1. family and parenting
2. children

Fall 2014 - Winter 2015
Vol. 22, No. 2
The official publication of the Association of Teacher Educators – Kansas
Dr. Bruce Quantic, Editor
Sierra Deterding, Web Content Manager/Layout Editor
Association of Teacher Educators - Kansas Executive Council
Dr. Pam Green, President
Southwestern College
Dr. Laurie Curtis, Vice-President
Kansas State University
Dr. Pam Sells, Secretary
Pittsburg State University
Dr. Tim Fry, Executive Director
Washburn University
Message from the President of ATE-K
Greetings from ATE-K,
As the fall semester wraps up and a new year arrives, transitions abound. Fall turns
to winter, the holiday season alters normal routines, and we ring out the old and ring
in the new. Then the annual cycle recurs once again as another spring semester
begins.
In almost every aspect of life, we are encompassed by change. As teacher
educators, we can attest that is certainly true within the education profession. Be it
updated standards, revised accreditation systems, new administrative leadership, or
the latest and greatest program innovation, the myriad of factors impacting the path
toward providing high quality education seems to be perpetually shifting.
It is often said that the only thing that is constant is change. Yet a popular sentiment
contends that as humans, we are naturally resistant to change. However, as is
evident in the works highlighted in this edition of the Advocate, teacher educators
are being proactive in addressing the major challenges and ever evolving issues
facing us as we endeavor to enhance pre-preparation experiences for our future
teachers. The articles featured herein exemplify original research and best practices
that are reflective of an array of noteworthy efforts recently undertaken to adapt and
strengthen educator preparation programs across the state.
As author William Arthur Ward so sagely noted, “The pessimist complains about the
wind, the optimist expects it to change, the realist adjusts the sails.” As we embark
on 2015, wishing you fresh perspectives, keen insights, and purposeful resolve as
you strive to further advance teacher education and successfully navigate the winds
of change.
Warm regards,
Pam Green, Ph.D.
Southwestern College
Editor’s Statement – The ADVOCATE
Fall 2014 – Winter 2015
The ATE-K organization provides a forum for research and ideas that promote
teacher education in Kansas and across the country. By now you know that the
ADVOCATE is online and can be accessed at: atekan.org. ATE (National) has a link
to us on their website.
ATE-K invites members* and non-members to submit manuscripts on research
and best practices related to: Research in Teacher Education, Foundations,
Technology, Supervision, Partnerships, Assessment, Professional Development,
Curriculum, Innovations, Current Trends or ”Theme Based” papers tied to an ATE
meeting. (National level)
Our journal is peer-reviewed. Our reviewers are willing to make suggestions,
ask for changes and pave the way for publishing your articles. Generally, they look
for: Quality of objectives, Quality of review of Research, Techniques, Data
Source, Analyses and Results and Implications for Teacher Education.
A membership fee of $20 is a requirement for publication. This fee will also
support the organization’s expenses for publishing the journal. You can check on
your membership status by contacting Dr. Tim Fry, Washburn University.
([email protected])
Deadlines are listed on the “Call for Papers” are found on our website: atekan.
org. Articles should be sent to me at: [email protected] or to me at 1213 N.
Hamilton Cir. Derby, KS 67037
Sincerely,
H. Bruce Quantic, Ed.D.
Editor, ATE-K ADVOCATE
THE ADVOCATE
Fall 2014 - Winter 2015
Educating Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders(ASDs) to Delay
Gratification in the Context of Temper Tantrums
Seungyeon Lee..........................................................................................................1
Developing the Next Generation of Distance Supervision
Lori A. Goodson and David S. Allen.........................................................................10
Contextualizing Teacher Education Emphases for Classroom
Diversity
Kevin Murry, Cristina Fanning, and Shabina Kavimandan.......................................14
Ethical Decision Making: Increasing your chances to make better
decisions
Robert F. Hachiya....................................................................................................20
The College-wide Military-connected Learner Initiative in K-State’s
College of Education
Debbie Mercer, Linda Thurston, and Judy Hughey..................................................24
Learning Across A Lifetime of Learning: Stages of Teacher
Development
Charles Kent Runyan, Steve Brown, Carolyn Fehrenbach, Kenny McDougle,
Pam Sells, and Ray Willard......................................................................................31
Don’t Tap the Keg and Eight Other Essential Rules of Early Career
Principals
Carolyn L. Carlson and Scott P. Myers....................................................................41
1
Educating Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders(ASDs) to
Delay Gratification in the Context of Temper Tantrums
Seungyeon Lee
University of Arkansas at Monticello
Note: Dr. Lee is the winner of the ATE-K Distinguished Dissertation Award this
year. She will present her work at the spring meeting of our Association at
Kansas State University. She was assisted by Robert G. Harrington, University
of Kansas. (see atekan.org for details about the spring meeting.)
Abstract
Temper tantrums among young children are common, especially those with
autism spectrum disorders. Delay of gratification is an essential component of temper
tantrums. Teachers and parents seek management strategies for temper tantrums
that are efficient, effective and ethical. The purpose of this applied behavioral analysis
research was to compare various types of functional communication training with
three children in the three and a half year old age range. In Phase One, to determine
the misguided goal or function of each child’s temper tantrum, functional behavioral
assessment was undertaken. In Phase Two, a reward menu was used to determine
preferred rewards for the treatments. In Phase Three, a multiple baseline across
participants design was used to reduce temper tantrums and increase appropriate
communication that was identified through functional communication training (FCT). In
Phase Four, fixed time delay (FD), progressive time delay with verbal praises (PDVP)
and progressive time delay with visual cues (PDVC) were employed to represent
three intervention conditions to teach delay of gratification. In Phase Five, parents
were surveyed to determine the social validity or acceptability of the interventions with
parents. Two independent observers counted frequency of temper tantrums, frequency
of alternative communication behaviors, and length of wait time in each of these
three children. Results showed that progressive time delay with visual cues (PDVC)
increased wait time and reduced temper tantrums the most. Implications for teachers
and parents working with young children prone to temper tantrums are discussed.
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Introduction
One in sixty- eight children is likely to develop Autism Spectrum Disorders
(ASDs) (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Early childhood teachers
and parents of children with ASDs are concerned about how to manage the associated
temper tantrums (Athens & Vollmer, 2010). Teachers and parents report temper
tantrums as extremely intense, escalating outbursts with loss of self-control and
increase in aggression and even self-injurious behavior (Fisher, Thompson, Hagopian,
Bowman, & Krug, 2000; Mireault & Trahan, 2007). Prior research has suggested that
functional communication training (FCT) strategies might be useful to teach children
with ASDs how reduce temper tantrums and increase wait time (Beldon, Thompson, &
Luby, 2008).
Delay of gratification or the ability to wait is important in preschool and at home
since young children need to learn to forego immediate gratification to gain something
more desirable later (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989). Toddlers who demonstrated
delayed gratification abilities were better able to use self-regulatory skills in preschool
(Mischel, Shoda, & Rudriguez, 1989). Further, preschool-aged children who delayed
immediate rewards to receive greater reinforcers later were able to demonstrate higher
levels of social competence later in life (Peake, Hebl, & Mischel, 2002).
Little research has compared three management strategies that teachers and
parents could use to efficiently, effectively and ethically teach children with ASDs how
to delay gratification and reduce temper tantrums. The purpose of this study was to
compare fixed time delay (FD), progressive time delay with verbal praises (PDVP),
and progressive time delay with visual cues (PDVC) to determine their effectiveness
in reducing temper tantrums, increasing alternative replacement behaviors, and
increasing delay of gratification.
Method
The experimental design combined the best of two applied behavioral analysis
research designs: 1. multiple baseline across participants and, 2. multi-element
design (i.e., alternating treatment design) to reduce temper tantrums. The first design
examines the efficacy of FCT in reducing temper tantrums. The second design
compares three treatment approaches to teach delayed gratification: Fixed Delay
(FD), Progressive Time Delay with Verbal Praises (PDVP) and Progressive Time Delay
with Visual Cues (PDVC).
Participants, Setting, and Procedures
Two females (3 years and 7 month old, and 3 years and 5 months old) and one
male (3 years and 6 months old) diagnosed with ASDs and receiving special education
and speech/language services were recruited as participants. A licensed clinical
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psychologist served as the experimenter for each of the three children for the entire
16-week treatment sessions held at the pediatric unit at the University of Kansas,
Medical Center (KUMC). The experimenter participated in a 45-minute training session
that consisted of reviewing the session protocols, role-playing trials, and receiving
performance feedback until completing all training without error.
This experiment was conducted in five phases. Figure 1 is a flowchart of the
five phases of the Study. Phase One was used to determine the misguided goal or
function of each child’s temper tantrum. Parents were interviewed about the functions
of behaviors and a functional analysis (FA) was undertaken for each participant
followed by a baseline measure of the frequency of temper tantrums. In Phase Two, a
Preference Assessment was undertaken to determine preferred rewards for the three
treatments (i.e., FD, PDVP and PDVC). In Phase Three, FCT was used to teach the
children strategies they could use themselves to delay gratification. In Phase Four,
a multiple baseline across participants design was used to test three experimental
conditions to reduce temper tantrums and increase appropriate communication
including: fixed time delay (FD), progressive time delay with verbal praises (PDVP)
and progressive time delay with visual cues (PDVC). In Phase Five, follow-up was
conducted through surveys with parents to determine the social validity or acceptability
of the interventions with parents.
Response Measurement, Reliability, and Procedural Fidelity
Two independent observers served as the primary data observers for the study.
Both underwent a 60-minute pre-data collection video training session. Both observers
independently collected frequency data based on operational definitions of target and
replacement behaviors. Resulting data was expressed as a percentage of occurrence
for each behavior and an index of inter-observer agreement (IOA) for each behavior
was tallied. All sessions were videotaped during the study. IOA ranged from 86% to
100%. Agreement levels of at least 80% for each of the observations were considered
acceptable. The integrity of the independent variables implemented in the study (i.e.,
procedural fidelity) was evaluated by completing procedural integrity checklists. The
purpose of this procedure was to determine whether each experimental procedure (i.e.,
the independent variables) was conducted as planned. Fidelity was evaluated across
all sessions and was 100%.
Phase 1: Functional Behavior Assessment (i.e., functional analysis [FA])
Before conducting the FA, the researcher had a brief interview with each
participant’s primary caregiver to identify (1) the operational definition of each
participant’s temper tantrums and (2) the purpose for each participant’s temper
tantrums. Female 1’s operational definition of temper tantrums was screaming,
yelling, and crying. Based on her primary caregiver’s interview, it was determined
her temper tantrums were maintained by the tangible condition (i.e., displaying the
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problem behavior to get what she wanted). Female 2’s operational definition of temper
tantrums was disruptive muttering, crying, and yelling. Her primary caregiver revealed
that her temper tantrums were maintained by the tangible condition also. Male 3’s
operational definition of temper tantrums was falling out of his chair, screaming, and
ripping off clothes. His temper tantrums were also maintained by the tangible condition.
After the parent interview, next the FA was conducted. The purpose of FA was to
examine the functional relationships between experimentally arranged environmental
conditions and the participant’s display of problem behavior. Participants were
assessed within a single-subject multielement experimental design (Iwata et al.,
1994). Four conditions (i.e., three experimental conditions and one control condition)
were manipulated for all participants. Each condition was 5 minutes long and was
conducted at least three separate times to ensure the stability of the data. Data
collection for the FA phase ended when differential effects across experimental
conditions were observed.
Results showed Female 1’s temper tantrum behavior was maintained by the
tangible condition (i.e., displaying the problem behavior to get what she wants).
Female 2’s temper tantrum behavior was maintained by both the tangible and demand
conditions (i.e., displaying the problem behavior either to get what she wants or to
escape from the required task). Male 3’s temper tantrum behavior was maintained by
the tangible condition, but the therapist noted that other functions might have evoked
the problem behavior.
Phase 2: Stimulus Preference Assessment
The paired-stimulus preference assessment (Fisher et al., 2000) was conducted
to identify a hierarchy of the preferred items. First, five to six different items were
placed on the table. Each item was randomly paired with another item and the
participant was asked which one they liked most. Each item was presented in different
random pairings. The researcher recorded the number of times each item was picked
and converted that to a percentage of selection. The item with the highest selection
percentages was used as a reward during the treatment conditions that followed. Both
Female 1’s and Female 2’s reward was Play-Doh. Male 3’s reward was a fruit snack.
Phase 3: Functional Communication Training (FCT)
The goal of this first treatment phase was to test whether FCT could effectively
decrease the frequency of the participants’ temper tantrum behaviors. After the
experimenter identified the causes (i.e., functions) of each participant’s problem
behavior, the communication training technique (either handing over a picture card or
stating a verbal request) was individually determined for each participant. In Female
1’s case, saying “My turn” was defined as an appropriate communication response.
In the case of Female 2, using a picture card (showing “raise your hand”) was defined
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as an appropriate communication response. Male 3’s appropriate communication
response was using both language by saying, “More” and gesture. The therapist
taught an appropriate communication skill that could be used to replace the function
of the temper tantrum behavior. Once the child learned and used the appropriate
communication skill, the reward was delivered immediately. Overall, the results of
the FCT assessment showed that all of the three participants had acquired functional
communicative responses and that their responses served as a replacement for their
temper tantrum behavior. Therefore, all participants met the criterion for participating
in the three delayed gratification conditions that followed.
Phase 4: Three Delay of Gratification Conditions
After the FCT phase was completed, each of the three participants was
introduced to the three, delayed gratification conditions (i.e., the 50-second, fixed
time delay, the 50-second, progressive time delay with verbal praises, and the
50-second, progressive time delay with visual cues). An alternating treatments
design was used to compare the three treatments within a single subject. The
sequence for introducing the three delayed conditions was randomized by the
experimenter.
At the start of each session, each participant was allowed to play with the
reward. In the 50-second, fixed time delay condition, the participant was asked
to wait for 50 seconds until he or she received the reward. In the 50-second,
progressive time delay with verbal praises condition, the participant was asked to
wait for 50 seconds, but the therapist delivered the verbal praise (“Good waiting!”)
in every 5 second interval. In the 50-second, progressive time delay with visual
cues condition, the participant earned a sticker to put on a sticker board for every 5
second interval. When he or she earned a total of 10 stickers, the therapist delivered
the reward.
Phase 5: Social Validity Results
In Phase 5, Social Validity, the experimenter was asked to evaluate the
acceptability of the three interventions for each of the three participants. In all three
cases the experimenter evaluated each intervention as very acceptable for each
participant but he responded that it might take a little more time to see the treatment
effectiveness of the progressive time delay with visual cues condition on Female 2.
Another Social Validity check included all primary caregivers being debriefed at
the end of the study regarding their satisfaction with their student’s ability to delay
gratification and reduce temper tantrums. Female 1’s primary caregiver was pleased
to see Female 1’s improvements in using alternative communicative response. She
was also happy to see the decline of Female 1’s temper tantrum behaviors. Female
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2’s primary caregivers thanked the researcher and stated that her student was able
to wait when requested. Similarly, Male 3’s primary caregiver’s response was similar,
but she told the researcher that her son still needed to work on verbal communication
skills and self-control. Overall, all respondents verbally concluded that Progressive
Time Delay with Visual Cues (PDVC) combined with FCT improved their child’s ability
to delay gratification in the course of temper tantrums and helped their children gain
more appropriate positive replacement skills.
Results
Female 1 Results. A high level of temper tantrum behavior was observed in the
first fixed delayed condition, but the trend was gradually decreased. A moderately
high level in temper tantrum behavior was observed in the first progressive delay with
verbal praise condition, but the trend was gradually decreased also. Low to zero
levels of temper tantrum behavior occurred during the progressive delay with visual
cues condition. These results suggest Female 1’s temper tantrum behavior gradually
decreased when the three delayed conditions were introduced, but the condition with
visual cues was the most effective intervention to teach her how to wait. In addition,
Female 1 tolerated the maximum 50 seconds of waiting with the progressive delay with
visual cues condition across the three settings.
Female 2 Results. The results suggested Female 2’s temper tantrum behavior
was shown to be near zero in the progressive delay condition with visual cues. Same
result as Female 1. Female 2 also tolerated the maximum 50 seconds of waiting with
the progressive delay with visual cues condition across the three settings.
Male 3 Results. The results suggested Male 3’s temper tantrum behavior
decreased to near zero level with the progressive delay condition with visual cues.
Same results as the other two participants. Male 3 also tolerated the maximum 50
seconds of waiting with the progressive delay with visual cues condition across the
three settings.
Discussion
Based on these results, it may be beneficial for special education teachers and
parents to implement the progressive time delay with visual cues condition for temper
tantrum behavior. The use of visual cues may be more effective than rigid instruction
or non-visual cues or verbal cues if a child with ASDs is sensitive to visual stimulation.
Arguing, yelling or ignoring the student with ASDs who is having a temper tantrum is
clearly not the correct approach. Teachers need to understand that young children
with ASDs who are having a temper tantrum are trying to get their needs met in an
ineffective manner by throwing a temper tantrum. What teachers need to do first
is to teach these children some appropriate function communication skills that can
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help them get their needs met more socially appropriately. Second, the teacher and/
or parent should also consider using a progressive delay with visual cues (PDVC)
intervention. This intervention may help the child to learn delayed gratification and calm
down by increasing time delay progressively over time. If combined with visual cues,
the students will learn they are making progress toward a goal of a favorite choice
reward provided in response for their waiting. Parents reported that PDVC is feasible
to use in their homes and they are willing to continue to use it in their efforts to control
their children’s temper tantrums. While this study did not address teachers in early
childhood classrooms this approach may well be worth their while as a starting place
to manage temper tantrums in their classroom for students with ASDs and potentially
for other students who are having a temper tantrum as well. More research is needed
to evaluate management strategies to increase delay of gratification in a classroom
because most of the time in such settings the reward is not always immediately
available.
In addition, these findings should be replicated in different educational settings
with other age groups to increase the generalizability of the results. Future research
should address whether the progressive time delay with visual cues can promote
longer wait times than 50 seconds. The study was instrumental in introducing children
with ASDs, their families, and educators to the importance of teaching functional
communication training combined with Progressive Delay with Visual Cues (PDVC)
and a preferred reward to delay gratification of young children during temper tantrums.
These techniques may be an important part of an overall plan of Positive Behavior
Supports (PBS) at home and at school for young children with temper tantrums.
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Figure 1. Flowchart of Four Phases of the Experimental Study
References
Athens, E. S., & Vollmer, T. R. (2010). An investigation of differential reinforcement of
alternative behavior without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
434,569-589.
Belden, A. C., Thompson, N. R., & Luby, J. L. (2008). Temper tantrums in healthy
versus depressed and disruptive preschoolers: Defining tantrum behaviors asso
ciated with clinical problems. The Journal of Pediatrics, 152 (1), 117- 122.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). DC-Diagnostic Criteria, Autism
Spectrum Disorders. Retrieved on March 27, 2014, from http://www.cdc.gov/
ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html.
Fisher, W. W., Thompson, R. H., Hagopian, L. P., Bowman, L. G., & Krug, A. (2000).
Facilitating tolerance of delayed reinforcement during functional communication
training. Behavior Modification, 24 (1), 3-29.
Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994). To
ward a functional analysis of self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 197-209.(Reprinted from Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities,
2, 3-20, 1982).
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Mireault, G., & Trahan, J. (2007). Tantrums and anxiety in early childhood: A pilot study.
Early Childhood Research & Practice, 9 (2). Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/
v9n2/mireault.html
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children.
Science, 244, 933-938.
Peake, P., Hebl, M., & Mischel, W. (2002). Strategic attention deployment for delay
of gratification in working and waiting situations. Developmental Psychology 36
(2), 313-326.
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Developing the Next Generation of Distance Supervision
Lori A. Goodson
David S. Allen
Kansas State University
Abstract
Student teaching has long been an essential component of teacher
education programs, and effective supervision is essential for successful internship
experiences. Pre-service students’ needs must be weighed against the limitation of
time and access for the university supervisor, often a full-time faculty member who
has a formidable teaching load and other responsibilities. Additionally, direct, inperson observations can create observer effect, altering the reality of what is actually
being observed. This article examines one university’s use of distant supervision
utilizing technology to aid in the virtual classroom observations and conferencing to
allow an elementary education major to student teach in a rural southwest Kansas
school.
Developing the Next Generation of Distance Supervision
Student teaching has long been an essential component of teacher education
programs, and, with the ever-increasing complexity of teaching, that internship
experiences are becoming even more critical to producing successful new teachers.
Yet, student teacher supervision continues to pose challenges. Pre-service students’
needs must be weighed against the limitations of time and access for the university
supervisor, often a full-time faculty member with a formidable teaching load and
other professional responsibilities. As Allen, et al. (2014) note, the role of the
university supervisor has not been viewed as a prestigious faculty responsibility.
Therefore, it is a task often moved from one new faculty member to the next. Also,
when universities serve large rural areas, the issue of great distances between the
university and the preferred site for student teaching place additional demands on
university supervisors.
The traditional supervision model involves the university supervisor visiting
the classroom, typically sitting in the back, taking notes, and filling out forms. But
these in-person observations raise another issue: How the presence of the observer
changes what is observed. The Hawthorne effect, for example, recognizes and
accounts for the way subjects being observed alter their behavior because they are
being observed (Jones, 1992). In short, the act of observing changes the nature
of that which is observed, so the actual reality is not truly captured. It goes without
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saying this applies to the supervision of student teachers, not only when a cooperating
teacher is observing, but especially when a university supervisor—typically unfamiliar
to the students—visits the classroom for a formal observation.
One way to address the problems of providing effective supervision for rural sites
is through electronic supervision. It is also not unreasonable to assume electronic
supervision could provide a more authentic glimpse into the workings of the classroom.
Early indications suggest electronic supervision can reproduce the characteristics
of traditional on-site supervision for pre-service teachers (Hamel, 2012), although
this research is exploratory and preliminary. Our work is also exploratory, as we
are seeking to address these issues of remote locations and time and manpower
restraints. We are attempting to use technology to improve learning opportunities for
pre-service teachers in field experiences by providing access to more sites, without
adding a greater burden of time to university supervisors. Likewise, we added another
element into the situation, with the classroom observation actually being done virtually
and live, rather than having another individual in the room for direct observation, to be
less invasive in the environment. This article examines the approach by the Kansas
State University College of Education’s Office of Field Experiences to accomplish this.
It details initial research for distant supervision utilizing technology to aid in the virtual
classroom observations and conferencing to allow an elementary education major to
student teach in rural southwest Kansas.
We have relied on partnerships with area districts through our Professional
Development Schools. We are seeking to expand the network to underserved areas,
but the travel time required for supervision was an obvious constraint. Because
of such constraints, we began to examine virtual opportunities for providing the
supervision. After extensive consideration and discussion, we selected a combination
of technology hardware and software to address these concerns. We began with Swivl,
a video capturing system that maneuvers the recording device to follow the speaker by
use of a marker, and Zoom, a distance conferencing application, to monitor and record
two weeklong math workshops held at another local facility. The Swivl is a device that
holds an iPad or other mobile device that fastens directly onto a tripod or can sit on a
flat surface to record classroom activities. The teacher wears a marker on a lanyard
that connects through Bluetooth, which allows the Swivl to rotate and follow the teacher
throughout the room. Prior to beginning this in the student teacher’s classroom, we
tested it through other on-campus classes and in several workshops held in the
community. This provided opportunities for modifying our approach—before using the
process at a greater distance.
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Concerns
12
This project raises some key issues when recording pre-service teachers in
the classroom. The first is the necessity of a distance viewing/recording program to
work with Swivl. In this case, we have used Zoom, though some difficulties still exist,
such as volume and quality of the recordings; because of the use of Zoom, the iPad
microphone is the only one can record sound. Issues also exist regarding the storage
and transfer of these recordings, as well as the security of the data collected.
Virtual Supervision
Possibly one of the greatest developments has been our use of this process in
supervising student teachers. In Fall 2014, we began using Swivl for our first virtual
observations of a first-grade student teacher in a teaching site in southwest Kansas,
approximately four hours from the university. We use Swivl and Zoom so university
supervisors can observe her teaching; additionally, we use Zoom for debriefings
between the university supervisor and student teacher, as well as student teacher class
meetings with the supervisor.
For this initial implementation, we have combined virtual and in-person
supervision of her classroom, to ensure that we are not missing key information in
our supervisions. And, while we continue to fine-tune our virtual approaches and
techniques, we are convinced such virtual observations are providing a thorough and
unobtrusive experience in the classroom. In one situation, we observed her in the
classroom, while another university faculty member observed the same class from her
office on the university campus. Those onsite supervisors conferenced with the student
following the observation, and the on-campus faculty member participated virtually in
that conference. The virtual supervisor was able to provide feedback regarding the
lesson, while not adding to distractions in the classroom.
To be successful, this type of arrangement requires interests from all parties—
the university, school and district officials, and the cooperating teacher, as well as a
pre-service teacher’s interest in that location. The required materials are a Swivl, an
iPad or other recording device, and a tripod. The site also needs a wireless Internet
connection, as well as Zoom capabilities, and an individual to serve as a university
supervisor on a limited basis.
We see numerous benefits to virtual observations, not the least of which is more
efficient use of time for university supervisors. Too often the university supervisor is
rushed to cover numerous observations at locations miles apart. Virtual observations
cut down on travel time, allowing for a less rushed pace and more reflective and
deliberate observation of the student’s lesson and abilities.
It also provides the least intrusive way to observe the student teacher while getting an
accurate representation of the teaching and interaction taking place, since any visitor
can affect the classroom environment. Additionally, it provides a university supervisor
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more opportunities to review the lesson, rather than a one-time shot with an in-person
observation. Using this approach regularly allows students in the classroom to adjust to
being recorded.
The virtual observation experience, in time, can allow a university to increase its
potential field experience sites to include more remote areas that are longer distances
from the university campus. This makes it possible for pre-service teachers to have
field experiences closer to their hometowns or to areas where they are interested in
living. It also means area cooperating teachers will not feel overwhelmed by continual
requests to mentor pre-service teachers. An expanded list of potential school sites
offers more remote schools/districts to have access to field experience students, so
those districts become more acquainted with the teacher candidates.
Future Plans/Implications
This semester, we have one student teacher at an elementary school in
southwest Kansas; next semester we will have three in that district. Eventually, we
plan to use it as a prototype for similar virtual professional development sites. We also
see this as an avenue for extensive research, including a video ethnographic project
focusing on aspects of successful teaching.
Conclusion
Several forces are pushing us toward virtual –observations primarily economics
and the need to place teachers in high-need areas. Everything we have accomplished
to date indicates we can be as successful with virtual observations as we are with
direct, in-person observations. Much like teaching in-person courses vs. online
courses, we face challenges by approaching observations virtually. However, we are
finding strengths that make virtual observations truly beneficial for everyone involved.
Works Cited
Allen, D.S., Perl, M., Goodson, L., & Sprouse, T. (2014). Changing traditions:
Supervision, co-teaching, and lessons learned in a professional development
school partnership. Educational Considerations. 42 (1), 19-29.
Hamel, C. (2012). Supervision of pre-service teacher: Using internet collaborative tools
to support their return to their region of origin. Canadian Journal of Education.
35 (2), 141-145.
Jones, S.R.G. (1992). Was there a Hawthorne effect? American Journal of Sociology.
98 (3), 451-468.
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14
Contextualizing Teacher Education Emphases
for Classroom Diversity
Kevin Murry
Cristina Fanning
Shabina Kavimandan
Kansas State University
Author Biographies:
Kevin Murry, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at
Kansas State University. His recent research and scholarship have emphasized
teacher readiness for diversity and critical-reflective, biography-driven teaching.
Cristina Fanning, M.S. (ABD), an Associate Director for the Center for Intercultural and Multilingual Advocacy in the College of Education at Kansas-State,
teaches courses of the ESL endorsement sequence.
Shabina Kavimandan, M.S., is Project KORE manager for the College of Education,
Kansas State University. Her teaching and professional development for practicing
teachers emphasize literacy development and students’ background knowledge.
Abstract
Nominal attention has been dedicated to standards of best practice that
local teachers should demonstrate in teaching culturally and linguistically diverse
(CLD) students. The CREDE standards address the gap and emphasize five
transnational, universals of best practice for CLD students/families. However, recent
research indicates that teachers practices indicative of the most important of these,
contextualization, are among the least robust of those observed. Necessarily,
future research is needed to unpack these findings. In the interim, we argue that
teachers’ critical reflection on their own socialization is essential to the fundamental
understandings necessary for standards-based practices with these students and
families.
Introduction
Today, about one in four children in the United States arrive at school from
immigrant families and live in households where a language other than English is
spoken (Samson & Collins, 2012). NCES (2014) further reports that the number of
Hispanic students enrolled in United States (U. S.) schools between 2001 and 2011
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increased from 8.2 million to 11.8 million students, and their share of public school
enrollment increased from 17 to 24 percent.
Notwithstanding these demographic trends, recent research and analyses
indicate that little attention has been afforded to the essential content knowledge,
skills in practice, and alignment to appropriate standards that local teachers should
demonstrate in order to prove effective with the fastest growing populations in their
classrooms (Borrero, Yeh, Cruz, & Suda, 2012; Samson & Collins, 2012). Some
conclude that system-level changes are needed in the ways that teachers are
educated to deliver appropriate practices for students who are struggling with content
and/or literacy development in English (Samson & Collins, 2012).
Ironically, the need for teacher education that is responsive to such trends among
students and families has been recurrently and fleetingly addressed since Gloria
Ladsen Billings originated the term culturally relevant pedagogy almost ten years
ago (Ladsen-Billings, 1995). In fact, standards for teaching efficacy with culturally
and linguistically diverse (CLD) students have been developed and tested across a
wide variety of nations, school systems, and teaching contexts. In a prior edition of
this journal (Murry, Herrera, Kavimandan, & Perez, 2011), we detailed these uniquely,
cross-national standards developed by the Center for Research on Education, Diversity
& Excellence (CREDE) at Berkeley (Tharp, Estrada, Dalton, & Yamauchi, 2000; Tharp
& Dalton, 2007; Yamauchi, Im, & Mark, 2013).
Theoretical Framework
The CREDE standards, also known as the Standards for Effective Pedagogy and
Learning, feature persistent, systematic classroom observation, and facilitation and
may be annotated as follows:
• contextualization – connecting school to students’ lives;
• language development – nurturing academic language;
• instructional conversations – teaching didactic & dialectic interchanges;
• joint productive activities – teacher and students producing together; and
• challenging activities – advancing complex and critical thinking.
Arguably, the most culturally (and linguistically) relevant of the CREDE standards
is contextualization since, like biography-driven instruction or BDI (Herrera, 2010), this
standard prompts teachers to explore and pre-assess what CLD and other students
already bring to the lesson. Essentially, who they are, what they bring, and how they
learn best, is each a function of their biographies. In turn, the student’s biography
is mostly a product of her/his socialization in in particular cultures and in dominant
languages of socialization (typically those of the home and school). Critical aspects
of these biographies include: (a) funds of knowledge (from sociocultural heritage
experiences), (b) ways of knowing and learning (from culture and from previous
schooling); (c) prior knowledge (from previous academic learning); and (d) language
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16
literacy (from the home and school language systems) which may reflect emergent
bilingualism.
Instruction that builds upon the biographies of these students (that is
contextualizes the teaching), inter alia, incorporates at least three crucial
characteristics. Axiomatic, are purposive strategies that invoke students’ existing
schema while relating them to new knowledge to be processed. Another characteristic
is the incorporation of activities and realia that prompt connections between students’
biographies and the content of the lesson (including community-based experiences).
Finally, contextualized teaching necessitates affirmation of students’ learning,
especially through tangible outcomes (i.e., essays, diagrams, e-books).
Findings of Research
Constructively, recent multilevel modeling (MLM) research strongly indicates
that teacher education, which is CREDE-aligned and emphasizes biographydriven instruction, yields effective teaching practices for CLD and other students as
observationally-assessed via a culturally responsive teaching inventory (Herrera,
Perez, Kavimandan, Holmes, & Miller, 2011; Murry, Herrera, Miller, & Fanning, n.d.).
These effects are more discernably robust for teaching that purposively incorporates
instructional conversations and joint productivity.
This iterative research used Multilevel Modeling via the SPSS Mixed Method
procedure to examine the impact of the curricula aligned to transnational standards on
teachers’ observed best practices with CLD students, as measured by the Inventory
of Situationally and Culturally Responsive Teaching (ISCRT). Despite some variability,
over 110 participating teachers in 37 U.S. schools demonstrated statistically significant
improvements in their delivery of effective pedagogy for ELLs and other students,
across a wide range (18 of 22) ISCRT indicators.
Regrettably, this research on practicing teachers further indicates that teachers’
practices indicative of contextualization are among the least evident and robust of
those observed (Murry, et al, n.d.). At least two observations render these findings
remarkably ironic: (1) Since the original evidence for, and conceptualization of,
culturally relevant/responsive teaching, not much seems to have changed about
teachers’ fundamental readiness for classroom diversity. (2) Despite efforts to
differentiate teachers’ professional development and to align their education to
standards for instruction in diverse classrooms, their practices remain least indicative
of the standard of best practice that is most fundamental to culturally responsive
teaching – contextualization for students’ biographies.
Accordingly, future research is needed to unpack what factors prompt these two,
historical and ongoing ironies of teacher education for cultural and linguistic diversity
in the classroom. Are teachers’ own socialization experiences and perspectives in
a particular culture so dominant, so omnipressant, that it overrides their teacher
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education? Must teachers’ curricula and instruction transcend good content, theory/
research based methods, and even standards for culturally relevant/responsive
teaching? In what ways? What elements are missing or ineffective? Does a
disconnect exist between teachers’ professional development experiences and the
realities of postmodern classrooms? What can be done to enhance parallels? Can
teachers know their students, realize their assets (e.g., cultural, academic, and
cognitive) and maximize their potentials unless they resurface and re-experience their
own biographies? Are we, as teacher educators, ready for the challenges of such
education?
Future Directions
We respectfully cajole that teachers’ critical self-reflection on their own
biographies is pivotal to both culturally (and situationally) responsive teaching, and to
contextualization in practice. Whether we are ready to teach critical reflection to school
educators is a function of our willingness to accept the challenges of this brand of
capacity building.
To begin, widespread confusion remains about what reflection is and is not (Liu,
2010). Similarly, terms for the target capacity tend to be used interchangeably, such
that introspection, reflection, and critical reflection are often treated as synonymous.
We maintain that reflection is validity testing and that teachers benefit most when they
reflect upon critical incidents. Essentially, critical incidents encompass any materials,
contexts, events, or interactions that generate psychological discomfort or conflict.
They may range from reading opinions with which one disagrees, to lessons that do
not yield anticipated results (especially those involving CLD students and/or families).
Three sequential steps are then focal to critical reflection on these critical incidents.
Assumptions are inherent to virtually all critical incidents, just as they are to much of
the craft of teaching. What did I assume this passage of text was going to recommend?
How did I assume the parents were going to react? Therefore, teachers should be
taught to begin with assumption checking. That is, what assumptions did I make in
response to this critical incident and can I specify what they were? The latter action
makes the assumptions explicit and actionable.
The assumptions identified are recurrent patterns in cognition that simplify our
capacities to manage all of the thousands of sensory inputs we receive and manage
each day. However, these processes are prone to oversimplification, especially in
our interactions with cultures, languages, and contexts different from those with which
are accustomed. Reflection, therefore, encourages teachers to test the validity of
assumptions in practice against countervailing evidence, such as: others’ perspectives,
the reactions of others, theory, research, best practice standards, and similar data.
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Ultimately, the source of our assumptions is our own socialization in a particular
culture and dominant language. This socializations informs what we believe, what we
should expect, how we should respond to situations, and more. Yet, as validity testing
(reflection) will often reveal, these products of our own socialization often misinterpret,
oversimplify, and/or exacerbate differences in culture, language, contexts, and
perspectives. Therefore, critical reflection encourages teachers to locate the sources
of errant or misguided assumptions in their own contexts and patterns of socialization
in order to understand how the patterns influence their affect, attitudes, beliefs,
assumptions, and recurrent reactions in practice with CLD students and families.
Progressively, iterative patterns of this critical reflection build teachers’ capacities
for more inclusive, constructive, effectual, and advocative practices in diverse and
complex teaching environments, especially contextualization. For more information
on building teachers’ capacities for critical reflection on complex practice consider the
reference list to follow, especially the following helpful resources (Berghoff, Blackwell,
& Wisehart, 2011; Herrera & Murry, 2014; Liu, 2010; Murry, Herrera, Kavimandan, &
Perez, 2011).
Acknowledgement: (Partial funding for this scholarship/cited research was
provided by the Office of English language Acquisition T365Z110124).
References
Berghoff, B., Blackwell, S., & Wisehart, R. (2011). Using critical reflection to improve
urban teacher preparation: A collaborative inquiry of three teacher educators.
Urban Education Journal, (8)2, 19-28.
Borrero, N. E., Yeh, C. J., Cruz, I., & Suda, J. (2012). School as a context for “othering”
youth and promoting cultural assets. Teachers College Record, 114(2), 1-37.
Herrera, S. (2010). Biography-driven culturally responsive teaching. New York:
Teachers College.
Herrera, S., & Murry, K. (2014). Mastering ESL and bilingual methods: Differentiated
instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students (3rd ed.). Boston:
Pearson.
Herrera, S., Perez, D., Kavimandan, S., Holmes, M., & Miller, S. S. (2011). Beyond
reductionism and quick fixes: Quantitatively measuring effective pedagogy in the
instruction of CLD students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
Ladsen-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into practice, (34)3, 159-165.
Liu, K. (2010). A critical analysis of reflection as a goal for teacher education. In K. Zeichner (Ed.), Handbook of reflection and reflective inquiry (pp. 67-84). New York: Springer.
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19
Murry, K., Herrera, S., Kavimandan, S., & Perez, D. (2011). Translating standards into
practice with ELA students. The Advocate, 19(1), 49-55.
Murry, Kevin, G., Herrera, Socorro G., Miller, Stuart, & Fanning, Cristina. (n.d.).
Advancing best practices for ELLs: Multilevel research on a CLASSIC. Submitted
Summer, 2014 to the Journal of Curriculum & Instruction.
National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] (2014). The condition of education.
Retrieved from: http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cge.asp
Samson, J. F., & Collins, B. A. (2012, April). Preparing all teachers to meet the needs
of English language learners: Applying research to policy and practice for teacher
effectiveness. Retrieved from: http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/
education/report/2012/04/30/11372/preparing-all-teachers-to-meet-the-needs-ofenglish-language-learners/
Tharp, R. G., & Dalton, S. S. (2007). Orthodoxy, cultural compatibility, and universals in
education. Comparative Education, 43(1), 53-70. doi: 10.1080/03050060601162404
Tharp, R.G., Estrada, P., Dalton, S.S., & Yamauchi, L. (2000). Teaching transformed:
Achieving excellence, fairness, inclusion, and harmony. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Yamauchi, L. A., Im, S., & Mark, L. (2013). The influence of professional development
on educators’ instructional conversations in preschool classrooms.
Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 34(2), 140-153. doi:
10.1080/10901027.2013.787476
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20
Ethical Decision Making: Increasing your chances to make
better decisions
Robert F. Hachiya
Kansas State University
Abstract
Ethical decision-making is an important skill for leaders that can be acquired and
improved with experience. Successful leaders consistently make right decisions and
inspire confidence in others. While many fields include formal ethics classes as a part
of their required curriculum, only recently has the field of education included formalized
ethics training for principals. This article provides guidance and advice for those
seeking to increase the likelihood they will make better decisions each day.
Do you know someone who always just seems to make the right decisions? A
person who always hits the mark in the hiring process? A person who is calm in a
crisis; steady and confident when faced with a tough choice? Although people have
innate personality traits they rely on to help them make decisions, ethical decisionmaking is a skill that can be acquired and improved upon with experience. Successful
leaders consistently make the right choice, and are trusted by those they lead. Their
confidence is contagious, and they allow others to make good decisions as well.
Conversely, we all know those who may not have an abundance of these skills.
They never seem to hire the best person, or are sometimes so frozen to make a
decision, one is either made for them, or they never fully take a position. These people
could have certain personality traits that may never allow them to attain a high level of
skill, yet many still find themselves in leadership positions that require them to make
tough and important decisions.
Making the best choice is part of ethical decision making, yet many
administrators working in the field today have not had formal ethics training or classes.
Professional fields such as nursing, medicine, law, and business have traditionally
required ethics courses, while generally educational administration has not (Shapiro
& Stefkovich 2011). However, within the past twenty years there has been growing
interest in the importance of ethics training for school administrators with an emerging
sense that developing ethical competence fulfills an obligation to students, and helps
develop ethical schools (Greenfield, 1993).
As school leaders, frequently we are faced with making tough decisions that
many times do not have any good options, and we must make decisions where no one
is either happy or satisfied. Making the best choice in such a situation may be among
the most important decisions you can make.
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Equally difficult is having to make a decision where all possible options are
acceptable. Kidder (1998) states that the toughest choices are not those that center
on “right verses wrong” but instead they are choices that must be made between “right
verses right.” Circumstances may sometimes force a decision to be made that pits
values we hold against each other, such as truth verses loyalty, or short-term gain
verses long-term results.
Making the best decisions, from the easiest to the most difficult, essentially
involves discovery of a problem or question, an initial assessment, a determination
of potential options, and making a final decision. Each require skills that when done
properly, increase your chance to choose from the best of all available options.
Predictably, inadequate or ineffective work decreases your odds of making the best
decision.
The discovery stage is where you become initially aware of a situation that may
require action on your part. Such information may be brought to you, or you may
become aware of a situation on your own. This could be viewed as a sort of triage for
deciding what you may need to deal with yourself, delegate to others, or ignore. Your
action during this initial step is a skill in itself---to decide to proceed or not is in fact a
decision, and as recent events at major universities and the National Football League
have shown, the consequences for erring at this stage can be severe.
The ability to assess a situation and conduct an investigation is also important.
Leaders who make the best decisions are those who have done the work to have the
best choices available to them. More importantly, having the ability to choose the best
option among many possible choices is what makes a great leader, and ultimately
makes everyone more successful.
The focus of this article is not to teach you how to conduct an investigation,
or how to increase your self-confidence to make tough choices. There is, however,
some practical advice that may shape your thinking to become the type of leader who
consistently makes the best decisions.
School leaders don’t have the time to fully reflect on the traditions of moral
philosophy---from the utilitarian approach (should I choose whatever does the greatest
good for the greatest number of people?)---from a “Golden Rule” approach (what
would I want to happen if I were in their shoes)---or from a rules-based approach (I am
sticking to my principles.) But school leaders would be wise to have such foundational
knowledge as part of their core beliefs.
That is because politics, friendships, relationships, money, and protecting
institutional name can and will influence decision-making. Lacking solid moral
reasoning, those factors can determine the decision. They should not.
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How to Become a Great Decision Maker
22
School leaders are faced with daily decisions, the majority of which are not
difficult and have no major consequences. But there are other frequent decisions
that potentially have life changing implications. Budget cutting---what to cut?
Staffing decisions---whom to add, whom to cut? How do you balance accounting for
individualized student difference while acknowledging broad based diversity? How can
a safe environment be created while ensuring the protection of student rights?
Your chances of making the best decisions improve by determining the following
each time you are faced with such decisions:
• Ask yourself if a decision needs to be made, and if you are the proper person
to make the decision. (Does a decision need to be made?)
• Investigate and get as many facts as you can. If you miss something, you
miss a possible solution. If you miss something, you can make a decision
different from one you may have made with more information.
• Ask yourself if this is a question of right verses wrong. In these situations,
your decision may not be comfortable, but it should be obvious. This is
particularly relevant in bullying, harassment, or other situations where one
actor did something they should not have done.
• Ask yourself if your core beliefs apply. What decision may be for the greater
good? Would I want this to happen to my family, or any other family? How
does this apply to policy and rules?
• Listen to others. Hear a contrary view because it could in the end be the best
choice.
Keep in mind the best option is not the same as the easiest option, and
consistently seeking that route will invariably lead to bad decisions.
What Bad Decisions have in Common
So where have the people who make poor choices gone wrong? Bad decisions
very often occur because leaders allow themselves (or are pressured) to be swayed
away from core beliefs and base decisions on some form of favoritism (politics,
finances, etc.) This can also lead to making the wrong decision in a situation that
is really a right verses wrong problem. The lack of such foundation can also create
inconsistency, with a leader frequently taking different actions even when given similar
circumstances.
Not having enough time is not an acceptable excuse to avoid doing the right
thing. For example, not making the necessary reference call or following-up on a
concern raised by a parent. To not do these would in fact be decisions, and poor
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ones. After all, it’s bad enough, for example, to have a child predator on your staff;
it’s another thing entirely to have hired one.
Making decisions without having all the
relevant facts leads to poor decisions, especially because without all the facts potential
solutions and choices can go undiscovered.
Finally, some people continually make poor decisions because of a lack of
confidence due to consequences of previous poor decisions. If someone has been
reprimanded or seen bad consequences resulting from decisions they have made,
there is a learning opportunity, but also a natural reaction to be overly cautious in the
future.
Conclusions
School leaders must make both easy and tough decisions every day, but there
are ways to improve your chances to become a confident and inspiring leader, who is
sought after when decisions need to be made. Ethical decision-making is a leadership
skill that can be developed and improved, and over time will carry over to your staff and
students.
References
Greenfield, W.D. (1993). Articulating values and ethics in administrator preparation.
In C.A. Capper (ed.), Educational administration in a pluralistic society. Albany,
NY: State University of New York Press
Kidder, R. M. (2003). How good people make tough choices, resolving the
dilemmas of ethical living. New York, New York: Harper Paperbacks.
Shapiro, J. P., & Stefkovich, J. A. (2011). Ethical leadership and decision making in
education, applying theoretical perspectives to complex dilemmas. (3rd ed.)
New York, New York: Routledge.
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24
The College-wide Military-connected Learner Initiative
in K-State’s College of Education
Debbie Mercer, Dean of the College
Linda Thurston
Judy Hughey
Kansas State University
Biographical information:
Debbie Mercer, main author: Dr. Mercer in the Dean of the College of Education at
Kansas State University and professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction.
Linda P. Thurston, co-author: Dr. Thurston is Associate Dean for Research and
professor in the Department of Special Education, Counseling and Student Affairs in
the College of Education at Kansas State University.
Judy Hughey, co-author: Dr. Hughey is an Assocate professor in the Department of
Special Education, Counseling and Student Affairs at Kansas State University. She is
the recipient of a grant to develop the Certificate of Competence in Counseling Militaryconnected Students.
Abstract
The Military-connected Learner Educational Initiative at Kansas State’s College
of Education, initiated in 2012, provides a college-wide framework preparing in-service
and pre-service personnel to serve military, veterans and their families in educational
settings. This article describes the college-wide initiative which includes: (1) providing
professional development for faculty and students; (2) implementing curricular and cocurricular modifications to address military/veteran-connected issues; (3) conducting
research to contribute to the knowledge base about educational issues, strategies and
adaptations for military personnel, veterans, and K-12 students in their families. The
college is the recipient of the 2014 Taylor Higher Education Partnership of Excellence
award from the Military Child Education Coalition.
Keywords: military-connected learners, college-wide initiative, Kansas State
University
Introduction
The College of Education at K-State is making a significant contribution to the
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education of military-students and veterans. Further, it is impacting the education of
our undergraduate and graduate students in their knowledge of appropriate pedagogy
and practice for veterans, members of the military and their families. The College
of Education developed a college-wide educational initiative to organize the various
military-related activities across the college and to plan for a holistic and sustainable
approach to working with our students and faculty. This initiative was built on a strong
foundation of decades of involvement with military-connected graduate students by
the Adult Education program at Fort Leavenworth and with USD 475 Geary County
schools at Fort Riley, a close neighbor of K-State. The initiative described here is
unique because it represents a college-wide initiative in a College of Education that
has approximately 3,000 students, almost half of which are graduate students. Each
of the three college departments has ongoing military-related activities and programs.
Educational issues related to military personnel, veterans and their families are
being addressed daily by the College of Education who educate teachers, principals,
superintendents, adult educators, school counselors, special educators, and
postsecondary advising and student personnel services staff.
History of the Initiative
College of Education faculty educate teachers, principals, superintendents,
adult educators, school counselors, special educators, postsecondary advising and
student personnel services staff. Because K-State’s College of Education has close
ties to Fort Riley, Fort Leavenworth, and the virtually all of our pre-service teachers
complete their clinical training in military-connected school districts around the area, we
knew we could make a difference for current military-connected learners. The College
of Education became one of the first 100 universities to join Operation Educate the
Educators, a nationwide Joining Forces initiative that was given guiding principles set
forth by the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) and
the Military Child Education Coalition (MCEC). The College of Education also became
a member of the MCEC, a 501(c)(3) non-profit, worldwide organization, focused on
ensuring quality educational opportunities for all military children affected by mobility,
family separation, and transition (http://www.militarychild.org/about-us/mission).
In addition to extensive placements in Fort Riley schools for our pre-service
educators, the college’s adult education program has a long history of engagement
at Fort Leavenworth and Command and General Staff College. This work involves
faculty, faculty developers and Command and General Staff College students. In the
early 90s, the department started a cohort program for the Master’s of Adult Education
program at Fort Leavenworth. The program has awarded over 600 graduate degrees
to officers at the Command and General Staff College in the past 25 years. In addition
to the Master’s cohorts, the adult education faculty developed doctoral cohorts that
included faculty and faculty developers at the CGSC Fort Leavenworth. Recently,
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two of the adult education faculty, Cheryl Polson and Jane Fishback in collaboration
with K-State’s Colleges of Human Ecology and Business developed a leadership
training program, the Command Team Spouse Development Program—Brigade.
This community engagement program was awarded the Malcolm Knowles Award for
Outstanding Program in Adult Education in 2010.
In 2011, Dean Debbie Mercer, starting with the guiding principles set
forth by the Educate the Educators program (http://aacte.org/programs-and-services/
operation-educate-the-educators) that raise the awareness of the unique needs of
military-connected students, laid out four initial objectives for our future teachers:
1. Identify the most critical concepts future teachers should know regarding
teaching the military-connected child.
2. Make suggestions of where these concepts might best be taught across our
teacher education curriculum.
3. Plan professional development sessions for faculty and students.
4. Identify and/or develop resources for faculty and student development to
include a documentary featuring military-connected students in our program and their
stories.
An educator, Sandy Risberg, who is also a 25-year spouse of a 1st Infantry
Division soldier and the mother of two military-connected children, was hired to initiate
the Educate the Educators. These efforts in the undergraduate teacher preparation
program generated interest in the college’s efforts to serve military-connected students
at all educational levels.
As a result of an internal Academic Excellence Fund Award, a core group
of 14 individuals, including active duty military and military spouses, met monthly for six
months to design the framework for the college-wide initiative. The group developed
this goal for the initiative was build capacity in the K-State College of Education to:
a. Prepare pre-service and in-service school personnel to serve militaryconnected students and families;
b. Meet the needs of our military-connected COE undergraduate and graduate
students;
c. Contribute to the knowledge base about education and military-connected
students and families; and
d. Collaborate with other military/veteran initiatives across campus.
Building Awareness College-Wide
In addition to the work being done in the teacher preparation program and
the ongoing engagement of the adult education program with Fort Leavenworth, the
college-wide steering committee, led by the co-authors of this paper, engaged the
faculty by arranging several activities to build awareness and commitment across the
college. The steering committee executed initial awareness activities to commence
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in the fall of 2013 when students and faculty returned for the fall semester. Collegelevel activities were planned for a fall kick-off to focus on military, veteran, and militaryconnected issues in education. The first event, in September, was the premier of the
COE-developed documentary, A Walk in My Shoes: Military Life (http://coe.ksu.edu/
about/military/militarylife.html), to over 400 students, faculty, military and community
members. This documentary had been nine months in the making, with Risberg and
Mercer providing leadership for the endeavor. In the documentary, seven people
currently connected to the College of Education – retired soldiers, spouses, a child
and educators – share their perspectives on the rewards and challenges of being
connected to the military. Topics include the realities of deployments for the family and
the solider, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and the social/emotional needs of
military-connected children.
The committee arranged a resource fair in the lobby of Forum Hall for this event.
In addition, the Midwest Equity Assistance Center (MEAC) sponsored a militaryconnected film festival and purchased and displayed books and curriculum materials
related to the topic. The first showings for the film festival were Kevin Bacon’s Taking
Chance, and Flat Daddy, directed by Nara Barber and Betsy Nagler. Topical bulletin
boards were designed on all floors of Bluemont Hall, the College of Education’s home.
A collection of books and videos regarding military families, deployment and trauma,
and other issues were collected and placed in the COE media center and library for
use by faculty, students and teachers. A brochure about the initiative was developed,
and a webpage was designed (http://www.coe.kstate.edu/about/military/index.html).
Program and Research Initiatives
Sustainable programmatic initiatives began and are being continued within
graduate and undergraduate programs in the college. In the teacher preparation
program, the next steps were to start building a digital resource portfolio for our
students and faculty to access, and to deliver workshops on the culture of the military
family and the social emotional cycle that corresponds with the deployment cycle
and how educators can help build resiliency in the classroom. The workshops were
delivered in both our own classrooms of undergraduate and graduate education
students as well as to multiple groups of K-12 faculty and staff in surrounding school
districts. Risberg (2013) compiled information, workshops and training information
into an interactive book, Military Connected Students in the Classroom. A Topics
seminar course for student teachers, “Military Connected Students in the Classroom” is
offered both fall and spring semesters. A videotaped “The Culture of the Military Child”
workshop is available for instructors in the College of Education to use in their own
courses.
At the graduate education level, Judy Hughey received competitive funding
for “Engage, Collaborate and Counsel to Enhance Educational Capacity” for serving
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military/veterans and their families. As part of this project, she is developing a
Certificate of Competence in Counseling Military-connected Students for school
counselors and candidates in counselor education graduate programs based on the
theoretical and research framework and best practices in parent /family counseling,
school consultation, and education strategies and interventions. The learning modules
are being designed to prepare school counselors with skills to address the MCEC and
ACCTE principles mentioned earlier.
To address the needs of military service personnel and their families while they
are deployed, it is a national imperative to conduct research about the most effective
ways to prepare educators and the most efficacious strategies for the educational
success of military personnel, veterans, and military-connected children. College
of Education faculty and graduate students are conducting important research that
contributes to and informs the field of K-12 education, educational counseling, student
affairs, educational leaders, and adult education (e.g. Sherbert, 2011; Gleiman and
Swearengen, 2012; Clark, 2008; McClary, 2009). This research has been disseminated
through national presentations at association and research conferences in an attempt
to assist adult educators to better understand the military student (e.g. Curtis, 2013;
Risberg, 2013a and 2013b; Thurston, Hughey, Risberg and Fishback, 2014). A
research focus on the impact of combat stress on learning has attracted national
attention from other universities who may partner with this research (Clark, 2014).
A major recent publication from the adult education faculty is an edited volume
of New Directions for Adult Education. Faculty and student research from K-State is
among the articles in J. Zacharakis & C. Polson (Eds.). (2012) New directions for adult
and continuing education, Vol. 136: Beyond training: The rise of adult education in the
military. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Faculty in special education are researching the impact of multi-tiered system of
support (MTSS) with military-connected students attending schools on military bases.
Faculty in the teacher preparation program are conducting research on classroom
strategies to build resilience and are investigating pre-service and in-service teachers’
knowledge and perceptions of the needs of military-connected K-12 students. Other
faculty and graduate students are conducting research to determine the understanding
and perceptions of online and evening college instructors about military-connected
learners; and others are studying the perceptions and knowledge about military learner
issues among faculty in colleges of education.
Summary
Although we are pleased with the programs and research produced in K-State’s
College of Education as part of our military-connected students initiative, we believe
this is just the beginning of the work to which we are committed. Graduate and
undergraduate programs continue to build components related to military-connected
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learners and conduct research that will impact our students as well as impact the
work of other colleges of education across the country. Our work is presented at
conferences, and in magazines and scholarly journals. A major event organized by
faculty of the Colleges of Education and Human Ecology was the K-State Military
Education and Family Initiatives Symposium that took place at Fort Riley, Kansas, and
may become an annual event.
Military-connected students are found in every school district in the country. The
new GI bill is providing opportunities for thousands of post 9/11 veterans and their
dependents to attend our nation’s colleges and universities. These students and their
families bring both strengths and needs to K-12 and postsecondary classrooms.
The College of Education at K-State is committed to preparing our students and
faculty to provide quality and relevant education for military personnel, veterans and
their families. We understand this as part of our mission, to “prepare educators to be
knowledgeable, ethical and caring decision makers for a diverse changing world.” At its
2014 national conference in Washington, D.C., the Military Child Education Coalition
announced that the College of Education as the recipient of the 2014 LTG (Ret.) H.G.
“Pete” Taylor Higher Education Partnership of Excellence award in recognition of our
work with school partners in educating military-connected students.
References
Clark, C.W. (2008). Estimates of association between cognitive complexity levels
and creativity levels of field grade military dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses. (Order No. 3325634)
Clark, M.L. (2014). Out of combat and into the classroom: How combat experiences
affect combat veteran students in adult learning environments.(Doctoral
dissertation) Retrieved from http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/handle/2097/17374
Curtis, L. (2013). Supporting military-connected students: Serving those who serve.
Presentation at Association of Teacher Educators Annual Summer Conference,
Washington,DC.
Gleiman, A. & Swearengen, S. (2012). Understanding the military spouse learner
using theory and personal narratives. New Directions for Adult and Continuing
Education,136,77-88.DOI:10.1002/ace.20037
Thurston, L.P., Hughey, J., Risberg, S., & Fishback, J. (2014, February). KSU
Military ED-OPS: Initiatives at K- State’s college of education for military and
veterans students, teachers, and families. Panel presentation at Council of
College and Military Educators Professional Development
Symposium, Savannah, GA.
McClary, R.B. (2009). An investigation into the relationship between tolerance of
ambiguity and creativity among military officers. (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (Order No. 3389845).
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Risberg, S. (2013). Military connected students in the classroom. Retrieved from
https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/military-connected-students/
id742204249?mt=11
Risberg, S. (2013, October). Kansas State University college of education’s partnership
in military education. Presentation at AUSA Annual Meeting & Exposition,
Washington, DC.
Risberg, S. (2013, October). Community resources: It’s a beautiful day in the
neighborhood. Panel presentation at AUSA Annual Meeting & Exposition,
Washington, DC.
Sherbert, V.L. (2011). “Well, besides the fact that deployment kinda stinks…”:
Adolescent voices in literacy during military deployment.(doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from http://krex.kstate.edu/dspace/handle/2097/12455
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31
Learning Across A Lifetime of Learning: Stages of Teacher
Development
Charles Kent Runyan
Steve Brown
Carolyn Fehrenbach
Kenny McDougle
Pam Sells
Ray Willard
Pittsburg State University (KS)
Abstract
This study presents a conceptual framework for examining the developmental
stages of teachers and illustrates the differences found in student teachers as they
develop. The research illustrates how by assessing a teacher candidate’s own
perception of importance, mastery, and desire to improve, an instrument can be used
to prioritize needs at different points of a teacher’s career as well as identify stages
of development. The statistical data, analysis, and interpretation of a study utilizing
the Teacher Need Assessment Questionnaire (TNAQ) with teacher candidates is
displayed.
Learning Across A Lifetime of Learning: Stages of Teacher
Development
A key challenge for any teacher training program is developing an organized
framework for assessing the change in teacher candidates as they are trained. One
of the key questions involved in any skill training revolves around the importance of
hands-on experience. Do teachers change as they gain experience?
This article presents a conceptual framework for examining the developmental
stages of teachers and illustrates differences found in student teachers as they
develop.
Teacher Training Model
The study’s sample came from an established teacher education program where
students completed methods/techniques courses on campus and then completed a full
sixteen-week semester of student teaching.
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The Study’s Data Collection Instrument
To examine how teacher candidates change over a 16 week student teaching
experience, a number of paths for examination are present in the literature. For this
research, the authors chose to examine developmental stages. Numerous researchers
have examined developmental stage differences of teachers (Fuller and Brown, 1975;
Hall and Jones, 1976; Pataniczek, 1978; Hunt and Michael, 1985; Cruickshank and
Callahan, 1983; Hitz and Roper, 1986; and Smith and Sanche, 1993). From these
theoretical frameworks, the developmental stages of teachers as they relate to a
specific training program were operationalized in an assessment instrument that has
been used over the past two decades. Using as a basis the Fuller and Brown stages
- survival, mastery, and impact - the researchers used the Teacher Needs Assessment
Questionnaire (TNAQ) items to define the teacher in relation to one of three stages Establishing Structures, Developing the Science of Teaching, and Cultivating the Art of
Teaching.
The instrument used in the study, the Teacher Needs Assessment Questionnaire
(TNAQ), contains fifty-one different instructional statements and role characteristics
associated with effective teaching. The assessment tool was designed to measure
specific instructional and professional needs by examining the student’s own
perception of importance, mastery, and desire to improve. Using these three
perceptions, a fourth score, a Need/Desire (N/D) score, was numerically derived which
represented the student teacher’s own perception of need and desire to work in each
area.
It was the Need/Desire score (ND) that was used to establish individual need
priorities, stage development, and interest area identification. The researchers took
the position that to establish a need there should be a perception that it is important,
that it is not presently being done well, and that there is an aspiration to improve.
To help identify developmental stages and interest areas, each of the 51 items
were grouped according to their focus. The three stages - Establishing Structures,
Developing the Science of Teaching, and Cultivating the Art of Teaching - were aligned
with Fuller and Brown’s stages - Survival, Mastery, and Impact. After several statistical
studies (Runyan, et. al. 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996), the items identified for each stage
were finalized and the characteristicof the stages were confirmed.
Sample Population
The sample for this study was comprised of 49 student teachers who were
participating in a sixteen-week student teaching experience in various Kansas,
Missouri, and Oklahoma school districts during the 2013 fall semester. There were
21 elementary and 28 secondary student teachers with four not completing both the
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September pretest and December posttest.
Research Methods
The data for the study was derived from the pre and post-tests of respondents
using the Teacher Needs Assessment Questionnaire (TNAQ). The exploratory
issue centered on whether there were any differences in the needs expressed in the
beginning and at the end of the student teaching experience.
The TNAQ was administered to the student teachers during the 2013 fall
semester as they began in September and when they were finished in December.
The TNAQ was completed by a total of 49 teacher candidates at the beginning of
the student teaching experience and 45 at the end. In essence, of the original 49
candidates completing the pre-test, only 45 candidates completed the post-test.
Of these 45 student teachers, 18 were elementary and 27 were secondary. Three
elementary majors and one secondary major did not complete the post-test.
Results
First, pre- and post-test results were analyzed using a multivariate analysis of
variance. Overall TNAQ scores were higher on the post-test than the pre-test. For the
whole group, all sub-scale scores increased on the post-test; however, their difference
was not significant.
Second, additional analyses were conducted using a series of dependent t-tests
to compare pre- and post-test mean scores for each sub-scale. The t-tests indicated
that the difference in pre- and post-test scores were significant for two sub-scales,
Developing Science of Teaching and Classroom Management.
For the developmental stages, Cultivating the Art of Teaching (Impact) had the
highest mean score on the pre-test, and Developing the Science of Teaching (Mastery)
had the highest mean score on the post-test. For Interest Areas, Support Structures
had the highest mean score on both the pre-test and the post-test. Classroom
Management was the lowest score on the pre-test, but the second highest on the posttest (Table 1).
There was no significant difference between elementary and secondary
candidates’ scores on the pre-test or post-test; however, it is important to note that
secondary scores were lower than elementary in all areas on the pre-test and higher
in all areas on the post-test. Elementary scores were lower on the post-test in all
areas except Developing Science of Teaching (Mastery) and Classroom Management;
however, the difference in scores between the pre-test and post-test was not significant
for any of the sub-scale scores. Secondary Post-test scores were significantly higher
than Pre-test scores for all sub-scale scores except Interpersonal Interaction (Table 2).
Overall, there were a similar number of candidates self-reporting at each level on
the pre- and post-tests; however, only about 1/3 of candidates remained at the same
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developmental stage.(Table 3).
Five items had lower mean scores on the post-test (1, 34, 39, 41, and 44). All
other items had higher need scores on the post-test (Table 4).
34
Interpretations
From the analysis of the data, several conclusions were reached: In examining
the overall pre and post-test means using multivariate analysis on the Interest Area
subscales, the student teachers were shown to have higher post-test means than
pre-test means on all subscales. This would tend to support the idea that the teacher
candidates had more of a perceived need for improvement after student teaching.
In essence, as student teaching experience was gained the higher the need for
improvement. In examining the overall pre and post-test means using t-tests on the
Interest Area subscales, one subscale, Classroom Management, was significantly
different. This would support the idea that the teacher candidates have significant
concerns for improvement in specific management strategies after student teaching.
1. In examining the overall pre and post-test means on the Interest Area subscales,
one subscale, Support Structures, had the highest mean score on both the pre
and post-test. This would support the idea that establishing support structures
remained an area of concern throughout the experience.
2. In examining the overall pre and post-test means in both the Stages of Teaching and
the Interest Area subscales, the secondary teacher candidates mean scores in all
areas were lower than elementary candidates on the pre-test and higher in all areas
on the post-test. This supports the idea that secondary student teachers began the
experience with lower levels of concern but ended with higher concern levels than
elementary student teachers.
3. In examining the overall pre and post-test means in both the Stages of Teaching
and the Interest Area subscales, the secondary teacher candidates post-test mean
scores in all subscale areas except Interpersonal Interaction were significantly
higher than the pre-test. This supports the idea that secondary student teachers
had experiences that led them to have a concern to improve in all areas other than
interpersonal relationships.
4. In examining the pre and post-test means for the three Stages of Teaching, the pre
and post means for all student teachers were significantly different for Developing
the Science of Teaching (Mastery). This would support the idea the teacher
candidates have a higher interest in learning about the science of teaching after
student teaching.
5. In examining developmental stage movement identified by pre and post-test means,
nearly two-thirds of the student teachers moved to a different development stage.
This would support the idea that with experience, teachers tend to move through
stages.
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6. In examining the pre and post-test means of the 51 items on the instrument, 46 of
the items had higher means on the post-test. This would tend to support the idea
that after completing their student teaching experiences, the teacher candidates saw
a greater need to develop their skills and abilities in almost every area.
Given these conclusions, though they support previous studies, the researchers
believe further investigation is needed.
1. To what extent does the instrument reflect differences between rural, suburban, and
urban classroom settings?
2. To what extent does the instrument accommodate gender or age differences?
3. What specific factors in the training program play a role in need perception?
4. To what extent would more extensive experiences in the classroom prior to student
teaching affect the stage of development for pre-service teachers?
Conclusions
It is evident from this study that training experiences produce or, at least, make
a difference with percieved skills and knowledge. Given these conclusions, the
researchers believe further investigation is still needed. The researchers are excited
about expanding the use of the questionnaire to better identify developmental stages
within different training methods.
References
Cruickshank, D. & Callahan, R. (1983). The other side of the desk: Stages and
problems of teacher development. The Elementary School Journal, 83 (3),
251-258.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1994). Professional development schools: Schools for
developing a profession. New York: Teachers College Press.
Fuller, F. & Brown, O. (1975). Becoming a teacher. Teacher Education, Part II, The 74th
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Ed. K. Ryan.
Chicago: University of Chicago.
Hall, G. & Jones, H. (1976). Competency-based Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Hitz, R. & Roper, S. (1986). The teacher’s first year: Implications for teacher educators.
Action in Teacher Education. 8, Fall, 65-71.
Hunt, D. and Michael, C. (1985). Mentorship: A career training and development tool.
Academy of Management Review, 8, 475-485.
Johnson, J. (1988). Professional and personal needs of beginning teacher. Paper
presented at the National Academy of Planning and Implementing Induction
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36
Programs, Providence, Rhode Island.
Pataniczek, D. (1978). Professional and Personal Needs of Beginning Teacher.
Dissertation, Michigan State University.
Runyan, C., Sparks, R., & Lipka, R.P. (1993, October). Using needs assessment during
student teaching: A preliminary study using a needs assessment instrument
to train preservice teachers. Paper presented at the 1993 annual meeting of
Mid–Western Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois.
Runyan, C., Sparks, R., Hurford, D., & Lipka, R.P. (1994, October). Using needs
assessment during student teaching: A needs assessment instrument to train
preservice teachers: Using a factor analytic study to refine a needs assessment
instrument. Paper presented at the 1994 annual meeting of Mid–Western
Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois.
Runyan, C., Sparks, R., Hurford, D., & Lipka, R.P. (1995, October). Needs assessment
to train preservice teachers: Using two factor analytic studies to refine a needs
assessment instrument. Paper presented at the 1995 annual meeting of Mid–
Western Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois.
Runyan, C., Sparks, R., Hurford, D., & Lipka, R.P. (1996, October). Developmental
stages of preservice and early career teachers through needs assessment.
Paper presented at the 1996 annual meeting of Mid–Western Educational
Research Association, Chicago, Illinois.
Runyan, C. and Sparks, R. (1999, August) Establishing a powerful teacher training
knowledge base. Paper presented at the 1999 Summer Conference of the
Association of Teacher Educators, San Antonio, Texas.
Smith, D. & Sanche, R. (1993). Personally expressed concerns: A need to extend the
Fuller model? Action in Teacher Education. 15 (1), 36-41.
Veeman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational
Research. 54, Feb., 143-178.
Zey, M. (1984). The Mentor Connection. Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin.
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Don’t Tap the Keg and Eight Other Essential Rules of Early
Career Principals
An Editorial
Carolyn L. Carlson
Washburn University
Scott P. Myers
Kansas State Department of Education
Abstract
Principals that are early in their careers have unique challenges to face in
order to become successful in their administrative positions. Early career principals,
future principals, and those who educate future principals in education administration
programs at colleges and universities should be aware of these potential obstacles.
This list of nine “essential rules” seeks to challenge new and future principals, as well
as those who educate them, to consider some of the unique challenges faced as well
as offer insight to effectively overcome them.
Introduction
Principals that are successful in their careers have a strong set of beliefs, a
vision for the school that they lead, and effective reflective practices to ensure that
their actions are supporting both their vision for the school and their own beliefs.
Principals that are early in their career have unique challenges to face in order to
become successful in their administrative positions. These early career principals,
future principals, and those who educate future principals at colleges and universities
should be aware of these potential obstacles. By considering these challenges, they
may be more prepared to effectively overcome them.
1. Don’t Tap the Keg; Don’t Drain the Keg. Establishing respectful collegial
relationships is essential for a successful principal. This is imperative as it
establishes the primary function of school being focused on the students and
their achievement. This only occurs through ongoing dialogue. However, the
shear frequency of communication, while beneficial to the culture, can tip to the
negative and actually be counterproductive. A great deal of the first year or two of
serving as a principal is dedicated to establishing positive relationships with the
staff. The key is to know the proper balance with these relationships. In order to
deepen the relationship with the staff, it is necessary to spend time away from the
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42
schoolhouse with the staff members. But, it is counterproductive if too much time
is spent. For instance, it is essential for the principal to attend social gatherings;
however, it is unwise for the principal to be the first one to arrive and the last one
to leave as it is possible for the principal to end up being too familiar with the staff,
making it difficult to remain objective while assessing the needs of the school.
2. Embrace the Silence. The principal who is doing an effective job will make decisions
that are not popular with some of the staff. When this occurs, it is common for the
principal to feel the fallout from those decisions. Staff members will congregate,
allowing them the opportunity to air their issues with the latest decisions made.
Eventually, there will come a time when the principal, in her normal rounds, will
come upon this gathering. When this occurs, it is human nature for the staff
members to stop talking and for silence to take the place of the conversation. The
fact that this halt in talking occurs simply means the principal is doing her job. As the
shepherd of the building, the principal must make decisions, and sometimes those
decisions are not popular. As long as the principal is making the decisions from a
place of personal belief and principle based on student achievement, the principal
can feel assured that this is perfectly normal and will occur.
3. Provide Truthful Feedback. In order for any organization to move forward in meeting
its goals, the leader must be willing to engage in difficult conversations. Toward that
end, while doing his job visiting classrooms and assessing the effectiveness of the
teachers, it will occur that the principal will see some action, strategy, or technique
being utilized that can be improved. It is incumbent upon the principal to remember
the focus of the building (student achievement) and to provide honest and truthful
feedback to the teacher about what was observed. This is not always easy. A
principal early in his career may lose sight of this fact, getting too caught up in the
relationship with his teachers and not focusing on the importance of the mission.
If unchecked, the principal might ignore the areas of weakness, creating a missed
opportunity for growth for the teacher.
4. Student Needs Trump Teacher Needs. All too often decisions made in the school
are finalized with the concerns of the teachers in mind more than those of the
students. This stems from the desire to meet the needs of the professional staff to
make the running of the school an easier task. While this understandable, it runs
counter to the goal of providing the students with the best educational opportunities
that can be had. If it is possible to meet the needs of all parties in the building
with every decision, that is optimal, but that doesn’t occur very often as the needs
of the adults and the students are sometimes at cross purposes. Faced with this
difficult situation, it is important for the principal to remember that his primary duty
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is to foster and maintain a fervor toward serving the clientele of the building: the
students. With this thought in mind, the principal will face decisions that make the
adults in the building unhappy. This can be seen in day-to-day decisions and in
more long-term programmatic decisions. Although this can be unpleasant for the
principal, a true leader does not shy away from taking the correct action. In the
end, it is the principal’s job to see to the best interests of the students, even if that
means that the teachers are displeased about how a given situation is resolved.
5. Shed the Teacher Skin. For the most part, principals have one thing in common:
they were teachers. While this is a necessary preparatory step to take to fully
understand how the classroom functions, when a teacher decides to make
the leap to the principalship, it is necessary for a transition in outlook to occur.
An early career principal will face administrative issues she did not face as a
teacher, and even though she may have had an extremely successful career
as a teacher and completed a highly regarded preparatory program, this is the
first time she has faced the issue from the global perspective of the principal.
When an issue arises, the principal approaches the situation by pulling on past
experiences to find the correct response. However, if the sum total of those
experiences has been in the classroom, she is viewing that situation through the
filter of being a teacher. When this occurs, it is logical for the administrator to
respond in a manner that is not as global as necessary. While this response may
seem appropriate from a teacher’s perspective, all too often, it is not the correct
response from a principal’s perspective. The sooner the principal makes the shift
from thinking like a teacher to thinking like a principal, the more successful the
school and its students will be.
6. Tear Down the Caste System. Unfortunately, the classification system of
schools lends itself to a caste system created amongst the employees. This is
counterproductive to achieving the mission of the school. The primary function
of the principal is to ensure that the students are given all of the educational
opportunities they deserve. This is more easily achieved through the involvement
of the greater educational community in those efforts. All too often, potentially key
or pivotal people are excluded from this process merely due to their job title. For
instance, the primary duties of classified staff members, although imperative, do
not include classroom instruction or efforts toward student achievement. However,
a principal who wants to positively impact the school culture creates opportunities
to involve all parties within the building in academic activities such as classroom
projects or school events. This effort bears fruit in that the entire educational
community is now focused on the true purpose of school. Once this occurs, the
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detrimental caste system is exposed and dealt with appropriately.
44
7. Rage Against the Assessment Machine. The whole child is important. In efforts
to meet the demands of today’s high-stakes assessments, it is essential that the
principal keeps in mind the needs of the whole child rather than focusing on the
successful completion of a given high stakes test. While these tests are important,
they are not so important that the emotional, social and cognitive development
of our students is neglected. In the modern day schoolhouse, one of the primary
responsibilities of the principal is to ensure that the teachers are fully preparing the
students to shine on the assessments. In fact, schools are now being acknowledged
as being “successful” or “unsuccessful” based wholly on how well the students do
on these tests. Given this scenario, it is essential that the principal understands
that the students are also children, not just test-taking automatons. It matters that
the students are exposed to the arts, to concepts of physical fitness, to social skills
and teamwork and even to the “untested” subjects that compose a well-rounded
individual. The principal sets the tone for the building, so if she maintains and
communicates to her staff about the importance of serving the whole child, then the
staff will follow suit. If, however, the principal becomes myopic about the purpose
of school being to prepare the students to do well on a set of assessments, then
the staff will follow that belief. If that occurs, a whole generation of students will be
underserved and misserved.
8. A Posse Has More Bullets. The days of the lone gunman walking the streets of
Dodge City to face down the bad guys are long gone. Today, the principal has at
his disposal the talents and wherewithal of the professional educators who desire
a true voice in the development of the educational experience of the students
in the building. Now many heads and minds are able to come together to help
fashion and implement the strategies, techniques and initiatives that have proven
to be beneficial to the students as they matriculate through the system. In order for
this to occur, the principal needs to be extremely cognizant of the importance of
tapping the resources all around him. This can seem a bit daunting if the principal
is fearful that involving others will lead to a certain amount of chaos thus causing
upheaval and dysfunction to run rampant. However, once the principal overcomes
this fear and involves others in meaningful functions of the school, he will learn that
this giving away of the power is actually a means to gaining power with the staff
members as they will appreciate the opportunity to feel a true sense of efficacy in
their professional lives. Once this occurs, the stage has been set for the school to
benefit from the eclectic talents of the staff members. In the end, the school will be
much more capable of predicting and then meeting the needs of the students.
9. Put Out the Fires and Avoid the Icebergs. It is a simple fact that the responsibilities,
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duties, and obligations of a building principal come at her at a torrid pace. There
are obligations that need to be taken care of immediately, some that need to be
taken care of in the near future, and some that can be addressed in the distant
future. Regardless, a public school principal will find herself in the position with the
need to multitask or more importantly, the need to prioritize her actions. It is all too
easy to be caught up in the day-to-day emergencies, never really addressing the
tasks that need to be completed on a long term basis. While the negative fallout
might not be noticed immediately, this procrastination will ultimately lead to a
dysfunctional building. Some tasks take a certain amount of time and planning to
complete appropriately. The only way to ensure success in such an environment
is to didactically plan ahead. That way when the inevitable emergency occurs,
the long term goal can still be met. If, however, the principal is in survival mode,
merely taking care of the emergencies when they occur and never looking forward,
ultimately the long term tasks will fall by the wayside, never getting completed.
Summary
Principals are drawn to their profession by their desire to make a difference in
the lives of children. In order to be successful at this, principals have to have a firm
set of beliefs and a vision for the school. To make that vision a reality, principals must
have the knowledge and skills to be an effective manager and leader of the school.
Recognizing some of the obstacles that lie ahead allows early career principals to be
prepared to overcome them and succeed in their positions. Early career principals,
future principals, and those who educate future principals should consider these types
of obstacles and how best to approach them so that principals can effectively lead their
faculty, students, and staff.
***************************************************************************************************
Note:
Carolyn Carlson is an Associate Professor in the Department of Education at
Washburn University in Topeka, Kansas. [email protected]
Scott Myers is the Director of Teacher Licensure and Accreditation at the Kansas State
Department of Education in Topeka, Kansas. [email protected]
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