuse, with 15 percent of these
incidents occurring at school.6
In relation to school related gender based violence, ACPF had carried out a survey in Sierra
Leone in 2010 where a total of randomly selected 1,312 children below the age of 18 from
123 schools (41 primary and 82 junior and senior secondary schools) have participated
across eight districts in Sierra Leone. (ACPF: National Study on School-Related Gender-Based
National Child Policy 2006, Ministry of Sport, Youth and Child Development, pg.16
Law Commission Report on the Review of the Children and Young Persons Act, October 2003, p. 123
6 ACPF: Born to High Risk: Violence Against Girls in Africa,(2006)
4
5
10
Violence in Sierra Leone, (2010). The findings of the survey in relation to physical,
psychological and sexual violence is briefly presented below.
1.3.1. Physical violence in schools
According to the study, (ACPF: School-Related Violence in Sierra Leone, 2010), an
overwhelming majority of both boys and girls reported to have experienced physical violence,
indicating widespread prevalence of the problem within school, home and community
settings. The majority of the pupils (about 86 per cent) have been canned or whipped which
might the common practice of corporal punishment in Sierra Leone. The forms of violence
inflicted on the pupil somehow vary by gender. Boys, for example, are more likely to have
been beaten, kicked or slapped than girls. In percentage terms, 51 per cent of the boys
experienced such severe physical assault compared to 41 per cent among the girls. Girls, on
the other hand, experience more grabbing, hair pulling and pinching.
In general, 92 per cent of pupils have experienced at least one form of physical violence in
their lifetime. For example, one in every five pupils who were whipped or caned said that this
happens often with a frequency of about three to four times a week.
Most of the physical violence took place within the school settings. Corporal punishment is
widespread in schools than in home or community settings. For example, of the pupils who
have been whipped or canned, eight out of ten of the boys and three-fourths of the girls said
this happened within school settings. Further analysis on specific places within the school
compound shows that the school compound is the main place where physical violence takes
place. The others places most commonly cited are within classrooms or while entering
classrooms. Substantial proportions of them have also experienced physical assault on the
way to school. Other places, such as sports field, toilets, principals‟ offices or staff rooms are
not common places of physical violence.
Perpetrators of physical violence in the study areas include close family members, siblings
and strangers whom the pupils have no acquaintance. In school settings, there are a number
of perpetrators mentioned including teachers, peers, senior pupil and principals. Male
teachers are the main perpetrators within the school setting who whip and cane their pupil.
Peers are the other category of perpetrators. Girls who experienced grabbing, pulling hair
and pinching mentioned their peer as main perpetrators of the assault. Boys, on the other
hand, have been victims of severe assault such as being hit by stone, stick and being
stabbed by knives by their peers.
Within the family setting, female adult members, particularly mothers and elder sisters are
the main perpetrators of corporal punishment. Male adult family members including fathers,
brothers and male cousins are also the other groups of perpetrators though with relatively
lower proportions.
1.3.2. Psychological violence in schools
According to the study (ACPF: School-Related Violence in Sierra Leone, 2010), psychological
abuse is also experienced by school children. The most frequent psychological violence are
insulting or shouting. It was noted that boys generally are more likely to have experienced at
least one form of psychological abuse than girls. Additionally, girls are more likely to receive
11
threatening or unwanted letters than boys. As observed in sexual violence, occurrences of
psychological violence are higher in semi-urban and rural areas as compared with the urban
areas.
Psychological abuse mostly happens within the school setting. More than 60 per cent of
both boys and girls who encountered threats and intimidation reported that it happened
within their schools. The study has also shown that not all pupils feel comfortable in
answering questions in class. This is more pronounced among girls (eight per cent in primary
and six per cent secondary) than boys. Almost one out of ten boys and girls in primary and
secondary schools happened to be uncomfortable of asking their teachers a question in the
classroom even once.
The main perpetrators of psychological violence are teachers. In most cases, teachers force
students to do thing that the pupils do not want to do. Threat of punishment is also another
form of abuse that intimidates pupils. Poor performance in education is sometimes
mentioned as one of the factors that contribute to such abuse. Girls are also prone to
psychological violence as teachers use it as a way of intimidating them to accept their sexual
advances. Refusal of such advances may result in being labeled as stupid and humiliated in
front of peers.
1.3.3. Sexual violence in schools
According to the Study, (ACPF: School-Related Violence in Sierra Leone, 2010), two-thirds of
the girls interviewed reported that they have experienced at least on or more forms of sexual
violence. The most common form of sexual violence is touching or pinching breasts,
buttocks or genitals where 42 per cent of the girls reported to have experienced such an
abuse. 7 About 10 per cent of the girls reported to have experienced the most severe forms
of sexual violence in which they were forced into sexual intercourse and another eight per
cent were raped after being physically assaulted using weapons. About 70 per cent of the
rape cases took place in the 12 months preceding the study, indicating persistence of the
problem. About ten per cent of the girls said that someone has attempted to insert objects
into their genitals. Indecent sexual comments and exposing genitals in front of the girls are
the other common forms of sexual abuse. Sexual exploitation seems to be relatively higher in
Bombali and Kailahun where about 14 per cent of the girls reported to have been coerced to
have sexual intercourse in exchange for gifts, money or better grades.
Girls in semi-urban areas and those in rural areas are more likely to be victims of sexual
violence than pupils in urban centres. This happens almost to all forms of sexual violence
including the most severe ones such as rape and coerced sexual intercourse.
In terms of the place of occurrence of sexual abuse, in general, severe abuses such as rape
are more likely to take place within the home and community settings rather than schools.
However, incidences of school-related rape contribute to 30 per cent of the cases. Specific
places related to school that are most commonly cited in connection with rape include places
on the way to and from school and school toilets.
7
ACPF:National Study On School-Related Gender-Based Violence In Sierra Leone, (2010)
12
Indecent touching and pinching breasts and genitals as well as comments of sexual nature
are also more common within the school setting rather than within the home or the
community.
Perpetrators of sexual violence vary by form of abuse and setting. Within the school setting,
there are a number of players including teachers, peers, senior students, principals and
other staff members such as school guards. The study shows, for instance, that teachers are
the main perpetrators of sexual abuse and exploitation. They force and coerce girls into
sexual intercourse in exchange for better grades, gifts and money.
Within the home and community settings, another sets of perpetrators emerge that include
community elders, „bike riders‟8, NGO workers, and other elite elderly people who are usually
referred to as „Sugar Daddies‟. These groups of perpetrators sexually exploit girls in
exchange for money, clothes and access to costly entertainment facilities. The study showed
that „Sugar Daddies‟ contributed to about 15 per cent of all the sexual exploitation cases,
making them the second most common perpetrators of such abuse only next to teachers.
Table 4: Percentage of girls who have experienced sexual violence by form of violence and
district.9
Forms of sexual
violence
Bombali Kailahun Koinadugu Kono Moyamba
Total
Port
Western
Tonkolili
Per Number
Loko
Area
cent of cases
Touching or pinching
breasts/ buttocks/genitals
50.0
35.1
49.4
42.1
23.1
49.4
60.3
23.8
41.9
270
Received sexual comments
44.9
39.0
58.4
39.5
20.5
23.5
33.8
26.3
35.9
231
23.5
27.3
36.4
30.3
14.1
45.7
41.0
15.0
29.0
187
15.3
10.4
23.4
19.7
10.3
16.0
29.5
11.3
16.9
109
7.1
13.0
22.1
9.3
5.1
14.8
15.4
5.0
11.3
73
5.2
11.8
9.1
18.9
4.0
11.1
24.4
2.5
10.7
68
4.1
15.6
14.3
1.3
12.8
4.9
23.1
1.3
9.5
61
11.2
10.4
11.7
13.2
9.0
0.0
12.8
1.3
8.7
56
14.3
14.3
10.4
9.2
3.8
7.4
7.7
1.3
8.7
56
5.1
10.4
7.8
7.9
5.1
9.9
11.5
3.8
7.6
49
Someone exposed his/her
genital
Peeping while in toilets or
using mirrors
Coerced, forced or
unwanted removal of
clothes
Forced to look at sexual
acts or pornographic
materials
Insertion of an object into
genitals
Raped or experienced
unwanted sex without
using weapon
Forced or coerced sex in
exchange for money or
grade
Raped or experienced
unwanted sex using
weapons
8
9
Bike riders‟ refers to the male motor cycle transportation service providers.
ACPF: National Study on School-Related Gender-Based Violence in Sierra Leone, (2010)
13
II. HARMFUL TRADITIONAL PRACTICES
1.1.
EARLY MARRIAGE
In a study conducted by ACPF in 2010, (ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa:
A Summative Analysis of the Legal and Policy Strategies in Seven African Countries, (2010)),
in some parts of Cameroon, especially the Muslim dominated Northern regions, the cultural
tendency is to educate boys and give out girls to early marriage. Early marriage whether for
girls or boys is another cultural practice that has grave consequences but more so for girls
than boys. According to the data of the MIC 3 survey (2006), 12.2% of women got married
before the age of 15 years, 41% got married before the age of 18 years and 22% of women
between 15 and 19 are in marriage.
In Nigeria, for example, the high rates of early marriages (North-West Zone championing with
33.3%, North-East 14.3%, North-Central 11.2%, South-South 8.6%, South- East 5.8 and the
lowest in the South-West 5.4%.) may reversely be blamed on the laws of some states and
customs which literally encourage these practices. This is the case of the Jigawa Child‟s
Rights Law (2008) which determines the minimum age in relation to puberty; a condition
under custom. Similarly, in Burkina 21 % of women get married before reaching 15 years and
62% before 18 years. In Malawi for example, there are stunting forms of early marriage
cultural practices which out rightly bring forth the picture of violence: the kupimbila by which
young girls are given in marriage (early marriage) to wealthy old men as payments for their
parent‟s debts of for other purposes; or the practice of fisi where a male adult who has
sexual intercourse with newly initiated girls. (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in
Africa, 2010).
A study carried out by the Malawi Human Rights Commission (MHRC) on cultural practices
and their impact on the enjoyment of human rights; found that it was quite common for girls
to get married by the time they reached puberty which was around 12 years while many boys
were married by the age of 17 years.10 Even though the study findings demonstrate that girls
went into marriage earlier than boys, arguably both boys and girls were still being subjected
to early and child marriages.
The study also documented a number of cultural practices such as kutomera (child betrothal)
kutsomphora (child marriages by elopement), ukwati wotulira (child forced marriage),
kupoka, kupimbila (settlement of a debt by offering a young girl into marriage with the
creditor. The girl can be as young as 9 years), chimeta masisi (a system by which a bereaved
husband marries a younger sister or niece of the deceased wife. These girls can be as young
as 15 years old), and mbirigha (a bonus wife, who is usually a young girl), that are a form of
early marriages prevalent in some areas in Malawi and commonly perpetrated against girls.
(ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in Africa, 2010).
In the previous study (ACPF: Born to High Risk: Violence Against Girls in Africa,(2006)),
despite the existence of laws in many counties to regulate the age at which individuals marry,
child marriages are prevalent in many African countries, such as Uganda. The legal age for
marriage is 21, but more than one in every two girls are married before they reach 18.67. In
10
MHRC Report on Cultural Practices and Human Rights, note 15 above, P 15
14
Nigeria, in some regions, girls on average marry soon after their 11th birthday.
Encouragingly; the age at which girls marry has risen in some countries, including Kenya,
Senegal and Zimbabwe. However, many countries – including Cameroon, Côte d‟Ivoire,
Liberia and Mali – have seen little change, and in some West African counties, the marriage
age has even dropped in recent years.
Table 5: – Women Married under the Age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa
Women aged 25-29
who married before
their 18th birthday
%70
Country
Burkina Faso
51.9
Cameroon
47.2
Côte d’Ivoire
33.2
Ethiopia
49.1
Kenya
24.6
Liberia
48.4
Malawi
46.9
Mali
65.4
Mozambique
57
Niger
76.6
Nigeria
43.3
Senegal
36.1
Uganda
54.1
Zimbabwe
28.7
Source: DHS surveys
1.2.
FGM
Although FGM is not unique to Africa, 28 of the countries where it is practiced are African.
Prevalence rates range from under five per cent in Uganda to 90 per cent or higher in
Somalia, Guinea Conakry and Djibouti.11 In a recent study conducted by ACPF in 2009 (ACPF:
Promising Actions against FGM in Africa, (2009), the extent of the problem in some African
countries is presented as follows.
Egypt
The popular name for FGM in Egypt is “girl‟s purification”. This reflects that FGM is a way of
moderating female sexuality and making girls eligible for marriage. Successive Egypt
Demographic and Health Surveys (EDHS) indicate that FGM is more or less a universal
practice in Egypt, certainly for the 15-49 age groups with 97% prevalence in 1996, 2000 and
2003 and 96% in 2005. There is only a small disparity between rural and urban areas. The
11
ACPF: Promising Actions against FGM in Africa, (2009)
15
2005 EDHS shows that 92% of women in the urban areas were circumcised compared to
98.3% in the rural areas. The age FGM is usually performed is 8-9 years of age. Some
literature on FGM indicates that the Egyptian type of mutilation is called the "paranoiac",
referring to the worst type of FGM otherwise know as infibulations.
2. Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, the age at which FGM takes place varies according to regions. In the Amhara and
Tigray regions for example, it is done within 10 days after the birth of a child. In the Afar,
Somali and Oromia regions, girls typically undergo FGM between the ages of 7 and 9 or, if
not then, just before marriage, normally between the ages of 15 and 17. Likewise, the type of
procedure varies according to the region.
While a survey by Ye Ethiopia Goji Limadawi Dirgitoch aswegag Mahber (EGLDAM) (former
National Committee on Traditional Practices) in 1997 showed FGM prevalence at 73%, a
follow-up survey published in February 2008 by the same organization indicated that rates
plummeted to an impressive 56%.
3 Gambia
The recently-published MIC Survey 2005/2006 shows that 78% of Gambian women aged
15-49 had been subjected to some form of FGM. This current finding confirms the earlier
studies pointing to the high prevalence rate of FGM in the Gambia.
Formerly, FGM was performed a few years before a girl reaches puberty, generally between
ages 9 – 13 years among the Mandinka, Fula, Jahanka and Aku Marabout. The Sarahuli, on
the other hand, circumcise their daughters two weeks after birth. In recent years the age of
FGM has been reduced significantly, babies commonly being cut in their first week of life.
The current among all ethnic groups is that girls are circumcised below the age of 5 years.12
4. Guinea
The population of The West African Republic of Guinea is estimated at 9.4 Million. FGM
prevalence among women aged 15-49 years is 96% according to the 2005 DHS. Attempts
to reduce FGM have met very limited success. The only observed changes are that about
10% of the practice is now performed by health professionals and on older children. 13
Medicalization of FGM has resulted from the emphasis various campaigns have placed on
the physical harm caused by the practice.
5. Sudan
FGM is practiced in the Northern part of Sudan but rarely in the South. However, there is
culturally assimilated Southern Sudanese living in the North who also practices FGM. The
prevalence of FGM in Northern Sudan was 89% according to the 1990 DHS Survey and 90%
according to the 1999 Sudan Safe Motherhood Survey. The 2006 Survey on the Sudanese
12
13
Children‟s Act of the Gambia 2005 and Women Bill 2008
Female Genital Mutilation in Guinea. Gtz Africa department, Regional Department Sahel and West Africa
16
Family by the Ministry of Health indicates that FGM has been reduced to 69.4 % in Sudan. 14
But the same survey also shows that 50% of the mothers studied in 15 regions of Sudan
wish to continue the practice.
6. Ghana
Ghana‟s population is estimated at 23 million with 15 major ethnic groups, each with its own
distinct language, culture, traditions and religious practices.15 FGM is practiced in the Upper
East, Upper West, Northern and Brong Ahafo and Volta regions and among and migrants
from Benin, Nigeria, Togo, Cote d‟Ivoire and Niger. The overall prevalence of FGM in Ghana is
estimated to be around 9-15%, but in areas identified as endemic it is reported to be as high
as 50%.16 However according to of DHS (Demographic and Health Survey) FGM prevalence in
Ghana is only 5%. Some investigations suggest that the problem of FGM is more widespread
than anticipated. According to Florence Ali, President of the Ghanaian Association for
Women‟s Welfare (GAWW), there is a lack of reliable data on how many young girls are still
being circumcised since the practice has gone underground after its criminalization in
1994.17
7. Kenya
The practice of FGM is nearly universal among three ethnic groups of Kenya- the Somali,
Abagusii, and Massai. The practice is also quite prevalent among the Taita Taveta, Kalenjin,
Embu and Meru and to a lesser extent by the Kikuyu. While the 1998 DHS data showed 38%
prevalence in Kenya, the 2003 DHS found that 34% of women had undergone FGM.18
Kenya hosts about 240,000 refuges mainly from Sudan and Somalia as well as from
Ethiopia and Eritrea. According to UNHCR, the thousands of Somali refugees in Dadaab
Camp practice infibulation at all ages.19In areas where FGM is universally practiced it is
reported that there was very little change.
7. Other African countries
According to the study carried out by ACPF, (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in
Africa, (2010), a number of cultural practices that affect child health are also practised in
Senegal as in Cameroon. FGM is also widely practised in Senegal. Despite the law prohibiting
the practice of excision in any form (Law N°99 05 of 1999), it remains prevalent. UNICEF
reports that 28% of women are estimated to have been victims of the practice during the
period 2002-2007 reaching escalating levels of 90% in Kolda in the south and
Tambacounda in the east. 20 The practice is more prevalent in the rural areas than urban
areas with 35% of rural women ages 15-49 undergoing the practice compared to 22% of
their urban counterparts.21 On the other hand, Cameroon and Uganda (0.6%) are reported to
Sudanese National Committee on Harmful Traditional Practices against Women. 2008 Report to Norwegian
Church Aid.
15 www.myjoyonline.com
16 The Implication of the Socio-Cultural Behaviour of Communities in the Upper West Region to the Eradication of
Female Genital Mutilation. Ghana Association for Women‟s Welfare (GAWW) Clare Banoeng-Yakubo -2004
17 www. Medical Newstoday.com
18 Contributing Towards Efforts to Abandon Female Genital mutilation /Cutting in Kenya. A situation Analysis.
UNFPA, Population Council. October 2007
19 Kenya: A case Study of Modern Legislation against Cultural identity. http://www.irinnews .org
20 United Nations Children‟s Fund, sourced at http://www.unicef.org/videoaudio/ramfiles/factsheet protection
low.pdf (accessed on 10 August 2010), See also www.africa 4womensrights.org
21 Ibid
14
17
have the lowest FGM rates in Africa. (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in Africa,
(2010))
Table 6: prevalence of FGM in some African countries.22
Country
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Cot D‟Ivoire
Egypt
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Kenya
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Tanzania
Sudan23
1.3.
Prevalence
17% (2001)
76% (2003)
1% (2004)
43% (1994-95)
45% (2004)
43% (1994)
97% (2000)
95% (2002)
74% (2005)
78%(2005/6) MICS
data
5% (2004)
99% (1 999)
32% (2003)
92% (2001)
71% (2000-2001)
5% (1998)
19% (2003)
18% (2004)
89% (1989-90)
MODELLING OF THE BREAST
In the study conducted by ACPF in 2006, another violent cultural practice still against the girl
children is modelling of the breast. For instance, in Cameroon, it was reported that „breast
ironing‟ had emerged as another form of violence against women in 2005, practiced in an
effort to protect prematurely well-developed young girls from predatory older men or for the
purpose of maintaining the tonicity of the breasts. This usually involves the use of very
painful methods such as breast ironing to keep the breasts of young girls especially those
who start developing breast by the age of nine. The study carried by the German Technical
Corporation (GTZ) in 2006, showed that 24% of adolescent girls and 50% of girls who show
early signs of breast development had undergone this form of violence in Cameroon. (ACPF:
Born to High Risk, 2006).
1.4.
SON PREFERENCE
Source: Prevalence rate for 19 African Countries Findings from DHS Surveys, 1990-2002,2005. http//www.
measure dhs.com
23 FGM is mostly practiced in Northern Sudan
22
18
According to the study conducted by ACPF, in Cameroon, Liberia, Madagascar, Senegal and
across northern Africa, girls suffer from a preference for sons even before they are born. In
some countries this strong preference for male children has led to female infanticide and
selective abortion of female foetuses. The demographic results indicated that male-to-female
ratios in northern Africa were higher than normal. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006).
Moreover, discrimination against girls could sometimes be taken to life-threatening
extremes. In poor communities in Africa, girls are neglected and even denied food, education
and medical care. In Uganda, for example, some tribes believe that foods such as eggs and
milk can cause women to become infertile. Consequently, girls are denied such nutritious
foods. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006).
19
III. VIOLENCE AGAINST VULNERABLE GROUPS OF
CHILDREN
3.1. CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
This section largely summarises the study carried out by ACPF in 2010 (ACPF: Breaking the
silence: violence against children with disabilities, (2010)). The study employed survey data
through 956 in-depth structured interviews with young disabled people aged 18-24 in
Cameroon, Ethiopia, Senegal, Uganda and Zambia. There were also semi-structured focus
group discussions and semi-structured interviews with key informants.
3.1.1. Prevalence of physical violence
According to ACPF‟s study in 2010, the findings are deeply disturbing in relation to
prevalence of physical violence against children with disabilities. Highly prevalent forms of
abuse included being physically beaten, which had happened to 183 respondents more than
10 times. The finding of the study also shows variance across the countries studied.
Ugandan and Zambian come first where violence takes place more frequently and
Cameroon, Ethiopia and Senegal coming next consecutively. (ACPF: Breaking the silence,
2010).
Table 7 : Frequency of physical violence experienced by respondents, by disability type
Disability type
Number of times experienced
(%)
1 or 2
3 to10
10+
physical
25.5
33.4
41.1
visual
29
32.8
38.3
hearing
31.4
39.7
28.9
intellectual
24.9
32
43.2
3.1.2. Perpetrators and vulnerable age groups
According to the study, the main perpetrators pf physical violence are other children at
respondents' schools or in their neighbourhoods accounting for the highest number of
physical abuse, followed by non-immediate family members and parents. Others included
persons within the workplace and non-authority figures in the community, home or
institutions such as janitors and guards. Perhaps counter-intuitively, mothers accounted for
more abuse of both male and female children than fathers. (ACPF: Breaking the silence,
2010).
20
3.1.3. Prevalence of psychological violence
According to the study, every respondent in Ethiopia, Senegal, Uganda, Zambia and
Cameroon had suffered at least one type of psychological violence in their lifetime. The most
prevalent forms of psychological abuse were: being insulted, ridiculed or shamed (77%);
being threatened as a result of race, ethnicity, religion or disability (48%); and witnessing the
severe beating of family or friends (46%).(ACPF: Breaking the silence, 2010).
Data available on the magnitude of psychological violence across the four study countries
for which there is adequate data shows that physically disabled children in Ethiopia are the
most vulnerable to psychological violence (46%), closely followed by visually disabled
children in Ethiopia (45%) and those with hearing impairments in Uganda (41%). Children
with physical, auditory and visual disabilities were similarly vulnerable to psychological
violence – at 35%, 34% and 33% magnitude respectively – followed by children with
intellectual disabilities at 26%.
In terms of gender, disabled boys are either equally or more vulnerable to psychological
violence than disabled girls. 43% of respondents experienced psychological violence
between the ages of 14 and 17; 35% between 10 and 13, 19% between five and nine and
just 2.5% before the age of five.
E thiopia
S enegal
Uganda
Intellec tual
Hearing
V is ual
P hys ic al
Intellec tual
Hearing
V is ual
P hys ic al
Intellec tual
Hearing
V is ual
P hys ic al
Intellec tual
Hearing
V is ual
50
40
30
20
10
0
P hys ic al
Percent of maximum possible
counts
Chart 2: Magnitude of Emotional Violence by Disability Type
Zambia
Chart 1: Magnitude of Psychological violence by Disability Type24
3.1.4. Perpetrators of psychological violence
With regard to perpetrators of psychological violence, the study identified unrelated children
in their neighbourhood or school, other relatives, their mothers and their fathers as the most
common perpetrators of psychological violence. (ACPF: Breaking the silence, 2010).
24
ACPF:Breaking the silence: violence against children with disabilities, (2010)
21
Table 8: Top five perpetrators of psychological violence
Perpetrator
unrelated children
other relatives
adult neighbour
father
mother
%
22
16.4
10.6
9.7
9.5
3.1.5. Prevalence of sexual violence
According to the study, all respondents in Ethiopia, Senegal, Uganda and Zambia suffered at
least one type of sexual violence during their childhood. Being spoken to sexually was the
most prevalent category of sexual violence experienced by respondents, affecting 54%; 37%
had been forced to have sexual intercourse; the same number had been touched indecently;
36% had been circumcised; 24% were exposed to others‟ private parts; and 27% were
forced to touch another‟s genitals with their hands. (ACPF: Breaking the silence, 2010).
Chart 8: Prevalence of Sexual Violence
75
50
Cameroon
25
Circumcised
Forced into Prostitution
Trafficked Sexually
Had Marriage Suggested
Forced to have
Intercourse
Forced to Touch Another
Orally
Forced to Touch Another
Manually
Indecently Touched
Forced to Pose Sexually
Spoken to Sexually
Forced to Watch Sexual
Scenes
Ethiopia
0
Exposed to
Percent of sample
100
Senegal
Uganda
Zambia
Chart 2: Prevalence of Sexual Violence25
There were several large differences between the country respondents – for example, 52% of
respondents in Cameroon and Zambia were forced to have intercourse, compared with 14%
in Senegal, 24% in Uganda and 30% in Ethiopia. An astonishing 30% of respondents in
Cameroon had been forced into prostitution, compared with less than 1% in Senegal and
Zambia. In Ethiopia and Senegal, male respondents reported more sexual violence than
females, while the opposite was true in Uganda and Zambia.
In terms of gender, slightly more girls than boys reported experiencing sexual violence. 48%
was reported by male respondents while it is 52% by females. Overall, disabled girls and
boys were equally likely to suffer a given type of sexual violence once or twice (28% of all
25
ACPF:Breaking the silence: violence against children with disabilities, (2010)
22
cases), but girls were far more likely to suffer a given sexual violence more than 10 times
(28%) than boys (16%). Respondents with physical, hearing and intellectual disabilities were
most likely to be sexually abused between three and 10 times, while those with visual
impairments were slightly more likely to suffer an abuse once or twice.
3.1.6. Perpetrators and vulnerable age groups
As far as the most vulnerable age groups are concerned, respondents indicated that they
had experienced 68% of all sexual violence between the ages of 14 and 17; 25% when aged
10 and 13; 7% aged five to nine; and less than 1% under the age of five.
Table 9: Vulnerability to sexual violence, by age group26
Age at which respondents were subjected to sexual violence (%)
Aged 10- Aged 14Under 5
Aged 5-9
13
17
Cameroon
0.5
5.3
25.5
68.7
Ethiopia
0.2
12.5
29.8
57.5
Senegal
1.6
9.6
36.7
52.1
Uganda
0
9.7
40.6
49.7
Zambia
0
0
0.6
99.4
In all study countries, respondents were most at risk of sexual violence between the ages of
14 and 17. This ranged from 99.4% of all cases in Zambia to just less than 50% in Uganda,
which had the highest rate (40.6%) of sexual violence against 10-to-13-year-olds.
In the study, respondents from all the countries studied identified the main perpetrators of
sexual violence. Accordingly, unrelated children and adult neighbours each accounted for
25% of sexual violence against respondents, but worryingly, boyfriends (13%), teachers (6%),
other relatives (6%) and strangers (5%) were all reported with certain frequency.
3.1.7. Children with disabilities: the case of Ethiopia.
This section reviews the study conducted by ACPF on children with disabilities in Ethiopia in
2010(ACPF: A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in
Ethiopia, (2010)). The respondents of the study consisted of 113 males and 105 females
with disabilities aged between 18 and 24 and from different geographical regions of
Ethiopia, interviewed in Addis Ababa about their lives before they were eighteen. At least one
respondent was identified from each of Ethiopia's administrative regions and two chartered
cities
3.1.7.1. (Perception) on violence against children with disabilities in general
According to the study (ACPF: Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, 2010),
children with disabilities are seen to be most at risk from psychological violence, which
accounted for 50% of the total. In comparison, sexual violence accounted for 30% of the
violent episodes reported and physical violence accounted for the remaining 20%. The study
also showed that that children with hearing disabilities were most at risk of both physical and
26
ACPF:Breaking the silence: violence against children with disabilities, (2010)s
23
sexual violence, suffering from 30% and 26% of all possible types of physical and sexual
violence investigated by the survey respectively. Children with physical disabilities were the
second most at risk group in terms of physical and sexual violence, reporting a 28% and 23%
incidence, whilst children with visual disabilities were affected by 24% of physical and 22% of
sexual violence and children with intellectual disabilities were affected by 14% and 16% of
physical and sexual violence respectively. At the same time, 34% of the respondents felt that
they had been physically hurt during their childhood more than most children, 13% felt that
they had been hurt about as frequently as most children and interestingly 53% actually felt
that they had been hurt less than most children.
With regard to the extent of violence witnessed by the respondents being perpetrated against
other children with disabilities, the witnessing of a child or children with disabilities being
insulted, glared at or embarrased was the most prevalent category at 70%, whilst witnessing
physical abuse (including being hit, punched, kicked or beaten) was the second most
prevalent, with 69% of the respondents having witnessed such cruelty against a child with a
disability.
In the study, respondents were also asked about the reasons behind incidents of physical
violence perpetrated against them. Accordingly, 21% of the respondents felt that they had
never been hurt on purpose by anyone, 30% felt that violence against themselves had been
mostly discipline, reasonable and justified, 28% felt that it was mostly discipline but not
reasonable or justified, and 21% felt physical violence against them had been neither
discipline, nor reasonable or justified. The finding shows some gender disparity, with both
50% of males and 48% of females feeling that physical violence against them was not
reasonable or justified, but within this, far greater quantity of males (39%) believing physical
violence to have been disciplinary than females (11%).
24
Percent of Disability Group Affected
Magnitude of Physical Violence by Disability Type
250
200
150
57
Physical
Visual
44
Hearing
Intellectual
100
34
80
23
23
50
16
27
38
0
17
22
9
19
27
18
15
41
8
20
13
Physically hit,
Locked in a
Made to eat hot Choked, burnt or
punched, kicked small room or chilli, pepper or
stabbed
or beaten
tied up with rope very bitter food
or chains
or drink
5
Denied food
15
20
27
24
18
16
3
Forced to carry Forced to beg
out hard or
and give away
difficult work for money earned
the benefit of
others
Chart 3: Incidence of Violence against Children with Disabilities27
3.1.7.2. Prevalence of physical violence against children with disabilities
According to the study, (ACPF: Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)),
amongst the different types of physical violence, physical hitting, punching, kicking and
beating was by far the most prevalent, with 54% of respondents (59% of males and 49% of
females) saying they had been abused in that way. The second most prevalent type of
physical violence was the deprivation of food, with 28% of respondents having been denied
food for an extended amount of time at least once in their lives. Of these, 33% had been
deprived of food for less than a day, 53% between one and two days, 13% between 2 and 7
days and less than 2% over a week.
The third and fourth most prevalent types of physical violence involved being locked or tied
up, and being forced to carry out hard works, which were both experienced by 20% of the
respondents. 17% of respondents had been choked, burned, stabbed or forced to give away
money that they had earned, and 16% had been made to eat chili or other bitter foods for
the purpose of causing pain.
There are also significant gender gaps, for example males with intellectual disabilities are
35% more likely to suffer physical violence than females with the same disability, and males
with physical disabilities are 15% more likely to suffer physical violence than their female
counterparts. Male children with physical disabilities are the most at risk from physical
violence, averaging at a 38% incidence of the seven types of physical abuse.
27
ACPF:A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)
25
3.1.7.3. Perpetrators and vulnerable age groups
According to the findings of the study, physical violence was most commonly perpetrated
against the when the respondents were between the ages of ten and thirteen. Mothers and
fathers were the single biggest perpetrators of physical violence, accounting for 12.5% and
12% each of the physically violent episodes against the respondents. Other female relatives,
other male relatives and brothers were the third, fourth and fifth most prevalent perpetrators
of physical violence, perpetrating 8%, 7% and 6% of all physical violence respectively. Male
children with disabilities are over twice as at risk of violence from their mothers and fathers
(15.6% and 15.4% of all perpetrators of physical violence against male respondents) than
female children with disabilities (7.6% and 6.9% respectively), who are comparatively at
much greater risk of violence from other female relatives (12.2% of all physical violence
perpetrated against girl respondents) than any other person. (ACPF: Violence against
Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)),
Table 10: Top Five Perpetrators of Physical Violence28
Top Five Perpetrators of Physical Violence
1
2
3
4
5
Male
Mother 15.6%
Father 15.4%
Brother 7.7%
Other Male Relative
6.7%
Sister 6.5%
1
2
3
3
5
Female
Other Female Relative
12.2%
Mother 7.6%
Father 6.9%
Other Male Relative
6.9%
Step Mother 6.1%
3.1.7.4.. Prevalence of psychological violence against children with disabilities
According to the study, (ACPF: Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)),
aamongst different forms of psychological violence, being insulted, glared at or
embarrassed, and witnessing the severe beating of family, friends or neighbours were the
most prevalent, with 68% of the respondents experiencing both types of violence.
The most common forms of psychological violence perpetrated against respondents are;
being insulted, shouted or glared at or embarrassed; being threatened as a result of race,
ethnicity religion or disability; being told that they should never have been born or should be
dead; being ignored or ostracised; being threatened with abandonment; witnessing severe
beatings and being taken away from their families against their will.
Children with physical, visual and intellectual disabilities are at greatest risk. 50% of
psychological violence happens against children with physical disabilities, 48% of
psychological violence against children with visual disabilities and 44% of children with
28
ACPF:A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)
26
Incidence ( Percent of Maximum)
intellectual disabilities occurring more than ten times. In comparison, 26% of violence
against children with hearing disabilities occurs more than ten times, compared to the
majority (37%) which occurs between 1 and 2 times. According to the study, males with
visual disabilities were the second most at risk, suffering a 50% incidence of psychological
violence, and males and females with intellectual violence were shown to be the least at risk
of psychological violence, with a 19% and 16% incidence respectively.
60
40
Total
Male
20
46
45
Female
39
17
0
Physical
Visuall
Hearing
Intellectual
Chart 4: Incidence of Psychological Violence by Disability Group29
About 50% of the respondents (52% of girls and 49% of boys) left home before the age of
eighteen and of these, 57% chose to and 43% were forced to. Of the 43% who were forced,
15% stated that the person who had forced them had received money for sending them
away, and 33% were forced to work upon leaving home to provide their own income. With
regard to reasons for leaving home, 47 respondents who felt that they had been forced to
leave their homes before the age of 18, 27 (57%) cited some form of family mistreatment as
the driving force behind their leaving, with the remainder feeling forced to leave as a
necessary precursor to gaining education, healthcare or employment.
3.1.7.4. Perpetrators and vulnerable age groups
The study highlights the increased vulnerability of children with disabilities to psychological
violence between the ages of 10 and13, and 14 and17 compared with the years before their
tenth birthday for nine of the eleven types of violence. Children with disabilities however
were seen to be slightly more at risk of being hidden or ignored between the ages of 5 and 9,
and 10 and 13 than 14-17, and of leaving home either between 5-9 or 14-17, with relatively
fewer leaving between the ages of 10 and 13. 76% of abuses took place between the ages
of 10 and 13, and 14 and 17, whilst 22% took place between the ages of 5 and 9 and just
2% were recounted as being before the age of 5. (ACPF: Violence against Children with
Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)),
The study also reveals that children with hearing disabilities are the most vulnerable
between 14-17, 48% of all psychological violence against children with hearing disabilities
29
ACPF:A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)
27
between the ages of 14-17, compared with 39% of psychological violence against children
with intellectual disabilities, 37% of psychological violence against children with visual
disabilities and 33% of children with physical disabilities. As such, whilst children with
hearing or intellectual disabilities were at the greatest risk of psychological violence between
14 and 17, children with visual or physical disabilities were most at risk between 10 and 13,
suffering the majority of psychological violence (40% and 37%) between those ages. (ACPF:
Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)),
Regarding perpetrators, as with physical violence, family members were mentioned as the
biggest perpetrators of psychological violence. However, whilst mothers and fathers were
the two highest perpetrators of physical violence, the common perpetrators of psychological
violence are female relatives (13%), followed by male relatives and mothers (12%) and
fathers (11%). (ACPF: Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)),
3.1.7.5. Sexual violence against children with disabilities
According to the findings of the study, there is wide variation in incidence of sexual violence.
71% of the total respondents had been circumcised, whilst 37% had been spoken to in a
sexual way and 35% had had their genitals touched before they were eighteen. 30% had
been forced to have sexual intercourse during their childhood, whilst 28% had had marriage
suggested to them. 17% had been both made to look at sexual scenes and touch the
genitals of another person, and only 16% and 8% respectively had had another person's
private parts exposed to them or been made to touch someone's genitals with their mouth.
At the lowest prevalence, 3% had been made to pose party dressed or naked, 1% (3 females,
one with a physical disability and two with visual disabilities) had been forced into
prostitution and less than 1% (1 female with an intellectual disability) had been trafficked for
sexual purposes. (ACPF: Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)),
Incidence (Percent of Maximum)
Incidence of Sexual Violence by Disability Group
30
20
Total
Male
23
10
26
Female
22
16
0
Physical
Visual
Hearing
Intellectual
Chart 5: Incidence of Sexual Violence by Disability Group30
Moreover, there was significant variation between the magnitudes of different forms of
sexual violence across the different categories of disability. The study shows that the single
highest counts of sexual violence, excluding circumcision, are of children with hearing
disabilities spoken to in a sexual way (49%), followed by 44% of children with hearing
30
ACPF:A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)
28
disabilities having their genitals touched or fondled. (ACPF: Violence against Children with
Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)).
The study also reveals that male children with hearing disabilities are seen to be singly most
at risk from sexual violence, with an incidence of 27% of the twelve types of sexual violence
perpetrated against each individual. Males with physical disabilities are the second most at
risk group, suffering a 25% of the twelve types of sexual violence, and girls of each disability
group are either at risk to the same degree (in the case of children with hearing disabilities)
or less at risk than their male counterparts of suffering sexual violence. (ACPF: Violence
against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)).
3.8.6.5. Perpetrators and vulnerable age groups
According to the findings of the study, (ACPF: Violence against Children with Disabilities in
Ethiopia, (2010)), the vulnerability of children with disabilities to sexual violence is
predominantly between the ages of 14-17 when 45% of all sexual violence was perpetrated
against the respondents, which is not overly surprising given the onset of puberty during this
age range. 23% of all sexual violence against the respondents was committed between 1013, 11% between 5 and 9 and 20% under five. However, the entirety of cases of sexual
violence being perpetrated below the age of five related to circumcision, 83% of which
occurred before the age of five years old. Circumcision aside, no other sexual violence was
recollected under the age of five, with only small levels recollected between 5 and 9.
The study indicates the trend in greatest vulnerability between the ages of 14-17 as shown
for the entire family. However this trend is slightly more pronounced amongst children with
intellectual and hearing disabilities, accounting for 46% and 50% of all episodes committed
against children with intellectual and hearing disabilities respectively, compared with 44%
and 40% of violent episodes perpetrated against children with visual and physical
disabilities. Children of each disability type were most at risk of circumcision under the age
of five, with 74% of children with physical disabilities, 90% of children with visual disabilities,
79% of children with hearing disabilities and 93% of children with intellectual disabilities
circumcised before their fifth birthday.
In the study, different perpetrators were identified for each category of sexual abuse
committed against the respondents. The key perpetrators of sexual violence are different to
those identified as perpetrators of psychological and physical violence, with the incidence
much higher amongst the respondents' peers than either their family members or adults in
general. Male children in the neighborhood (15%), boyfriends (13%), female children at
school (15%), girlfriends (6%) and male children at school (9%) were the biggest perpetrators
of sexual violence.
Table 11: Top Five Perpetrators of Sexual Violence by Disability Type31
31
ACPF:A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in Ethiopia, (2010)
29
Top Five Perpetrators of Sexual Violence by Disability Type
Physical Disability
Visual Disability
Hearing Disability
1
Female School
Children 19.7%
1
Female School
Children 14.4%
1
Male Neighborhood
Children 20.7%
1
2
Boyfriend 15.8%
2
Male
Neighborhood
Children 12.9%
2
Female School
Children 14.7%
2
3
Male Neighborhood
Children 9.3%
Male Sex Partner 7.7%
3
3
Boyfriend 12%
3
4
Male School
Children 12.4%
Boyfriend 12%
4
4
Male School Children
6.6%
5
Girlfriend 8.1%
5
Female
Neighborhood
Children 9.3%
Girlfriend 7.3%
4
5
5
Intellectual
Disability
Male
Neighborhood
Children
28.3%
Female
Neighborhood
Children
18.3%
Boyfriend
15%
Female
Stranger
11.7%
Female
School
Children 5%
3.2. CHILD TRAFFICKING
3.2.1. Prevalence of child trafficking
The US Department of State estimates that between 600,000 and 800,000 people are
trafficked every year.32 Approximately 80 per cent are women and girls are trafficked around
the world, including:
 ✦ from Africa to other continents;
 ✦ between African countries;
 ✦ within their own countries without crossing any borders;
 ✦ Into Africa from other places, including Thailand and Eastern Europe.
Children – including girls – are also trafficked within their home country or internally. In
Burkina Faso, for example, girls are trafficked within the country to work as domestic
servants and prostitutes. In Cameroon, people are usually trafficked internally and children
are particularly vulnerable.33. The IOM estimates that approximately 1000 girls aged between
14 and 24 are taken from Mozambique to work as prostitutes in South Africa each year. A
plan study in Togo found that at least one child had been trafficked in almost two thirds of
the 650 households interviewed. The practice is deeply rooted in parents‟ reluctance to send
their children - especially girls - to school and the tradition of entrusting children to distant,
better-off relatives.34
ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa,(2006)
ACPF: Born to High Risk: Violence Against Girls in Africa,(2006)
34 ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa,(2006)
32
33
30
Trafficking is a serious problem in all seven countries covered by ACPF study35, which is
linked to economic exploitation.36 It is has an internal regional and international connection
and any meaningful national fight against the practice should necessarily have a regional
and international bearing. Commendable regional efforts have been undertaken within and
between the West African Region and the Central African sub regions but they remain
dysfunctional and frustrated due lack of political will and interstate cooperation as
exemplified by Cameroon‟s attitude in the Etireno „slaveboat‟ scandal in 200137 Sometimes,
wrongly interpreting religious tenets under Islam and introducing children (talibes) to forced
begging in the daaras in Senegal is also no less an evil route to violence and other forms of
abuse such as trafficking, economic exploitation and abuse of children. Similarly, the system
of confiage in Burkina Faso, a form of traditional within the family, may lead to trafficking and
the abuse of children.
According to another study conducted by ACPF (ACPF: Desk Review on Laws, Policies,
Strategies and Programmes Relating to Violence against Children in Malawi, (2010)), in
Malawi, another common form of children‟s rights violation is child trafficking. Malawi has
not conclusively established the scale of this practice but anecdotal evidence, media reports
as well as some studies have established that child trafficking for labour as well as sexual
exploitation is occurring in Malawi.38 Such studies have established that Malawi is a country
of origin, transit as well as destination of trafficked children. Furthermore, child trafficking
takes the form of both external and internal trafficking. A study concluded in the year 2008
on trafficking in persons for purposes of sexual exploitation established that trafficking of
women and children for the purpose of sexual exploitation is a common phenomenon.39
Further that every year about 500 to 1500 women and children are being trafficked within
the country and that children between the ages of 14 to 18 comprise about 30% of this
figure.40 The study further found that about 400 women and 50 children are trafficked
outside the country every year.41
In the previous study conducted by ACPF, establishes that an alarming number of girls are
trafficked for sexual purposes. In Uganda, 10.2 per cent of respondents were trafficked. The
rate in Ethiopia is 9.3 per cent and 5.2 per cent in Kenya. Most cases of sexual trafficking in
Kenya and Uganda happen to girls between the ages of 14 and 17 years old. Most of the
respondents from Kenya and Uganda who had been trafficked for sexual reasons were able
to return home within six months. However, 74 per cent of those trafficked in Ethiopia were
unable to return home for more than three years as seen in Table below. (ACPF: A
Retrospective Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, (2006))
Table 12: Age Groups most Vulnerable to Sexual Trafficking42
Age when sexual trafficking occurred
Kenya
Ethiopia
ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa: A Summative Analysis of the Legal and Policy Strategies in
Seven African Countries, (2010)0
36 ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa: A Summative Analysis of the Legal and Policy Strategies in
Seven African Countries, (2010)
37 ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa: A Summative Analysis of the Legal and Policy Strategies in
Seven African Countries, (2010)0
38 The Child Labour National Action Plan for Malawi 2009-2016, note 19 above, p.11
39 Centre for Social Research, Prevention of Trafficking in Women and Children for the Purpose of Sexual
Exploitation: Malawi, July 2008, p. 10
40 Ibid
41 Ibid
42 ACPF:Violence Against Girls In Africa: A Retrospective Survey In Ethiopia, Kenya And Uganda, (2006)
35
31
Before age 5
Between ages 5 and 9
0.0%
4.3%
0.0%
2.0%
Between ages 10 and 13
17.4%
12.0%
Between ages 14 and 17
78.3%
86.0%
Kenya
Ethiopia
1 or 2 times
63.6%
57.0%
3-5 times
13.6%
29.0%
6-10 times
4.5%
6.0%
More than 10 times
18.2%
8.0%
Table 13 - Frequency of Sexual Trafficking43
How often trafficked for sexual
purposes
3.2.2. Perpetrators of trafficking
According to ACPF‟s study, individuals who traffic children tend to be involved in organized
crime, or are refugees or other individuals who exploit their connection with a child‟s family
or community in order to traffic them. In many cases, though, parents arrange for their own
daughters to be trafficked, a survey in Nigeria showed that at 28 per cent, parents constitute
the largest individual group of people who arrange for girls to be trafficked. Widespread
poverty and the lack of opportunities for young people provide strong incentives to seek
opportunities elsewhere – facts that the traffickers are quick to exploit. (ACPF: A
Retrospective Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, (2006))
3.3. DOMESTIC WORK
ILO‟s Convention 182 – which prohibits, and calls for immediate action to eliminate, the
worst forms of child labor – does not explicitly define domestic work as one of the worst
forms of child labor. It is rather the circumstances under which children carry out such work
and their consequent exposure to abuse that can render domestic work as a contemporary
form of slavery or hazardous labor and thus a one of the worst forms of child labor. (ACPF:
Born to High Risk, 2006)
According to the study carried out by ACPF, children – especially girls – carry out various
types of work within their own homes or families. Where girls are not neglected, they are
often overburdened with domestic and care-giving tasks. For example, in Eritrea, girls are
treated differently from boys once they reach the age of three or four: they are kept in the
home, while boys are able to play outside. By the age of five, girls have begun to learn
household chores, and they move towards their traditional domestic role, including “caring
for their siblings, fetching wood and water, cooking, grinding, washing, and weaving baskets.
Many families anticipate that the girl children will eventually leave their families to go to their
husbands‟ families and therefore, the girls‟ families are hesitant to „invest‟ in their education
and future.” This burden is a major determining fact in keeping more than 20 million girls out
of school in sub-Saharan Africa. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006)
43
ACPF:Violence Against Girls In Africa: A Retrospective Survey In Ethiopia, Kenya And Uganda, (2006)
32
Domestic work can be acceptable or even beneficial to children and their overall
development – for example, in cases where household chores are performed outside school
hours within one‟s own family or neighborhood. However, there are certain types and
conditions of work in the family setting (home-based manufacturing, family business or
farms) that may expose children to violence and other work hazards. An NGO survey on
violence against children in Tanzania, for example, found that 56.6 per cent of children
identified „child labor‟ in homes, farms, mines and schools as a form of violence, and
revealed that „work‟ – including excessive household chores – represented a large proportion
of the violence they experienced.
Most child domestic workers come from extremely poor families, and the majority of them
are girls. Many have been abandoned, orphaned, or come from single parent families, and
many trafficked girls end up as domestic servants. An ILO study of child domestic workers in
Togo estimated that 24 per cent were orphans.8 The majority of the children interviewed
were aged between 12 and 17, but 16 per cent were 10 years or younger. Other studies
have identified children as young as five or six working as domestic laborers, 9 while a survey
in Kenya estimated that 11 per cent of child domestic workers were 10 years old or younger.
Child domestics tend to work long hours – as much as 10 to 15 hours a day in Zimbabwe,
according to the Domestic Workers Union of Zimbabwe.11 A Moroccan study revealed that
72 per cent of the children interviewed started their working day before seven, and 65 per
cent did not go to bed before 11 pm.12. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006)
A small study in Ethiopia revealed that nearly two-thirds of the child domestic laborers
interviewed (most of whom were girls) reported to have been victims of physical violence,
and more than two-thirds of those reported experiencing physical violence on a regular basis.
The most common types of physical violence they reported were being slapped, beaten with
a stick, pinched, whipped and kicked, while some reported having been dipped up to neck in
cold water or locked in a latrine. (ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa, (2006).
3.4. CHILD PROSTITUTION
In the study conducted by ACPF, the AIDS epidemic has been cited as one reason for the
increase in demand for children in prostitution, as certain sex-seeking adults view sexual
intercourse with children as the best means to avoid infection. Authorities in charge of
national or international tourism often choose not to crack down on child prostitution for fear
of losing precious and rare tourism revenue. Many of these children come from remote rural
areas or neighboring countries (often as a result of trafficking) and are not allowed to return
to, or have lost contact with, their families. (ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa,
2006).
The study44 refers an ILO study in Madagascar which reported that child victims of sexual
exploitation were subjected to violence and suffered from sexually transmitted diseases.
About 10 per cent reported having been beaten or hurt, while eight per cent had been gangraped of 246 girls and six boys working in prostitution. In another study that was conducted
in Tanzania, the ages of children participating in prostitution ranged from nine to seventeen.
According to the girls interviewed, circumstances such as the need to support family
members had forced them into prostitution. The researchers, who visited the areas where
these children live and operate, observed that they lived in very difficult conditions. At least
44
ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa,(2006)
33
95 per cent of respondents had experienced rape by individuals or gangs, battering, kidnap,
and/or sexually transmitted diseases. (ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa, 2006).
In the study conducted by ACPF, it is mentioned that girls may also become involved in the
sex industry because they need to earn money. The World Organization against Torture
interviewed 93 girls who were involved in sex work for their 2003 report on child rights in
Madagascar. Many of them cited the need to augment the family income as one of the main
reasons for becoming involved in prostitution. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006)
ACPF‟s study conducted in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda revealed that 7.4 per cent of
respondents in Ethiopia, 5.7 per cent in Kenya and 7 per cent in Uganda stated that they had
been forced into prostitution by another person.100 So although it is hard to get specific
figures, it is clear that the number of girls engaged in prostitution – an inherently violent form
of child labor – is not insignificant. These girls are at risk of contracting HIV and other
sexually transmitted infections, and are vulnerable to physical abuse and psychological
damage. According to the study, in Ethiopia, the main perpetrators of forced prostitution are
occasional sex partners accounting for 59.5 per cent. In Kenya, adult female neighbors are
the main perpetrators accounting for 15.4 per cent while girlfriends lead in Uganda with a
staggering 49 per cent. (ACPF: A Retrospective Survey in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda,
2006).
3.5. HIV/AIDS, ORPHAN AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN
In a study conducted by ACPF in seven African countries, the countries under review have
generally shown progress in the domains of education and health except in Burkina and the
DRC notably. However basic health facilities including, infrastructure, human and financial
resources, availability of medicines, therapeutic and diagnostic kits as well as the
rapprochement of health services generally are lacking, rendering access to health and
heath services strenuous in these countries. Consequently, in the majority of the countries,
infant mortality still remains high meanwhile sanitation measures are no better. For example,
in Burkina, the infant mortality rate is 83‰. (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in
Africa, 2010)
Like abhorrent traditional practices, HIV/AIDS also has its toll on children in Cameroon as
elsewhere. The HIV/AIDS generates stigma and discrimination which can lead to exclusion
and isolation and therefore ruin an infected child‟s chances of receiving education. In
Cameroon there is a National Program for the Support to Orphans and Other Vulnerable
Children (OVC) as a result of HIV/AIDS that enabled care of about 65 000 other vulnerable
children since 2006 while granting them various forms of aid, notably, educational, sanitary,
nutritional, psychosocial and legal support. There are policies governing HIV/AIDS concerns,
but no laws. (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in Africa, 2010)
In Malawi, the major challenges in the area of child health care and health services are the
high prevalence of HIV and AIDS amongst the population generally and amongst children
specifically. The HIV prevalence rate is at 12% and 10% of all infections is said to be through
mother to child transmission. More than half of Malawi‟s population is under the age of 18
years and it is estimated that in 2008 there were 17,033 new paediatric infections in
children under the age of 18, making a total of 101,939 children living with HIV in Malawi
(Sentinel Surveillance, MOH 2007). Over 90% of paediatric HIV infection is acquired through
vertical transmission from an HIV infected mother to the child. In trying to respond to this
34
challenge the government of Malawi is scaling up relevant services. (ACPF: Combating
Violence against Children in Africa, 2010)
In a study conducted by ACPF, (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in Africa, 2010)
, it is reported that HIV/AIDS stands at 16% of the adult population in Zambia. The
Government estimates that 90,000 (2006 figures) children are living with HIV in Zambia. The
Government acknowledges that, “the issue of orphans and vulnerable children remains one
of the big challenges the Zambian society is facing today”45
The Ministry of Youth, Sport and Child Development (MYSCD) in Zambia noted that the
statistics on the number of orphan and vulnerable children is 700, 0000 and 1,000,000 for
the year 2008 and 2009 respectively. (ACPF: Violence against Children in Zambia, 2010).
In Zambia, malnutrition has been found to affect the health, survival and wellbeing of
children. According to Ministry of Health of Zambia, Under five children (under weight) is
28% where as children between 6- 59 months with vitamin A deficiency at 54% and Children
with iron deficiency are 53%. (ACPF: Violence against Children in Zambia, 2010).
3.6. FORCED BEGGING
According to a study conducted by ACPF, (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in
Africa, 2010), forced begging is another deplorable cultural practice in Senegal. The study
refers the Human Rights Watch report that estimates that about 50,000 children enrolled in
residential Quranic schools (daara‟s) in Senegal are subjected to force begging and various
forms of abuse, neglect, and extreme forms of exploitation by their teachers known as
marabouts.46 Many of the children also known as talibes are forced to beg on the streets for
very long hours enduring several hazards. Human Rights Watch interviewed „children living in
more than 100 daaras and, with just one exception, none of the money or rice the talibes
collected was ever used for their food needs‟. A typical daara is an abandoned or partially
constructed building that offers little protection for children from the hazards of the weather.
The children sleep as many as 30 in a small room. Disease spreads quickly and the children
often fall ill - from skin diseases, malaria, and stomach parasites - but are rarely cared for by
the marabouts. Instead, many children are forced to beg overtime to pay for their own
medicines.
3.7. CHILDREN IN CRISIS/CONFLICT SITUATION
3.7.1. Labor and sexual exploitation
The study conducted by ACPF documents the scale and premeditated nature of sexual
violence against girls in several recent wars, including Rwanda, where between 250,000 and
500,000 women and girls were believed to have been raped during the country‟s genocide in
1994, has resulted in a major shift in the way International Tribunals on War Crimes regard
such acts of violence. In the latest tribunals – on Bosnia, and Burundi and Rwanda – mass
rape has been recognized and prosecuted as a legitimate crime against humanity. (ACPF:
Born to High Risk, 2006)
45
46
National Child Policy 2006, Ministry of Sport, Youth and Child Development, pg.17
Human Rights Watch, „Off the Backs of Children‟ 2
35
It is not only in conflict situations that girls experience sexual exploitation, but also in
emergency situations caused, for example, by drought or floods. It is believed that up to
30,000 girls were abducted by armed forces during Angola‟s civil war.115 Angola‟s situation
is not unique: across Africa, girls are abducted by armed forces for use as domestic workers,
as „wives‟ or sexual slaves for combatants, or as soldiers. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006).
Many girls abducted by armed forces are used as servants. In Uganda, young girls are made
to work long hours as ting-tings: cooking, washing, farming and carrying heavy loads. Other
girls are sexually exploited by armed forces. It has been estimated that around 1,000
children have been born to girls abducted and held by the Lord‟s Resistance Army in Uganda,
while testimonials from girls in other countries, including Liberia and Sierra Leone, show that
the practice is prevalent across Africa. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006).
In times of crisis, power structures – both within refugee camps and in the community – also
may expose women and children to harm. In 2005, for example, when millions of people in
Niger faced starvation, men locked the grain stores in their villages and left the women and
children to fend for themselves. Girls are, therefore, vulnerable to additional forms of
violence in crisis situations, when compared to men and boys. Not only do they face physical
injury and death as civilians and combatants, but they are sexually abused. (ACPF: Born to
High Risk, 2006).
3.7.2. Child Soldiers
In a study conducted by ACPF, (ACPF: Violence Against Girls at Work in Africa, 2006), it is
mentioned that a 2002 report by the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, documents
120,000 children under the age of 18 participating in armed conflicts across Africa. The
young combatants face the obvious risks associated with being on the front line of war, but
their immaturity also often leads them to take excessive risks. Children as young as seven
have been involved in armed conflicts – as porters, messengers, or even spies. At around the
age of 10, when they are physically large enough to handle an assault rifle or a semiautomatic weapon, they graduate to become soldiers.47 One source in Liberia said that girls
or young women also made up about one per cent of the child soldiers demobilized in 19961997. Girl soldiers have also been involved in conflicts in African countries including Burundi,
Côte d‟Ivoire, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda. As any combatant, these girls are vulnerable to
physical injury and mortality, in addition to being psychologically affected by the actions they
carry out. (ACPF: Born to High Risk, 2006)
3.8. CHILD LABOUR
ACPF‟s study in Seven African Countries has shown problems related to child labour. In
Zambia, for instance, the rate of child labour is high. The prevailing economic situation in the
country, where poverty levels are as high as 64% of households in the country, is a major
contributing factor to child labour. The latest demographic survey on child labour
demonstrates that, more than 600,000 children are said to be involved in economic
activities; the majority of which are engaged in agricultural related occupations, particularly
on commercial farms located all over the country. Other children are engaged in selling
merchandise whilst others are involved in manual stone quarries. A baseline survey was
47
ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa,(2006)
36
conducted by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) in six districts of Zambia in 2001 on
the involvement of children in Agriculture. The report further highlighted that 97% of the
working children were engaged as domestic workers; while 75.5 % combined work with
school. (ACPF: Combating Violence against Children in Africa, 2010).
2001 Statistics on child labor (Zambia)48
Total number of Children Engaged in Child labor
Children involved in Agriculture Occupation
Children Engaged as domestic workers
Children that combined work with school
600,000
87%
97%
75.5%
In Cameroon, on the other hand, 11.9% of children in rural areas are engaged in economic
activities without education, 67.6% are studying only and 6.1% are both studying and
working. 49 In spite of the overall downward trend observed, child labour is still a reality in
Cameroon. In fact, the proportion of working children dropped from 58% in 2000 (MICS 2) to
43% in 2005 (EESI) and 31% in 2006 (MICS 3).50 A little over three children aged 5-14 years
were under some form of employment. This phenomenon nearly touches as much boys
(31%) as girls (30%). Yet, the phenomenon seems to be worsening. Indeed, it is evident from
the National Report on Child Labour in Cameroon (INS/ECAM3/2007) that four children out
of ten (41%) are occupied economically. This indicator is almost the same for both boys and
girls (41.1% and 40.6% respectively). The majority of working children (84.5%) operate in the
agricultural and hunting sectors. Economically occupied children, 68.8% are compelled to do
work that needs to be abolished and 11.0% do dangerous work. (ACPF: Combating Violence
against Children in Africa, 2010).
Based on the review conducted by ACPF, (ACPF: Violence against Children in Malawi, 2010),
in Malawi, notwithstanding the protection of children from child labour under the Constitution
and the Employment Act, child labour is widespread. 51 A year 2000 labour force survey
showed an estimated total labour participation of 53% for the population between the ages
of 10 and 14.52 A further comprehensive child labour survey established that 37% of children
between the ages of 5 and 15 were involved in child labour.53 53.3% of these children
worked in agriculture and 42.1% in community and personal services sector. The rest were
divided between other sectors like wholesale, retailing, quarrying, construction,
manufacturing, street work and commercial sexual exploitation.54 These children are
subjected to various forms of abuses such as working for long and odd hours for little pay.55
Malawi has also not been spared from high numbers of female children engaged as
domestic workers that are often sexually abused by their employers, are made to suffer
ACPF:Documentation of Laws, Policies and Administrative Framework on Violence against Children in Zambia,
(2010)
49 Cigno A, Guarcello L, Noguchi Y, Lyon S and Rosati F. „Child labour indicators used by the UCW project: an
explanatory note‟. Online at: http://www.ucw-project.org/cgi-bin/ucw/Survey/Main.sql?come=Ucw_Tables.sql.
(Accessed on 2/09/10).
50 Ministère des Affaires Sociales,
51 Government of Malawi, Ministry of Labour, Child Labour National Action Plan for Malawi 2009-2016, p. 51
52 Ibid p. 52
53 Child Labour National Action Plan for Malawi, 2009-2016, note 19 above, p. 1
54 Ibid
55 Ibid
48
37
corporal punishment when they err.56 A latter study in the year 2004 showed that the
prevalence of child labour had fallen from 37% to 29%.57
56
57
Ibid
Ibid
38
References
1. ACPF: Childhood scars in Africa: a retrospective study on Violence against girls in
Burkina Faso, Cameroon, democratic republic of Congo, Nigeria and Senegal, (2010)
2. ACPF:National Study On School-Related Gender-Based Violence In Sierra Leone,
(2 0 1 0 )
3. ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa: A Summative Analysis of the
Legal and Policy Strategies in Seven African Countries, (2010)
4. ACPF:Documentation of Laws, Policies and Administrative Framework on Violence
against Children in Zambia, (2010)
5. ACPF:Desk Review on Laws, Policies, Strategies and Programmes Relating To
Violence against Children In Malawi, (2010)
6. ACPF:Combating Violence Against Children in Africa: A Summative Analysis of the
Legal and Policy Strategies in Seven African Countries, (2010)
7. ACPF:A Retrospective Assessment on Violence against Children with Disabilities in
Ethiopia, (2010)
8. ACPF:Breaking the silence: violence against children with disabilities, (2010)
9. ACPF:Desk Review On Laws, Policies, Strategies and Programmes Relating to
Violence Against Children In Malawi, (2010)
10. ACPF:Documentation of Laws, Policies and Administrative Framework on
Violence against Children in Senegal, (2010)
11. ACPF:Promising Actions against FGM, (2009)
12. ACPF:Violence Against Girls In Africa: A Retrospective Survey In Ethiopia, Kenya And
Uganda, (2006)
13. ACPF:Born to High Risk: Violence Against Girls in Africa,(2006)
14. ACPF: Violence against Girls at Work in Africa,(2006)
39