1. No category

Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
Satellite-based Detection of Compounding Column of
Ozone and Thermal Infrared Precursor Behavior to
Earthquake Occurrence
Pirasteh S.* and Li Jonathan
Department of Geography and Environmental Management, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, CANADA
*[email protected]
spectrometer can detect environmental parameters like
atmospheric compounds. Atmospheric Infrared Sounder
(AIRS) has spectral resolution more than 100 times than
the previous IR sounder22. It is using thermal infrared bands
ranging from 3.7 µm - 15.4 µm and the visible bands
ranging from 0.4 µm - 1.0 µm.
Abstract
The theory exploring mechanism of the earthquake
occurrence has been an intriguing part of research
interest for scientists so far. Compounding of physical
phenomena of pre-earthquake thermal infrared (TIR)
and the column ozone (O3) concentration anomaly has
been attempted for the Bam earthquake occurred on
December 26, 2003 in Iran. Thermal infrared
satellite data analysis revealed the land surface
temperature (LST) rise ranging from 5°–10°C in and
around epicenter areas. In addition, the research
showed a significance anomaly of ozone
concentration (column density) between 15 Du to 25
Du, few days prior to the main shock and after the
shock. The study shows that a promising correlation
between land surface temperature and column density
for ozone (O3) can be established.
Randel et al32 analyzed the anomalous environmental
parameters such as ozone (O3). The ozone molecules in this
atmospheric layer observe wavelength of the ultraviolet
radiation18. Durante of life on the earth depends upon
concentration of molecules of ozone in the stratosphere
layer. In atmosphere mainly in troposphere, ozone is
affected by Radon (-222Rn) and is librated before the main
shock of an earthquake38,39. Using long term anomaly of
Radon gas can support estimation concentration of other
atmospheric gases such as CO2, CH4 and N2O40. In
addition, Gorny et al15 used a satellite-based method to
indicate seismic activity of central Asia region. They
suggested that any abnormal infrared radiations detected
from satellites could be expression of a seismic activity.
The thermal anomalies started developing about 1–5
days prior to the main event depending upon the
magnitude and focal depth and disappeared after the
main shock. Monitoring of radioactive radiations and
reactionary hypothesis of gases before and after
quake in conjunction with TIR, probably could give us
a clue to understand near real time earthquake
forecasting in the region.
However, the statement can be improved and expressed to
release of heat and gases on the earth's surface and
atmosphere depending on magnitude and focal depth of the
earthquake and metrological condition of the area3.
Accordingly, based on the technological growth of the
world, scientists and researchers carried out various
approaches toward understanding of the earthquakes in Iran
and India,10,27-29 in China and Japan,36 Italy35 and USA.24
Keywords: Earthquake precursor, Thermal Infrared,
Column Ozone, LST.
The earth’s emissivity can unfold many unknown natural
processes associated with earthquakes. Any thermal
anomalies and gas concentration anomalies in tectonically
active regions that is occurring on the land surface can be
monitored regularly. In contrast, any abnormalities, when
other meteorological conditions, are normal may be an
indication for an impending earthquake. For example, a
thermal rise in a tectonically active area can be expressed in
building stresses and reflect the earth’s crust and release of
heat and gases on the earth's surface. Thus, this research
centres on finding a clue for occurrence of the earthquakes
by combining the land surface temperature (LST) and
concentration of column of ozone (O3) anomalies as to be
expressed the signatures of a pre-earthquake.
Introduction
Iran is one of the seismic active regions and prone to
earthquake in the world26. The evolving techniques of
remote sensing have the potential to contribute and assist
human research studies in evaluating natural processes and
events occurring daily on the earth’s surface on a global
basis. Space technology is increasingly becoming an
important and valuable tool for earthquake studies and
post-earthquake damage assessment1.
Thermal infrared region of the electromagnetic radiation
(EMR) of the NOAA-AVHRR and Atmospheric Infrared
Sounder (AIRS) on board the Aqua Satellite can be used
for monitoring atmospheric component in understanding
the behavior of the earthquakes. This will give us a clue to
find the secrets of the earthquake occurrence by analyzing
the earth's surface components. A high spectral resolution
Tectonic and Study Area
According to Ali et al2 and Pirasteh et al28,29, the Iranian
plateau was formed 35 million years ago by opposite forces
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
of the Arabian plate and the Eurasia plate in the southwest
and northeast directions respectively. In other words, the
mechanical deformation of the study area is the result of
collision between the Arabian plate and Eurasia that formed
Zagros Mountains with geologic-structural features such as
folds, faults and lineaments. The rise of Zagros Mountains
is in conjunction with fault movements at depth of the
Earth. The tectonic activities take place in the central east
area of Iran along faults which are in North-South and
Northwest-Southeast directional trends.
illustrates the LST of the region in daytime and red colourfilled star symbol on the map indicates the day of the
earthquake whereas unfilled colour star represents location
of the impending earthquake epicentre of December 26,
2003. The normal temperature of the area is 22°C-25°C in
December. However, the temperature has been seen on the
map close to the earthquake occurrence time to be about
29°C to 31°C which is abnormal.
Tectonically, the Bam is a part of the Lut-e-Zangi Ahmad
desert5,9 with hot summers ranging from 46oC to 50oC and
winters with below freezing temperatures. Bam and
Naiband faults are two prone active faults (i.e. North-South
trend) in the region. The Kuh Banan fault (i.e. NorthwestSoutheast) and the Gowk fault (i.e. North-South) are at
conjunction with Naiband fault and it continues towards the
Jebal Barez mountains in the Southwest of Bam. The Lut
sub-plate is one of the stable sub-plates in Iran and before
the earthquake.
Bam is situated in the south western parts of Iran, located at
29.004°N and 58.337°E (Figure1). On the December 26,
2003, the earthquake with 6.6 magnitude and high intensity
shocked Bam and killed about 30,000 people and nearly
about 85% of buildings got destroyed. The focal depth was
10km and very close to the epicenter, near the ancient
2000-year-old city of Bam. The right-lateral strike-slip fault
motion on the N–S trending Bam fault developed the Bam
earthquake.
Figure 1: The location of Bam in Iran and Middle East
On the other side, chemical reaction of uranium sources
with dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) at or near the center of the
earth generates huge amount of energy, pressure and
gases17,31. The fluxes of hot permanent matters and huge
energy (heat) and pressure under the earth’s crusts cause
plate tectonic movements and cracks19. In addition, during
this natural nuclear fission in the interior of the earth, gases
and radiations (alpha, beta and gamma) are emitted and
released under the earth’s crust and fluxed upward20.
Land Surface Temperature and Column of Ozone (O3)
Anomalies Observation:
Thermal infrared (TIR) emitted from the earth's surface is
received by satellite and further it can be used to
understand in prior to earthquakes12. Let us express any
abnormal variations in thermal and temperature to be
defined as "thermal anomaly" and "temperature anomaly"
respectively. Geologists believe that a tectonic activity and
fault movement produce stresses and friction generating
gases on the earth's crust and the earth's surface which
generate an earthquake zone. The energy from the earth
releases and gets transformed in the form of low-frequency
electromagnetic emission, earthquake lights, magnetic
lights, magnetic field anomalies, gases such as ozone, heat
and land surface anomalies.
The consequent radioactivity generates alpha (α), beta (β)
and gamma (γ) radiation liberated during earthquakes.
Radioactive gases migrate with other permanent gases such
as CH4, CO, CO2 and SO2 and precede the occurrence of a
main earthquake shock19,33. Alpha particle is an energy that
can migrate up to 30 cm above the earth surface.11 During
earthquakes activity, molecules of ozone (O3) in the
atmosphere are attacked and ionized to deform to a new
form by energy of alpha16,23. Pulinets and Ouzounov30 have
suggested that “Radon action on atmospheric gases is
similar to the cosmic rays effects in upper layers of
atmosphere”. This ionization process is represented in the
mathematical sequence (Equation 1 and Figure 4). In other
words, when molecules of ozone (O3) are charged by
energy of alpha particle, they lose one electron.
The significant changes in land surface temperature of the
region being as an indicator for interpreting impending
earthquake associated with release of gases such as O3 to
determine the anomalies will prompt us to identifying a
near real time earthquake.
A series of the NOAA-AVHRR dataset for LST maps of
the Bam earthquake (Figure 2) shows that there has been a
significant rise in LST which appeared before the
devastating earthquake of December 26, 2003. Figure 2
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
α ~ O3 = O3+. + eα ~ O3+. = O2+ O+.
α ~ O2 = O2+. + eα ~ O2+. = O+. + O+.
(1)
where α is alpha energy and particle, O3 is a molecule of
ozone and O2 is a molecule of oxygen and e- is an electron.
O+ is an unstable radical atom of oxygen that lost a
electron.
Land surface temperature (LST) is one of the key
parameters for monitoring the behavior of the earthquake
occurrence before and after the quake. The physical
properties of the LST can be used on regional and global
scales, combining the result to concentration of column
ozone (O3) to find the correlation between the build-up
disappearance of the elements and pre-earthquake.
Methodology
Basically, the research has been attempted via two
approaches to determine the influences of the deformed
energy released on the earth's surface in the form of
temperature and O3. Then both the approaches were
combined and correlated to determine the relationships
between surface deformation in Bam and appearance of the
TIR and concentration of ozone (O3) anomalies. We
believe that coupling of the TIR and AIRS using remote
sensing and geologic techniques interpretation will enhance
understanding of the impending earthquakes for near-real
time estimation.
Figure 2: Land surface temperature (LST) time series
map of Iran before and after the earthquake (on
December 26, 2003) in Bam extracted from NOAAAVHRR
238U
4.5*10-9 a
Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) is able to
quantitatively measure ozone twice daily in a global
observation between 9.55 μm and 10.26μm in 166 channels
with a spatial resolution 1° by 1°. The AIRS spectrum
consists of 2378 channels spanning 3.7 μm to 15.4 μm with
a spectral resolution of ∆λ/λ = 1/1200, where Δλ is the
smallest difference in wavelengths that can be
distinguished at a wavelength of λ.
α
234Th
234
Pa
1.18 m
α
β
24.1 d
230Th
7.52 *104 a
218Po
3.05 m
α
234U
β
2.5*105 a
228Ra
α
1602 a
α
26.8 m β
α
214Po
α
210Ti
β
Remotely sensed map based on latitude and longitude with
respect to the time-averaged global 1° ×1° daily level 3
product of ozone acquired by the AIRS was analyzed to
ascertain the amount of O3 for the days preceding and after
the Bam earthquake. The data was combined with the land
surface temperature (LST) from NOAA-AVHRR to learn
about the correlations of the both parameters in order to
understand the near real time earthquake in future. In
addition, the digital image processing (DIP) was carried out
on NOAA-AVHRR in conjunction to the satellite digital
image processed data for producing LST maps in ENVI
environment.
214 Bi
19.7 m
1.32m
3.83 d
β
214Pb
α
222Ra
1.6*10 -1s
210Pb
22.3 a
β
210B
5.02 d
β
210Po
138 d
α
206Pb
Stable
The data for daytime and nighttime were collected from
few days prior to the earthquake (i.e. December 18, 2003)
to a day after the main shock (i.e. December 27, 2003). The
data for the same period of the year for 2004 was also
Figure 3: Uranium and its daughters like Radon
undergo a natural random decaying process.3 Half-life;
year (a), day (d), m (minute) and second (s)
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
digitally processed in order to define the abnormality of the
thermal precursor.
channels used to study the variation of the column ozone
gas released due to stresses and movement of Naiband and
Bam faults before and after the quake. Potentiality, AIRS
instrument has ability to detect ozone in different channels,
and can support monitoring O3 precursor for a near-real
time earthquake.
Basically, LST maps were produced based on split window
algorithm8 and further compared with existing maps to
validate the study precision. In this model, we used the
differential absorption effect in bands 4 and 5 of the
satellite image for atmospheric correction attenuation that
mainly is caused by water vapor absorption. The NOAAAVHRR sensor images have a high spatial (1.1 km) with
temporal (four scenes daily per satellite) resolution.
Results and Discussion
The land surface temperature (LST): This research
explored the use of remote sensing techniques in detecting
the change of thermal regime. It can perhaps provide
important clue to some impending earthquake activity by
using remote sensing techniques as presented in this
research. If earthquakes forewarn us before they strike, it is
of more importance that we understand and pick up the
clues. Satellite based radiometers (e.g. NOAA-AVHRR
and AIRS etc.) which detect the thermal emission and gases
originating from the earth's surface and earth's crust due to
faults movements and tectonic activities in the form of heat
and gas can be used to study any thermal anomalies
developing near surface of the earth. Such satellite-derived
detection of land surface temperature (LST) anomaly
related to an earthquake is an important breakthrough for
earthquake research.
The combination of LST and O3 data few days before
preceding the main quake and a day after the quake was
analyzed. The data (Table 1) for December 24, 25, 26 and
27, 2003 were analyzed and compared to the LST of the
region for the same days (Figure 2). In addition, the ozone
data for 20, 21, 22 and 24 December 2003 are recorded in
our database designed research road map for the future
studies. We could find a remarkable correlation between
the two parameters only for these days. However, LST and
column ozone (O3) were determined to explore the
potential of the remote sensing techniques and AIRS sensor
for earthquake forecasting.
Figure 5 depicts the daily observation of the column of
ozone (O3) from the processed AIRS infrared sounder
Table 1
Semivariogram/covariance modeling for case study
Data
Day
24 (before
Ozone
Samples
Mean
Value
159
242.9
Mean
root
square
11.68
Regression
function
0.906 * x +
main shock)
23.146
(DU)
Model:733.7*Gaussian (738530) +197.23*Nugget
25(before
182
264.68
5.22
main shock)
0.967 * x +
8.692
Model:417.76*Gaussian(698160)+36.396*Nugget
26 (Main
191
244.64
7.769
0.925 * x +
shock)
18.576
Model:705.73*Tetraspherical(927630)+32.082*Nugget
27(after main
141
250.38
6.573
shock)
0.869 * x +
32.818
Model:368.99*Spherical(518360)+0*Nugget
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
temperature came to the normal position. The digital
processing and interpretation of nighttime NOAA-AVHRR
data for the year 2004 from the same days of the
occurrence of Bam earthquake showed there has not been
such abnormal behavior of the LST.
-
E
-
E
-
E
E
Alpha
Particle and
Radiation
-
Nucleus
E
The Column of Ozone (O3): This research tried to
enhance the O3 anomalies detecting from the satellite
images using AIRS before the main shock of an earthquake
can be used to monitor understanding of a near real time
earthquake occurrence. This paper presented O3 anomalies
as an indicator preceding the earthquakes in conjunction
with LST parameter. It is seen that the mean ozone (Du)
was increased from December 20, 2003 to December 24,
2003 between 2 Du to 13 Du. On December 26, 2003 a
significant change was observed and it reached to 231.882
Du which is abnormal and could be picked up as an
indicator for occurrence of the Bam earthquake.
-
E
-
E
Figure 4: Atom lost one electron by alpha particle and
radiation activity
However, the next day after the main shock mean ozone
increased to 256.254 Du. The column ozone density
anomaly three days in prior to the main shock is about 20
Du which is extremely abnormal (Figure 7 a, b, c and d). In
addition, the figures showed that the column of ozone
decreased from southwest to northeast. As we mentioned,
Bam area is a part of the Iranian plateau that is mainly
influenced by the tectonic activities from Arabian plate.
Now, if we consider the tectonic behavior of the region, the
figures revealed that the column of ozone gradually
decreased from the path of the Arabian plate toward Bam's
earthquake epicenter. Thus, this paper believes that this is a
strong relationship between geological deformations in
Bam and appearance of TIR and O3 anomalies. The
directional changes of the ozone column density in tectonic
Bam area addressed both earthquake's activities and
radioactive gas emission before the main shock and its
realm.
Figure 5: Mean ozone (Du) of Bam earthquake before
and after the shock
The study showed that the average temperature few days
prior to the occurrence of Bam earthquake was about 5°C
to 10°C (Figure 6) and at places it was abnormal as
compared to the same days for previous year. On December
21, 2003, the temperature was between 22°C to 25°C. The
increment of the temperature continued for a day to two
days before the main shock and it reached to about 32°C
during December 24 and 25, 2003. The study shows that
the first thermal anomaly appeared on December 21, 2003
with around 7°C–13°C increase in surface temperature
relative to the temperature of about two to three days before
which is higher than the normal temperature. However, it is
7°C–8°C higher than the normal temperature in the
epicenter region around that period of the year. On
December 22, 2003 the temperature was decreased and
back to normal temperature. The earthquake occurred on
December 26, 2003, one to five days after the thermal peak
on December 24, 2003.
Now, this study believes that monitoring the column of
ozone (O3) can be evaluated as a precursor model for
understanding a near real time earthquake occurrence. In
other words, these elements reflex effect and intensity of
inner forces in the forms of both radioactive gases and
direction of huge heat on the earth during tectonic hazards
like earthquake.
The LST and Column Ozone (O3) Comparison: The
LST anomaly based on thermal infrared satellite data as a
precursor has been found during earthquakes in Bam, Iran
during December 20, 2003 to December 29, 2003. It is seen
that the concentration of column ozone (O3) has decreased
significantly about 30 DU (Table 2). The peak land surface
temperature (LST) was observed about one to two days
before the main shock in the region. The study showed a
remarkable correlation between the build-up of the thermal
and column density of ozone (O3) anomalies.
The data for night time of NOAA-AVHRR was analyzed to
show that on December 26, 2003 the temperature was at the
highest peak and a day after on December 27, 2003 the
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
a
b
d
e
g
c
f
h
Legend
Figure 6: NOAA-AVHRR nighttime data for Bam earthquake December 26, 2013.
Showing LST on a) December 18, 2003, b) December 21, 2003, c) December 22, 2003, d) December 23, 2003,
e) December 24, 2003, f) December 25, 2003, g) December 26, 2003 [epicenter 6.6 magnitude] and h) December 27,
2003.
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
Figure 7a): The column of Ozone on 24.12.2003
Figure 7b): The column of Ozone on
25.12.2003
Figure 7c): The column of Ozone on 26.12.2003
Figure 7d): The column of Ozone on
27.12.2003
** The black line is profile of the column ozone according to path of tectonic forces, Satar shows geographic situation of main
shock on Bam’s earthquake and faults
It is seen that a day to two days in prior to the main shock,
the land surface temperature (LST) is increased whereas the
density of the column ozone is decreased. It is interesting to
mention that on December 26, 2003, the column density of
ozone is significantly decreased as compared to the two to
three days before the main shock; while land surface
temperature (LST) detected from NOAA-AVHRR daytime
showed increment. However, both the land surface
temperature (LST) and O3 anomalies are depending on the
tectonic activities and geological deformation occurred due
to the movement of Bam and Naiband faults near to the
epicenter of the Bam's earthquake.
column density was identified within the epicenter of Bam
area. This is interpreted to be associated with release of
energy in the form of heat and O3 due to the massive
movement of the Naiband and Bam faults.
Ozone (O3) is an extremely unstable gas in the atmosphere
especially in troposphere and is being reacted and ionized
by radioactive particles that can result in varying anomalies
in the atmosphere during earthquake activity. Earthquake
precursor study by space technology emphasis on
monitoring land surface temperature and gases like the
column ozone can further develop understanding
mechanism of earthquakes in establishing a proper disaster
management vision for mitigation and preparedness for
reducing earthquake damages. In addition, the study has
established a correlation of the column ozone gas and the
variation of its presents in the days preceding and after the
quake. This research believes in using the information
collected from earth observation space-borne satellite
images and integrating with ground stations data, it may be
possible to monitor to establish an algorithm and a model
for near real time earthquake estimation. The interpolation
Conclusion
We conducted land surface temperature (LST) and O3 preearthquake monitoring to investigate the behavior of
temperature and column density of ozone of Bam
earthquake occurred on December 26, 2003 which
destructed many buildings and killed people and gave us a
good lesson to prepare for future disasters (Figure 8). The
anomalies correspond to find a clue for the future
earthquakes. A significant and distinctive thermal and
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 7 (12) December 2014
of spatial data on tectonic zones daily and globally can also
recognize the direction of inner huge energy before main
shock earthquakes.
conditions and tectonic active regions like British
Columbia in Canada. If we combine land surface
temperature and O3 with other geological-geophysical data
and evidences, we may be able to improve determining of
an earthquake precursor for near-real time prediction and
develop an algorithm that possibly help in development of
earthquakes forecasting. Thus, this study encourages the
researchers to develop an algorithm and a model based on
the land surface temperature (LST), density of column
ozone O3, geologic factors, focal depth and magnitude of
the pre-earthquakes. The uncertainty of this algorithm can
be evaluated by using the probabilistic models and
monitoring the future quakes.
Table 2
Correlation between mean ozone (Du) and LST
Date
20/12/2003
21/12/2003
22/12/2003
23/12/2003
24/12/2003
25/12/2003
26/12/2003
27/12/2003
Mean
Ozone
(Du)
248.455
247.886
251.063
261.21
250.463
246.789
231.882
256.254
LST °C
13-18
22-25
23-28
25-31
29-32
25-30
14-20
21-25
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