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The Millennium Development Goals Report
2012
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UNITED NATIONS
This report is based on a master set of data that has been compiled by an Inter-Agency and Expert Group on MDG
Indicators led by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, in response to
the wishes of the General Assembly for periodic assessment of progress towards the MDGs. The Group comprises
representatives of the international organizations whose activities include the preparation of one or more of the
series of statistical indicators that were identified as appropriate for monitoring progress towards the MDGs, as
reflected in the list below. A number of national statisticians and outside expert advisers also contributed.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION
UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
Cover Inside
THE WORLD BANK
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR WESTERN ASIA
JOINT UNITED NATIONS PROGRAMME ON HIV/AIDS
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women - UN Women
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE
UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES
UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME
UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND
INTERNATIONAL TRADE CENTRE
INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION
The Millennium Development Goals
Report 2012
asdf
United Nations
New York, 2012
f o r e wo r d | 3
Foreword
This year’s report on progress towards the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) highlights several milestones.
The target of reducing extreme poverty by half has been
reached five years ahead of the 2015 deadline, as has
the target of halving the proportion of people who lack
dependable access to improved sources of drinking water.
Conditions for more than 200 million people living in slums
have been ameliorated—double the 2020 target. Primary
school enrolment of girls equalled that of boys, and we
have seen accelerating progress in reducing child and
maternal mortality.
These results represent a tremendous reduction in human
suffering and are a clear validation of the approach
embodied in the MDGs. But, they are not a reason to
relax. Projections indicate that in 2015 more than
600 million people worldwide will still be using
unimproved water sources, almost one billion will be living
on an income of less than $1.25 per day, mothers will
continue to die needlessly in childbirth, and children will
suffer and die from preventable diseases. Hunger remains
a global challenge, and ensuring that all children are able
to complete primary education remains a fundamental,
but unfulfilled, target that has an impact on all the other
Goals. Lack of safe sanitation is hampering progress in
health and nutrition, biodiversity loss continues apace, and
greenhouse gas emissions continue to pose a major threat
to people and ecosystems.
The goal of gender equality also remains unfulfilled, again
with broad negative consequences, given that achieving
the MDGs depends so much on women’s empowerment
and equal access by women to education, work, health
care and decision-making. We must also recognize the
unevenness of progress within countries and regions,
and the severe inequalities that exist among populations,
especially between rural and urban areas.
Achieving the MDGs by 2015 is challenging but possible.
Much depends on the fulfilment of MDG-8—the global
partnership for development. The current economic
crises besetting much of the developed world must not
be allowed to decelerate or reverse the progress that
has been made. Let us build on the successes we have
achieved so far, and let us not relent until all the MDGs
have been attained.
Ban Ki-moon
Secretary-General, United Nations
4 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Overview
Three years to the deadline, we can
report broad progress on the MDGs
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) agreed to by
world leaders over a decade ago have achieved important
results. Working together, Governments, the United Nations
family, the private sector and civil society have succeeded in
saving many lives and improving conditions for many more.
The world has met some important targets—ahead of the
deadline.
•• Extreme poverty is falling in every region
For the first time since poverty trends began to be monitored,
the number of people living in extreme poverty and poverty
rates fell in every developing region—including in subSaharan Africa, where rates are highest. The proportion of
people living on less than $1.25 a day fell from 47 per cent
in 1990 to 24 per cent in 2008—a reduction from over
2 billion to less than 1.4 billion.
•• The poverty reduction target was met
Preliminary estimates indicate that the global poverty rate at
$1.25 a day fell in 2010 to less than half the 1990 rate. If
these results are confirmed, the first target of the MDGs—
cutting the extreme poverty rate to half its 1990 level—will
have been achieved at the global level well ahead of 2015.
•• The world has met the target of halving the proportion
of people without access to improved sources of water
The target of halving the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water was also met by
2010, with the proportion of people using an improved
water source rising from 76 per cent in 1990 to 89 per cent
in 2010. Between 1990 and 2010, over two billion people
gained access to improved drinking water sources, such as
piped supplies and protected wells.
•• Improvements in the lives of 200 million slum dwellers
exceeded the slum target
The share of urban residents in the developing world living
in slums declined from 39 per cent in 2000 to 33 per cent
in 2012. More than 200 million gained access to either
improved water sources, improved sanitation facilities, or
durable or less crowded housing. This achievement exceeds
the target of significantly improving the lives of at least
100 million slum dwellers, well ahead of the 2020 deadline.
•• The world has achieved parity in primary education
between girls and boys
Driven by national and international efforts and the MDG
campaign, many more of the world’s children are enrolled
in school at the primary level, especially since 2000. Girls
have benefited the most. The ratio between the enrolment
rate of girls and that of boys grew from 91 in 1999 to 97
in 2010 for all developing regions. The gender parity index
value of 97 falls within the plus-or-minus 3-point margin of
100 per cent, the accepted measure for parity.
•• Many countries facing the greatest challenges have
made significant progress towards universal primary
education
Enrolment rates of children of primary school age increased
markedly in sub-Saharan Africa, from 58 to 76 per cent
between 1999 and 2010. Many countries in that region
succeeded in reducing their relatively high out-of-school rates
even as their primary school age populations were growing.
•• Child survival progress is gaining momentum
Despite population growth, the number of under-five deaths
worldwide fell from more than 12.0 million in 1990 to 7.6
million in 2010. And progress in the developing world as
a whole has accelerated. Sub-Saharan Africa—the region
with the highest level of under-five mortality—has doubled
its average rate of reduction, from 1.2 per cent a year over
1990-2000 to 2.4 per cent during 2000-2010.
•• Access to treatment for people living with HIV
increased in all regions
At the end of 2010, 6.5 million people were receiving
antiretroviral therapy for HIV or AIDS in developing regions.
This total constitutes an increase of over 1.4 million people
from December 2009, and the largest one-year increase
ever. The 2010 target of universal access, however, was not
reached.
•• The world is on track to achieve the target of halting
and beginning to reverse the spread of tuberculosis
Globally, tuberculosis incidence rates have been falling since
2002, and current projections suggest that the 1990 death
rate from the disease will be halved by 2015.
•• Global malaria deaths have declined
The estimated incidence of malaria has decreased globally,
by 17 per cent since 2000. Over the same period,
malaria-specific mortality rates have decreased by 25 per
cent. Reported malaria cases fell by more than 50 per cent
between 2000 and 2010 in 43 of the 99 countries with
ongoing malaria transmission.
OVERVIEW | 5
Inequality is detracting from these gains,
and slowing advances in other key areas
Achievements were unequally distributed across and within
regions and countries. Moreover, progress has slowed for
some MDGs after the multiple crises of 2008-2009.
•• Vulnerable employment has decreased only marginally
over twenty years
Vulnerable employment—defined as the share of
unpaid family workers and own-account workers in total
employment—accounted for an estimated 58 per cent of
all employment in developing regions in 2011, down only
moderately from 67 per cent two decades earlier. Women
and youth are more likely to find themselves in such insecure
and poorly remunerated positions than the rest of the
employed population.
•• Decreases in maternal mortality are far from
the 2015 target
There have been important improvements in maternal health
and reduction in maternal deaths, but progress is still slow.
Reductions in adolescent childbearing and expansion of
contraceptive use have continued, but at a slower pace since
2000 than over the decade before.
•• Use of improved sources of water remains lower in
rural areas
While 19 per cent of the rural population used unimproved
sources of water in 2010, the rate in urban areas was only
4 per cent. And since dimensions of safety, reliability and
sustainability are not reflected in the proxy indicator used
to track progress towards the MDG target, it is likely that
these figures overestimate the actual number of people using
safe water supplies. Worse, nearly half of the population
in developing regions—2.5 billion—still lacks access to
improved sanitation facilities. By 2015, the world will have
reached only 67 per cent coverage, well short of the 75 per
cent needed to achieve the MDG target.
•• Hunger remains a global challenge
The most recent FAO estimates of undernourishment set
the mark at 850 million living in hunger in the world in the
2006/2008 period—15.5 per cent of the world population.
This continuing high level reflects the lack of progress on
hunger in several regions, even as income poverty has
decreased. Progress has also been slow in reducing child
undernutrition. Close to one third of children in Southern Asia
were underweight in 2010.
•• The number of people living in slums continues to grow
Despite a reduction in the share of urban populations living
in slums, the absolute number has continued to grow from
a 1990 baseline of 650 million. An estimated 863 million
people now live in slum conditions.
In the years ahead, we have the
opportunity to achieve more and to
shape the agenda for our future
The 2015 deadline is fast approaching. The contributions
of national Governments, the international community,
civil society and the private sector will need to intensify
as we take on the longstanding and long-term challenge
of inequality, and press forward on food security, gender
equality, maternal health, rural development, infrastructure
and environmental sustainability, and responses to climate
change.
A new agenda to continue our efforts beyond 2015 is taking
shape. The MDG campaign, with its successes as well as
setbacks, provides rich experience on which this discussion
can draw, as well as confidence that further success is
feasible.
•• Gender equality and women’s empowerment
are key
Gender inequality persists and women continue to face
discrimination in access to education, work and economic
assets, and participation in government. Violence against
women continues to undermine efforts to reach all goals.
Further progress to 2015 and beyond will largely depend on
success on these interrelated challenges.
•• MDG progress shows the power of global goals and a
shared purpose
The MDGs have been a fundamental framework for global
development. A clear agenda, with measurable goals and
targets, and a common vision have been crucial for this
success.
There is now an expectation around the world that sooner,
rather than later, all these goals can and must be achieved.
Leaders will be held to this high standard. Sectors such as
government, business, academia and civil society, often
known for working at cross-purposes, are learning how
to collaborate on shared aspirations. The comprehensive
statistics and clear analysis in this year’s MDG Report give us
all a good idea of where our efforts should be directed.
Sha Zukang
Under-Secretary-General for Economic
and Social Affairs
Goal 1
Eradicate extreme
poverty and hunger
Target
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people
whose income is less than $1 a day
Extreme poverty falls in every region
Proportion of people living on less than $1.25 a day, 1990, 2005 and 2008
(Percentage)
Sub-Saharan Africa
56
52
47
Southern Asia
51
38
34
Southern Asia (excluding India)
52
29
26
South-Eastern Asia
45
19
17
Eastern Asia (China only)
60
16
13
Latin America & the Caribbean
12
9
6
Western Asia *
5
5
3
Northern Africa
5
3
2
Developing regions (excluding China)
41
31
28
Developing regions
47
27
24
0
10
1990
20
2005
30
40
2008
50
60
70
Target
* The aggregate value is based on 5 of 13 countries in the region.
Note: No sufficient country data are available to calculate the aggregate values
for Oceania.
For the first time since the World Bank started to monitor poverty trends,
both the number of people living in extreme poverty and the poverty
rates fell in every developing region—including in sub-Saharan Africa,
where rates are highest. In the developing regions, the proportion of
people living on less than $1.25 a day fell from 47 per cent in 1990
G oa l 1: Er a d i c at e e x t r e m e p ov er t y a n d h unger | 7
to 24 per cent in 2008. In 2008, about 110 million
fewer people than in 2005 lived in conditions of extreme
poverty. The number of extreme poor in the developing
regions fell from over 2 billion in 1990 to less than
1.4 billion in 2008.
More recent post-2008 analysis reveals that while high
food and fuel prices and deep economic recession over
the course of the past four years have hurt vulnerable
populations and slowed the rate of poverty reduction
in some countries, global poverty rates have continued
to fall. A preliminary World Bank estimate—based
on a much smaller number of surveys than the global
update—indicates that the global poverty rate at $1.25
a day fell in 2010 to less than half its 1990 value. If
these results are confirmed by follow-up studies, the first
target of the Millennium Development Goals—cutting the
extreme poverty rate to half its 1990 level—will have
been achieved on a global level well ahead of the 2015
deadline.
But even at the current rate of progress, estimates indicate
that about 1 billion people will still be living on less than
$1.25 a day in 2015—corresponding to a global extreme
poverty rate of just below 16 per cent. Four out of every
five people living in extreme poverty will live in subSaharan Africa and Southern Asia.
Some regions have seen greater progress than others. A
remarkable rate of progress was sustained in China. After
the extreme poverty rate had dropped from 60 per cent
in 1990 to 16 per cent in 2005, the incidence fell further
by 2008 to 13 per cent. In India and in the Southern
Asian region excluding India, poverty rates fell from 51
to 37 per cent and from 52 to 26 per cent, respectively,
between 1990 and 2008.
On the other hand, poverty remains widespread in
sub-Saharan Africa and in Southern Asia, despite
significant progress. The sub-Saharan African poverty
rate fell by almost 5 percentage points, to less than
48 per cent, between 2005 and 2008—the largest
drop in that region since international poverty rates
began to be estimated. For the first time, the absolute
number of people living in extreme poverty also fell in
the region, from 395 million in 2005 to 386 million in
2008. This drop reversed the long-term trend of increase
since 1981.
Further progress on the long-term goal of eradicating
poverty is possible and likely over the coming years
if developing countries maintain the robust growth
rates achieved over a large part of the past decade;
and also if the conditions in which extreme poverty
thrives continue to be addressed: poor health and
lack of education that deprive people of productive
employment; environmental resources that have been
depleted or spoiled; and corruption, conflict and bad
governance that waste public resources and discourage
private investment.
Simply being able to monitor how well anti-poverty
efforts in specific localities are doing is an important tool
in poverty eradication. But data of sufficient quality and
quantity are hard to come by, especially in small States
and in countries and territories in fragile situations. The
need to improve the quality and reach of household
surveys—an important data source for monitoring
poverty—is urgent.
8 | T h e M i llenn ium De v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
Target
Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people
Eastern Asia sets the pace for worldwide progress on working poverty
Proportion of employed people living below $1.25 a day (Percentage) and number of working poor (Millions), 2000-2011
Millions
Percentage
35
800
30
600
25
20
400
15
Working poor,
Eastern Asia
Working poor, world
excluding Eastern Asia
Working poverty rate,
Eastern Asia
Working poverty rate,
world excluding
Eastern Asia
Working poverty rate,
world
10
200
5
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
0
Recent estimates, produced by the International Labour
Organisation (ILO) and based on a new methodology,
show that there were 456 million workers in the world
living below the $1.25 a day poverty line in 2011—a
reduction of 233 million since 2000 and of 38 million
since 2007. The global decline is heavily influenced by
the dramatic reduction in extreme poverty among workers
in Eastern Asia. Due to rapid economic growth, and to
poverty reduction especially in China, the number of poor
workers fell by 158 million between 2000 and 2011,
and by 24 million between 2007 and 2011.
Worldwide, the proportion of workers living below
the $1.25 poverty line declined from 26.4 per cent to
14.8 per cent between 2000 and 2011. If Eastern Asia
is excluded, the decline over the same period is less
dramatic—from 25.0 per cent to 17.4 per cent.
Even though working poverty is decreasing, progress has
slowed markedly since 2008. A projection of pre-crisis
(2002-2007) trends in the incidence of working poverty
shows a difference of 1.6 percentage points between
what was expected and the actual 2011 figure. This
corresponds to 50 million more working poor in 2011
than projected by pre-crisis trends.
G oa l 1: Er a d i c at e e x t r e m e p ov er t y a n d h unger | 9
Developing regions lag far behind the
developed world in labour productivity
Output per worker, 1991, 2001 and 2011
(Thousands of constant 2005 PPP-adjusted international dollars)
Sub-Saharan Africa
5
5
6
Oceania
5
5
6
Average productivity in the developing world, however,
hides substantial heterogeneity among regions. During the
last decade, gains were very limited in Latin America and
the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania, while
productivity in Eastern Asia more than doubled between
2001 and 2011. The relatively weak productivity growth
in developing regions outside of Asia is one key factor
Southern Asia
4
5
9
South-Eastern Asia
6
7
10
explaining the persistence of working poverty.
Caucasus & Central Asia
10
7
14
Eastern Asia
3
6
14
Northern Africa
17
18
21
Latin America & the Caribbean
20
21
23
Western Asia
30
35
40
Developed regions
48
57
64
Developing regions
6
8
13
0
10
1991
The gap in labour productivity levels between the
developed and developing regions has narrowed over
the past two decades, but remains substantial: output per
worker in the developed regions was $64,319 in 2011,
compared with an average of $13,077 in developing
regions. This means that, adjusted for differences in prices
across countries, the average worker in the developing
world produces only one fifth as much as the average
worker in a developed country.
20
30
2001
40
50
60
70
2011*
* Figures for 2011 are preliminary estimates.
Labour productivity is a key measure of economic
performance, which can be used to gauge the
likelihood that a country can create decent employment
opportunities with fair and equitable remuneration.
Sustained reductions in working poverty are consequently
difficult to achieve without gains in labour productivity.
10 | T h e M i llenn ium De v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
Progress is slow in reducing vulnerable
employment
Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in
total employment, 1991 and 2011 (Percentage)
Oceania
74
77
Southern Asia
vulnerable employment is most prevalent contributed
strongly to this trend.
A high share of workers in vulnerable employment
indicates the widespread prevalence of informal work
arrangements. Under these conditions, workers typically
lack adequate social protection and suffer from low
pay and from difficult working conditions in which their
fundamental rights may be violated or undermined.
81
76
Women are far more likely than men to
be engaged in vulnerable employment
Sub-Saharan Africa
82
76
Southern Asia (excluding India)
Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers
in total employment, women, men, 2011 (Percentage)
73
68
Sub-Saharan Africa
South-Eastern Asia
85
68
69
61
Oceania
Eastern Asia
84
66
71
49
Southern Asia
Caucasus & Central Asia
83
46
74
42
South-Eastern Asia
Latin America & the Caribbean
35
32
66
58
Eastern Asia
Northern Africa
53
37
46
30
Northern Africa
Eastern Asia (excluding China)
37
30
44
26
Caucasus & Central Asia
Western Asia
43
41
43
26
Western Asia
Developed regions
11
10
41
22
Latin America & the Caribbean
32
32
Developing regions
67
58
0
20
1991
40
60
80
100
2011*
* Figures for 2011 are preliminary estimates.
Vulnerable employment—defined as the sum of the
percentages of unpaid family workers and own-account
workers in total employment—accounted for an estimated
58 per cent of all employment in the developing regions in
2011.
The proportion of workers in employment defined as
vulnerable slowly decreased between 1991 and 2011.
This moderate decline in proportion was not sufficient
to prevent the absolute number of workers in vulnerable
employment from increasing by 136 million since 2000,
bringing the global number to 1.52 billion. Continuous
expansion of the labour force in countries where
Developed regions
9
11
Developing regions
62
56
0
10
Women
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Men
The gap between women’s and men’s vulnerable
employment is widest in Northern Africa—where in
2011, 44 per cent of women were in jobs classified as
vulnerable, compared with 26 per cent of men—and in
Western Asia, where the rates were 41 and 22 per cent,
respectively. The share of vulnerable employment across
genders was highest in sub-Saharan Africa, reaching 85
per cent for women and 69 per cent for men.
G oa l 1: Er a d i c at e e x t r e m e p ov er t y a n d h unger | 11
Youth tend to find themselves in lowopportunity family based work situations
Share of contributing family workers in total employment,
youth and adults, selected countries, 2003/2006 (Percentage)
Madagascar
98
79
Burkina Faso
The school-to-work transition may also include spells
of unemployment or periods of temporary or casual
employment, before reaching a final station that is likely to
be own-account work.
86
44
Bhutan
78
61
Uganda
65
Target
64
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of
people who suffer from hunger
21
Togo
Many young people start their working life by supporting
informal family businesses or farms. Data for a sample
of 20 developing economies for which breakdowns by
age and status in employment are available show that the
share of contributing family workers among all employed
young people exceeded the corresponding share for adult
workers in all countries.
13
Mali
The numbers of malnourished have
stabilized since 1990
62
28
Mozambique
61
28
Cambodia
Number and proportion of people in the developing regions who
are undernourished 1990-92, 1995-97, 2000-02 and 2006-08
60
26
Millions
Peru
45
25
1,400
18
Pakistan
Percentage
39
1,200
15
19.8
20
India
35
800
15.5
15
848
25
9
Philippines
16.5
30
6
Guatemala
16.8
1,000
16
Nicaragua
791
836
850
600
10
22
7
400
Colombia
14
3
5
200
Congo
13
2
0
Mexico
12
1990-92
1995-97
2000-02
2006-08
0
Number of undernourished people
4
Percentage of undernourished people
Gabon
11
3
Niger
1
9
Armenia
2
1
0
20
Youth
Adults
40
60
80
100
The most recent estimates of undernourishment by the
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
(FAO) were published in 2011 for the 2006-2008 period.
They set the mark at 850 million, which corresponds to
15.5 per cent of the world population. This was the first
assessment based on hard data on food production and
consumption referring to 2008, and capturing the actual
impact of the food price crisis of 2007-2008 and of the
financial crisis of 2008.
12 | T h e M i llenn ium De v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
The situation at the global level was not as stark as might
have been expected, and was originally projected, thanks
to economic growth rates that remained high in many
developing countries at least through 2008.
Progress in relieving food deprivation
has slowed or stalled in many regions
of hunger and the implementation of appropriate policies
and measures.
Countries in sub-Saharan Africa were
the hardest hit by the food and financial
crises
Number of undernourished people, 2003-2008 (Millions)
Proportion of people who are undernourished, 1990-92,
2000-2002, 2006-08 (Percentage)
Asia
600
Sub-Saharan Africa
31
579
29
579
578
27
567
Southern Asia (excluding India)
26
23
22
556
557
2007
2008
550
Southern Asia
22
21
20
South-Eastern Asia
24
500
17
14
Eastern Asia (excluding China)
8
13
13
2003
2004
2005
2006
Sub Saharan Africa
240
231
Eastern Asia
18
220
10
10
211
Latin America & the Caribbean
12
10
8
214
212
2004
2005
210
213
200
Western Asia
6
8
7
180
Northern Africa
<5
<5
<5
Developing regions
20
17
15
0
5
1990-1992
10
15
20
2000-2002
25
30
35
2006-2008
The prevalence of hunger remains uncomfortably high in
sub-Saharan Africa and in Southern Asia outside of India.
And, despite recorded reductions in income poverty, there
are no signs of improvement in undernourishment rates in
Eastern Asia since 2000. The disparity between falling
poverty rates and steady levels of undernourishment calls
for improved understanding of the dimensions and causes
2003
2006
2007
2008
The FAO assessment reveals that small countries, heavily
dependent on food imports, were deeply affected by
skyrocketing food prices–especially those in sub-Saharan
Africa. In contrast, some large countries in Asia were able
to insulate their markets through restrictive trade policies
and to protect consumers with social safety nets. As a
result, while the number of undernourished increased
sharply in sub-Saharan Africa, it remained constant in Asia.
G oa l 1: Er a d i c at e e x t r e m e p ov er t y a n d h unger | 13
In the developing regions, the proportion of children under
age five who are underweight declined from 29 per cent
in 1990 to 18 per cent in 2010. Progress was recorded
in all regions where comparable data are available, but is
insufficient to reach the global target by 2015. Continued
efforts are needed to reduce disparities related to urban–
rural differences and poverty, among other factors.
Improved methodology will help to better
understand the state of food insecurity in
the world
New estimates of hunger prevalence are being
produced based on a larger number of household
expenditure surveys and a new methodology
developed by FAO. The new figures will provide an
assessment for the years 2009-2011 and preliminary
estimates for 2012. The improved methodology should
better capture changes in the degree of inequality
in food access, as well as provide more accurate
estimates of food stocks, non-food uses and waste.
Nearly one in five children under age five
in the developing world is underweight
Proportion of children under age five who are moderately
or severely underweight, 1990 and 2010 (Percentage)
Despite clear evidence of the disastrous consequences
of childhood nutritional deprivation in the short and long
terms, nutritional health remains a low priority. It is time for
nutrition to be placed higher on the development agenda.
Southern Asia
51
32
Sub-Saharan Africa
29
A number of simple, cost-effective measures to reduce
undernutrition in the critical period from conception to two
years after birth are available. These measures include
improved maternal nutrition and care, breastfeeding within
one hour of birth, exclusive breastfeeding for the first six
months of life, and timely, adequate, safe and appropriate
complementary feeding and micronutrient intake in the
following 18 months. Urgent, accelerated and concerted
actions are needed to deliver and scale up such
interventions so as to extend the gains made thus far.
22
South-Eastern Asia
31
17
Northern Africa
10
6
Western Asia
15
5
Caucasus & Central Asia
11
4
Eastern Asia
15
3
Latin America & Caribbean
8
3
Developing regions
29
18
0
10
1990
20
2010
30
Target
An equally important indicator of overall child health
and nutritional status is stunting, defined as low height
for age. It is a condition, however, which often goes
unrecognized in the developing world. More common
than being underweight, stunting also more accurately
reflects nutritional deficiencies and illnesses that occur
during the early-life period and will hamper growth and
development. Although the prevalence of stunting fell
from an estimated 44 per cent in 1990 to 29 per cent
in 2010, millions of children remain at risk for diminished
cognitive and physical development resulting from longterm undernutrition.
40
50
60
Range of estimates
Note: Prevalence estimates are calculated according to the WHO Child
Growth Standards. The trend analysis presented above is based on a
multilevel regression model, described in de Onis et al., ‘Methodology for
Estimating Regional and Global Trends of Child Malnutrition’,International
Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 33, pp. 1260–1270, using all available
trend data points from 1985 to 2010.
Error bars represent 95 per cent confidence intervals of the estimated
regional prevalence. Owing to differences in source data, international
standard reference population and estimation methodology, these
prevalence estimates may not be comparable to the averages published
in previous editions of this report.
14 | T h e M i llenn ium De v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
Differences in undernutrition found
between rural and urban children
are largest in Latin America and the
Caribbean
Poverty is a major determinant of
undernutrution in children in all regions
Proportion of under-five children who are underweight,
developing regions, by wealth quintile, 2006/2010
(Percentage)
Proportion of under-five children who are underweight,
developing regions, urban and rural areas, 2006/2010
(Percentage)
60
Poorest 20%
Wealthiest 20%
55
50
50
Urban
Rural
45
40
45
38
40
30
35
33
30
32
28
20
20
25
15
15
17
10
5
0
4
5
5
6
4
7
0
7
4
4
Caucasus &
Central Asia
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Southern
Asia
Developing
regions*
* Excluding China.
3
SubLatin
Northern Caucasus
America Saharan
&
Africa
Africa
& the
Central
Caribbean
Asia
* Excluding China.
Western
Asia
11
Northern
Africa
8
6
14
10
22
20
Southern Developing
Asia
regions*
Note: Regional averages are based on a subset of 70 countries with residence
area information covering 62 per cent of the rural populationand 53 per cent
of the urban population in the developing region. Data for Eastern Asia
are not available.
In the developing regions as a whole, children living in
rural areas are almost twice as likely to be underweight
than children in urban households. The largest gap is in
Latin America and the Caribbean. In that region, eight per
cent of children are underweight in rural areas—more than
twice the rate in cities.
Note: These regional averages are based on a subset of 65 countries
with wealth quintile information covering 54 per cent of the 20 per cent poorest
population and 20 per cent richest population in the developing regions (It is
assumed that an equal distribution for population coverage for richest and
poorest 20 per cent, which may or may not hold true). Data for Eastern Asia
are not available.
Poorer children are almost three times as likely to be
underweight as are children in the wealthiest 20 per cent
of the households. The disparity is greatest in Southern
Asia, where the prevalence of underweight children in the
poorest quintile of households is 2.8 times that of children
from the richest 20 per cent.
G oa l 1: Er a d i c at e e x t r e m e p ov er t y a n d h unger | 15
The number of refugees and of the displaced remains high, even with an upturn in
repatriation in 2011
Number of refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons, 2000-2011 (Millions)
60
Asylum seekers
Refugees
Internally displaced
persons
50
1.1
40
30
1.1
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.8
1.0
0.8
0.9
15.9
16.0
14.6
13.7
13.8
13.0
14.3
16.0
15.2
15.2
15.4
15.2
21.2
25.0
25.0
24.6
25.3
23.7
24.4
26.0
26.0
27.1
27.5
26.4
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
20
10
0
Armed conflict and violence uprooted more than 4 million
people in 2011, either inside or outside the borders of
their countries. This is the highest number in many years.
Post-election violence in Côte d’Ivoire, “Arab Spring”
uprisings and a deteriorating situation in Somalia were
all contributing factors, in particular during the first half of
2011.
The number of refugees returning home voluntarily had
fallen steadily since 2004. With the situation improving
in some countries, this trend was reversed in 2011, with
more than half a million refugees repatriating during the
year. This number is more than double the 2010 total of
197,600, and constitutes the highest repatriation flow
since the return of 604,000 refugees in 2008.
But 2011 also produced the third lowest number of
voluntarily repatriated refugees in a decade. Globally,
more than 9.1 million refugees have returned home
over the past 10 years, three quarters of them with the
assistance of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR).
At the end of 2011, an estimated 42.5 million people
worldwide were living in a place to which they had been
forcibly displaced due to conflict or persecution. Of these,
15.2 million were refugees, including 10.4 million who
fall under the responsibility of the UNHCR and 4.8 million
Palestinian refugees registered with the United Nations
Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the
Near East (UNRWA). Some 26.4 million people were
uprooted by violence and persecution but remain within
the borders of their own countries. Some 900,000 were
asylum seekers.
On average, four out of five refugees are hosted by
developing countries. The largest refugee populations
covered under the mandate of the UNHCR at the end of
2011 continued to be Afghans (2.7 million) and Iraqis (1.4
million). Together, they account for four out of ten of all
refugees under the UNHCR mandate.
Goal 2
Achieve universal
primary education
Target
Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike,
will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
Progress on primary school enrolment has slowed
since 2004, even as countries with the toughest
challenges have made large strides
Adjusted net enrolment rate in primary education,* 1999, 2004 and 2010
(Percentage)
Sub-Saharan Africa
58
68
76
Western Asia
84
89
92
Southern Asia
77
89
93
Caucasus & Central Asia
94
94.5
93.9
Latin America & the Caribbean
94
95
95
South-Eastern Asia
92
94
95
Northern Africa
88
95
96
Eastern Asia
96
97.3
96.6
Developed regions
97
97
97
Developing regions
82
88
90
0
10
1999
20
30
40
2004
50
60
70
80
90
2010
* Defined as the number of pupils of the official school age for primary education
enrolled either in primary or secondary school, expressed as a percentage of the total
population in that age group.
Note: Data for Oceania are not available.
100
G oa l 2: Ac h i e v e un i v er s a l p r i m a ry ed uc at i o n | 17
In the developing regions, the net enrolment rate for
children of primary school age rose from 82 to 90 per
cent between 1999 and 2010. However, a closer look
at the data reveals that nearly all of this growth occurred
between 1999 and 2004, and that progress in reducing
the number of out-of-school children slowed considerably
after 2004.
At the same time, many of the countries facing the
greatest challenges have recorded significant progress
towards universal primary education. Enrolment rates of
children of primary school age increased markedly in
sub-Saharan Africa, from 58 to 76 per cent between
1999 and 2010. Total enrolment of children of primary
school age in the region rose by more than two thirds,
with 43 million more enrolled. Not only did countries
succeed in reducing their relatively high out-of-school
rates, they also improved their enrolment rates even as
the primary school age population was growing by more
than one quarter between 1999 and 2010 (28 per cent,
or 31 million children).
Apart from in sub-Saharan Africa, more than 90 per cent
of children of primary school age were enrolled either in
primary or secondary schools in 2010. In four developing
regions (Northern Africa, Eastern Asia, Latin America and
the Caribbean and South-Eastern Asia), at least 95 per
cent of primary-age children were in school.
More than half of all out-of-school
children are in sub-Saharan Africa
Primary school age children out of school, 1999-2010
(Millions)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Rest of the world
Southern Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
In 2010, 61 million children of primary school age were
out of school. More than half of them (33 million) were in
sub-Saharan Africa and a further one fifth (13 million) in
Southern Asia. In relative terms, 24 per cent of children of
primary school age in sub-Saharan Africa and 7 per cent
in Southern Asia were not in school.
18 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Globally, there has been progress in reducing girls’
exclusion from primary education, with the female share
of out-of-school children in developing countries dropping
from 58 to 53 per cent between 1999 and 2010. But
regional gender disparities continue to detract from efforts
to achieve universal primary education. In Southern Asia,
Western Asia and Northern Africa, girls accounted for
55, 65 and 79 per cent, respectively, of the total share of
out-of-school children.
Universal primary education would be a hollow
achievement if the focus were simply on enrolment rather
than on the completion of primary education. In 2010, the
global primary completion rate (measured by the gross
intake ratio to the last grade of primary education) reached
90 per cent, compared with 81 per cent in 1999.
Regional values ranged from 70 per cent in sub-Saharan
Africa to almost 100 per cent in Latin America and the
Caribbean and also in the Caucasus and Central Asia.
Girls and boys have similar chances of completing
primary education in all regions except for sub-Saharan
Africa and Western Asia. In sub-Saharan Africa, boys
are more likely than girls to complete primary education
in 25 out of 43 countries with available data. In only 10
of these countries do both groups have equal chances
of finishing primary school. But notably, in 8 countries
in sub-Saharan Africa more girls than boys are currently
completing primary education, although these disparities
tend to be less extreme than those tilted against girls.
Success at the primary level places
increased demands on secondary schools
With more children completing primary education,
the demand for secondary education is growing. This
increased demand poses a serious challenge for countries
with limited resources. In sub-Saharan Africa, about one
quarter of the children who complete primary school do
not continue on to secondary education. The regional
average, however, hides substantial differences between
countries. The transition rate from primary to secondary
education ranges from around 40 per cent in Angola,
Mauritania and the United Republic of Tanzania to 98 per
cent in Seychelles and Swaziland.
Young people who do not pursue their education join
the group of adolescents of lower-secondary age who
are not enrolled in either primary or secondary school. In
2010, there were 71 million young adolescents (typically
aged 12-15 years) out of school around the world. Of
these, around 48 million lived in countries where lowersecondary schooling is officially recognized as part of the
compulsory education system.
Young adolescents from poor and
rural households are more likely to be
out of school
Percentage of lower secondary-age children out of school
by sex, household wealth and location, 55 countries, 2005/2010
40
35
30
36
31
29
27
25
24
20
23
23
21
15
19
18
16
14
10
14
10
5
0
Poorest
20%
Girls
Second
20%
Middle
20%
Fourth
20%
Richest
20%
Urban
Rural
Boys
Analysis of household survey data collected between
2005 and 2010 in 55 developing countries reveals
that exclusion from education occurs most often among
children from disadvantaged groups. Poverty emerges
as a strong determinant of school exclusion for lower
secondary-age youth. Young adolescents from the
poorest households are three times as likely to be out
of school as those from the richest households. Girls of
lower secondary-age are more likely to be out of school
than boys, regardless of the wealth or location of the
household. Nevertheless, the greatest disparities are
found between the richest and poorest households, and
between urban and rural areas.
G oa l 2: Ac h i e v e un i v er s a l p r i m a ry ed uc at i o n | 19
Illiteracy still holds back more than
120 million young people
Out-of-school youth tend to have limited opportunities to
develop or maintain literacy skills, restricting their options
in life and compounding the disadvantages they face
later on.
In 2010, there were still 122 million people between 15
and 24 years of age—74 million women and 48 million
men—who were unable to read and write a short, simple
statement about their everyday life.
The great majority of these young adults live in Southern
Asia (62 million) and sub-Saharan Africa (45 million). In
relative terms, literacy rates among the youth population
are lowest in sub-Saharan Africa (72 per cent) and
Oceania (76 per cent).
Globally, the youth literacy rate reached 90 per cent in
2010, an increase of 6 percentage points since 1990.
Over the last two decades, the greatest progress has
been achieved in Southern Asia, where youth literacy rose
from 60 to 81 per cent, and in Northern Africa, where it
increased from 68 to 88 per cent.
Gender gaps in youth literacy rates are also narrowing.
Globally, there were 95 literate young women for every
100 young men in 2010, compared with 90 women in
1990. At the regional level, this gap is most notable in
Southern Asia, where there were only 86 literate women
for every 100 literate men in the age group 15-24 years
in 2010.
Goal 3
Promote gender
equality and
empower women
Target:
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary
education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education
no later than 2015
Parity is achieved in developing world primary
schools, even though some regions lag behind
Gender parity index for gross enrolment ratios in primary, secondary and
tertiary education (Girls’ school enrolement ratio in relation to boys’
enrolment ratio), 1999 and 2010 (Girls per 100 boys)
Primary education
Western Asia
85
Sub-Saharan Africa
85
Northern Africa
93
93
90
95
Latin America & the Caribbean
97
Southern Asia
97
83
98
Caucasus & Central Asia
99
South-Eastern Asia
98
96
Eastern Asia
99
101
Oceania*
103
90
Developed regions
100
Developing regions
99
91
97
Secondary education
Sub-Saharan Africa
83
82
Southern Asia
75
91
Western Asia
74
91
Caucasus & Central Asia
98
Northern Africa
92
Eastern Asia
93
South-Eastern Asia
97
98
104
96
104
Latin America & the Caribbean
107
Oceania*
108
89
Developed regions
101
Developing regions
99
88
96
Tertiary education
Sub-Saharan Africa
67
Southern Asia
63
65
Western Asia
76
75
Eastern Asia
89
67
Northern Africa
105
74
106
Caucasus & Central Asia
90
South-Eastern Asia
106
100
107
Latin America & the Caribbean
117
Oceania*
Developed regions
120
Developing regions
0
10
128
83
20
1999
30
2010
83
40
50
60
70
80
130
98
90
100 110 120 130
Target = Gender parity index between 97 and 103
* Data for 2010 are not available.
Achieving parity in education is an important step toward equal
opportunity for men and women in the social, political and economic
domains. Driven by national and international efforts and the MDG
G oa l 3: P ro m ot e g en d er e q ua li t y a n d e m p ow er wo m en | 21
campaign, many more of the world’s children have
enrolled in school at the primary level, especially since
2000. Girls have benefited the most. Progress is reflected
in the gender parity index (GPI), showing the ratio
between the enrolment rate of girls and that of boys.
The GPI grew from 91 in 1999 to 97 in 2010 for the
developing regions as a whole—falling within the plus-orminus 3-point margin of 100 per cent that is the accepted
measure for parity.
However, while most of the developing world had
reached a GPI of at least 95 at the primary level by 2010,
the index was only 93 in Western Asia and sub-Saharan
Africa. These two regions, however, have recorded
the greatest progress. Between 1999 and 2010, girls’
participation in primary education, as measured by the
gross enrolment ratio (ratio of girls enrolled regardless of
age to all girls of primary school age), increased from 72
to 96 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa and from 87 to 97
per cent in Western Asia.
At the country level, 71 out of 131 countries in developing
regions reporting data by sex had achieved gender parity
in primary education by 2010. Boys’ participation rates
were higher than those of girls in 53 countries, while the
opposite was true in the remaining 7 countries.
Gender disparities emerge at different
points through the education system
In many countries, gender gaps appear on the first day
of school. Three quarters of the countries that have not
achieved gender parity at the primary level enrol more
boys than girls at the start of the school cycle. Unless this
imbalance is corrected, the inevitable result is a permanent
gender disparity in primary school. Once girls gain access
to primary education, however, they tend to outperform
boys. Data show that in most countries, girls are less likely
to repeat grades or leave school early. In 102 out of 129
countries reporting data, girls progress more rapidly to the
last grade of primary education than boys.
Girls face greater barriers at the secondary level of
education than at the primary level. The gender parity
index in secondary education in the developing world as
a whole was 96 in 2010, compared with 97 for primary
education. By 2010, sub-Saharan Africa had only 82
girls enrolled per 100 boys. But in Latin America and the
Caribbean, enrolment rates in secondary school were
actually higher for girls than for boys, with a GPI of 108.
Western and Southern Asia emerge as the regions with the
largest gains in this period, moving from a GPI of only 74
and 75, respectively, to 91 for both in 2010.
Gender disparities in secondary education emerge
from gender-based discrimination in the family and in
the society in general. Secondary schooling is more
costly than primary education, and households are often
forced to ration resources among children. Where girls’
education is less valued, or is perceived as generating
lower returns, parents may favour sons over daughters.
Early marriage can act as another barrier to secondary
school progression. Parents may also worry more about
the security of adolescent girls because secondary schools
are often farther from home than primary schools.
In tertiary education, the GPI of 98, reached in 2010 for
the developing world, constitutes achievement of parity.
This attainment was led by very high parity values in Latin
America and the Caribbean, South-Eastern Asia, the
Caucasus and Central Asia, Northern Africa and Eastern
Asia. But parity in tertiary education remains difficult to
attain in sub-Saharan Africa (with a GPI of 63), Southern
Asia (76) and Western Asia (89).
In general, countries with lower levels of national wealth
tend to have more men enrolled in tertiary education than
women, while the opposite occurs in countries with higher
average income. Thus, in 45 countries with an average
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of $5,200
(purchasing power parity (PPP)), there were substantially
more men in tertiary education than women, while women
outnumbered men in the 94 countries where per capita
GDP averaged $16,500.
2 2 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Girls from the poorest households face
the highest barriers to education
Gross attendance ratio in primary and secondary
school, by household wealth quintile, girls and boys,
55 countries, 2005/2010 (Percentage)
Equal access to job opportunities
remains a distant target for women in
some regions
Employees in non-agricultural wage employment who are
women, 1990, 2000 and 2010 (Percentage)
Primary education
Western Asia
Poorest 20%
91
15
17
19
97
Second 20%
Northern Africa
98
105
Middle 20%
104
109
Southern Asia
Fourth 20%
19
19
19
13
17
107
112
20
Sub-Saharan Africa
Richest 20%
24
111
115
28
33
Secondary education
Oceania
Poorest 20%
35
33
36
36
40
Second 20%
South-Eastern Asia
45
49
35
37
38
Middle 20%
53
57
Eastern Asia
38
40
Fourth 20%
64
69
42
Richest 20%
80
0
20
Girls
40
60
80
Latin America & the Caribbean
36
89
40
100
120
Boys
Household surveys conducted in 55 developing countries
between 2005 and 2010 show that poverty is a
significant obstacle to primary and secondary school
attendance. Among the countries in the sample, the gross
attendance ratio for primary education is 113 per cent
in the richest household quintile, compared with 94 per
cent in the poorest quintile. In secondary education, the
gap between the richest and poorest quintile is even
greater—84 per cent compared with 37 per cent. This
means that children from the richest households are
more than twice as likely to attend secondary school as
children from the poorest households.
Gender also plays an important role as a determinant of
school attendance, but the gap between boys and girls is
not nearly as large as that between children from wealthy
and poor households. Even so, gender disparity to the
disadvantage of girls for attendance in secondary schools
appears persistently in the sample of 55 countries, mirroring
global findings from the analysis of administrative data.
43
Caucasus & Central Asia
44
44
46
Developed regions
44
46
48
World
35
37
40
0
10
1990
20
2000
30
40
50
2010
Women’s share in paid jobs outside of the agricultural
sector increased slowly on a global basis, from 35 per
cent in 1990 to 40 per cent 20 years later. Significant
differences, however, exist among regions. While men
outnumber women in non-agricultural paid employment
in all regions, women and men are actually approaching
G oa l 3: P ro m ot e g en d er e q ua li t y a n d e m p ow er wo m en | 23
parity in the developed regions and in the Caucasus
and Central Asia. In Western Asia, Northern Africa and
Southern Asia, meanwhile, only 20 per cent or fewer
of non-agricultural work forces in 2010 were women.
Moreover, while some progress was made in Southern
and Western Asia, women did not gain any ground in
paid employment in Northern Africa.
Even where women represent a large share of wage
workers, they are not on an equal footing with men.
Although they may enter the labour market with the same
educational and skill levels as men, they face more barriers
in reaching top-level occupations. Globally, women
occupy only 25 per cent of senior management positions.
Women’s jobs tend to be concentrated at the lower end of
the labour market (i.e., less remunerative, less productive,
micro in scale) and in a narrower range of occupations and
activities (e.g., food processing, garment making, services).
Women, more often than men, turn to
the informal economy
Due to obstacles to employment in the formal economy
and a need to supplement family income especially
during a period of crisis, women more often than men
work in the informal sector or in informal employment.
More than 80 per cent of women working outside of
agriculture in Mali, Zambia, India and Madagascar,
and nearly three quarters of women in Peru, Paraguay,
Uganda, Honduras, Bolivia, El Salvador and Liberia, hold
informal jobs. The percentages are also very high in many
other developing countries.
Although men outnumber women in informal non-farm jobs
in most countries, in relative terms the situation is quite
different. In 27 out of 37 countries with data, women are
more likely than men to have informal jobs in formal or
informal sector enterprises, lacking social protection and/
or entitlement to employment benefits such as paid annual
or sick leave.
Women are also more likely than men to have informal
jobs in formal sector enterprises. In 22 out of 31 countries
with data on informal jobs in formal sector enterprises, the
percentage of women holding such jobs is higher than for
men, suggesting that women turn to these types of jobs
because they lack other opportunities or face barriers in
accessing formal employment.
On the other hand, men are more likely than women to
hold jobs in informal sector enterprises. In 26 out of 39
countries with available data, the percentage of men
employed in informal sector enterprises is higher than that
of women.
24 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Women continue to gain representation
in parliaments, but the pace is slow
Proportion of seats held by women in single or lower houses
of national parliaments, 2000 and 2012 (Percentage)
Oceania
4
3
Sub-Saharan Africa holds the second-highest regional
ranking in women’s representation in parliaments, 20 per
cent. Progress in sub-Saharan Africa was sustained thanks
to the existence of quotas—mainly reserved seats. But the
region experienced only small gains since last year. In
Asia, women made gains in only one country—Thailand—
in 2011 elections.
Northern Africa
3
11
Western Asia
4
11
Caucasus & Central Asia
7
At the other end of the spectrum are Oceania, Western
Asia and Northern Africa. Recent elections in Egypt saw
a drop in the percentage of women parliamentarians from
12.7 per cent to just below 2 per cent, with no effective
mechanism having been adopted in the electoral law to
facilitate seats for women. Only 10 women out of 508
members now hold parliamentary seats in Egypt. 17.56
South-Eastern Asia
12
18.46
Southern Asia
7
18
Eastern Asia
There were some encouraging developments in Northern
Africa. Tunisia adopted a law securing parity on
candidate lists, and the introduction of quotas for women
parliamentarians in Morocco resulted in a 6 percentage
point increase in women MPs last year. But the regional
averages of 11 per cent for Northern Africa and 11 per
cent for Western Asia are well below the global average.
19.9
19.5
Sub-Saharan Africa
13
20
Latin America & the Caribbean
15
23
Developed regions
16
23
Developing regions
12
18
World
14
20
0
5
2000
10
party that won a significant majority of seats (62 out of
90) had a voluntary party quota for women of 30 per
cent. In the 2011 elections, more than 50 per cent of its
seats were won by women—an indication that political
parties play a role in supporting and encouraging women
to run.
15
20
25
2012
By end-January 2012, women accounted for 19.7 per
cent of parliamentarians worldwide. This amounts to
nearly a 75 per cent increase since 1995, when women
held 11.3 per cent of seats worldwide, and a 44 per
cent increase over the 2000 level. While trends point to
an increase in women’s parliamentary representation, the
rate of representation remains low overall, and progress is
spread unevenly.
The highest level is found in the Nordic countries,
especially following recent gains in Denmark and Finland.
Among developing regions, Latin America and the
Caribbean continue to rank the highest, with a 23 per cent
average. It is Latin America that had the country with the
greatest progress in 2011: Nicaragua. The Nicaraguan
Transition periods offer an opportunity to address
inequalities of the past through the adoption of a
framework conducive to a greater role for women in
politics. More than a third of the countries with 30 per
cent or more women MPs are in transition from conflict. In
the “Arab Spring” countries, opportunities opening up to
ensure more women are voted into parliament have not
been used to the full so far.
In Oceania, women account for only 3 per cent of
parliamentary members. Two Pacific island States—Papua
New Guinea and Samoa—have begun to discuss or
have already adopted quota systems to break the status
quo.
Forty-nine chambers achieved 30 per cent or greater
female membership, up from 41 in 2010 and a seven-fold
increase over 1995. Of these, parliaments in Andorra
and in Rwanda surpassed 50 per cent. Little progress was
made with respect to the number of chambers with no
women, which decreased from 10 in 2010 to 7 last year.
Women made some progress in obtaining top positions
in parliament. In January 2012, women held 41 of the
271 speaker posts, just 15.1 per cent. This compared with
24 women in such posts in 1995. Parliaments that have
G oa l 3: P ro m ot e g en d er e q ua li t y a n d e m p ow er wo m en | 25
a woman speaker for the first time ever include Portugal,
Uganda, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and the
Russian Federation.
make a large electoral impact. But notably, once they run
for office, they are elected at about the same rate as men
despite challenges that may be different or more difficult.
Women are elected in greater numbers in systems of
proportional representation than they are in majority
electoral systems. The use of special measures or quotas
is also an important factor. Of the 59 countries that held
elections in 2011 for lower or single houses, 26 had
implemented special measures favouring women, and
electoral quotas were used in 17. Where quotas were
used, women took 27.4 per cent of seats, as opposed
to 15.7 per cent of seats in countries without any form of
quota.
The situation in executive branches is little more
encouraging than in parliaments. Although the number
of countries with women as Head of Government, Head
of State or both has more than doubled since 2005,
the total number—17—remains modest. The percentage
of women ministers worldwide also improved only
slightly, from 14.2 per cent in 2005 to 16.7 per cent
in 2012. Across the world, the most common ministerial
portfolios held by women ministers have tended to be
in social affairs, family and youth, women’s affairs or
education. This remains largely the case, although in
2012 employment and labour emerged as the fourth most
common ministerial portfolio held by women.
The data collected on elections in 2011 indicates that
women were not vying for seats in sufficient numbers to
Goal 4
Reduce child
mortality
Target
Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five
mortality rate
Child mortality falls by more than one third, but
progress is still too slow to reach the target
Under-five mortality rate, 1990 and 2010 (Deaths per 1,000 live births)
Sub-Saharan Africa
174
121
Southern Asia
117
66
Oceania
75
52
Caucasus & Central Asia
77
45
South-Eastern Asia
71
32
Western Asia
67
32
Northern Africa
82
27
Latin America & the Caribbean
54
23
Eastern Asia
48
18
Developed regions
15
7
Developing regions
97
63
50
0
1990
2010
100
150
200
2015 target
Considerable progress has been made in reducing under-five mortality
since 1990. In the developing regions, the mortality rate declined by
35 per cent, from 97 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 63 in
2010. Despite population growth, the number of under-five deaths
worldwide fell from more than 12 million in 1990 to 7.6 million in
2010.
Five of nine developing regions show reductions in under-five mortality
of more than 50 per cent from 1990 through 2010. Northern Africa
already has achieved the MDG 4 target, bringing down the child
mortality rate by 67 per cent, and Eastern Asia is close, with a 63 per
cent decline.
G oa l 4: R ed uc e c h i ld m o r ta li t y | 27
Despite determined progress, an
increasing proportion of child deaths are
in sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania have achieved
reductions of only around 30 per cent, less than half of
what is required to reach the target. Southern Asia is also
falling behind with a decline in the child mortality rate of
44 per cent between 1990 and 2010—insufficient to
reach the two-third reduction by 2015.
As some of the developing regions forge ahead, under-five
deaths in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia form a
larger share of the world total. The 6.2 million child deaths
in these two regions in 2010 corresponded to 82 percent
of such deaths on a global scale. On the positive side,
14 of 66 countries with at least 40 under-five deaths per
1,000 live births in 2010 had cut their under-five mortality
rate in half or more since 1990. Timor-Leste, Bangladesh,
Nepal, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Madagascar
and Bhutan recorded declines of at least 60 percent,
or more than 4.5 percent a year on average. In Niger,
Malawi, Liberia, Timor-Leste and Sierra Leone deaths per
1,000 live births were brought down by more than 100
during this period. Nine of these high achievers are from
sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, indicating that
substantial progress in these regions is possible.
Progress on child mortality is gaining
momentum
Annual rates of reduction in under-five mortality, by region,
1990-2000 and 2000-2010 (Percentage)
Eastern Asia
3.7
5.9
Northern Africa
5.6
5.7
South-Eastern Asia
3.9
4.1
Latin America & the Carribbean
4.5
Progress has not reached infants in the
first month of life as surely as for underfive year olds in general
3.9
Western Asia
3.9
3.4
Caucasus & Central Asia
2.2
As the rate of under-five deaths overall declines, the
proportion that occurs during the neonatal period—the first
month after birth—is increasing.
3.2
Southern Asia
3.0
2.9
Over the last two decades, almost all regions have seen
slower declines in neonatal mortality than in under-five
mortality. Globally, deaths within the first month of life fell
from 32 per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 23 in 2010. This
works out to an average annual decline of 1.7 percent
a year—much slower than the 2.2 per cent per year
reduction for under-five mortality, or than the 2.3 per cent
drop in maternal mortality, over the same 20-year period.
Sub-Saharan Africa
1.2
2.4
Oceania
1.7
1.9
Developed regions
4.1
3.7
Developing regions
1.9
2.4
0
2
1990-2000
4
6
8
2000-2010
Progress on under-five mortality in the developing world as
a whole has accelerated. Sub-Saharan Africa—the region
with the highest level of under-five mortality—has doubled
its average rate of reduction, from 1.2 per cent a year
over the 1990-2000 period to 2.4 per cent during 20002010. In Eastern Asia and in the Caucasus and Central
Asia, the rate of reduction has accelerated by 59 and 45
per cent, respectively.
Consequently, the share of neonatal deaths among underfive deaths worldwide has grown from about 37 percent
in 1990 to slightly above 40 percent in 2010. This trend is
expected to continue as under-five mortality declines. Eastern
Asia, for instance, has moved so quickly in cutting under-five
mortality rates overall, that neonatal deaths constituted a 57
percent share by 2010. In Southern Asia, neonatal deaths
account for 50 percent of under-five deaths.
Sub-Saharan Africa suffers a higher neonatal mortality
rate (35 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2010) than any
other region, and has recorded the least improvement over
the last two decades. Neonatal health will need to be
addressed more effectively if progress in these two regions
on overall child mortality is to continue at a rapid rate.
28 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Mortality is more likely to strike children
in rural areas
Children born into poverty are almost
twice as likely to die before the age of
five as those from wealthier families
Ratio of rural to urban under-five mortality rates, 2000/2010
Northern Africa & Western Asia
Ratio of under-five mortality rate for children from the poorest
20 per cent of households to children from the richest
20 per cent, 2000/2010
2.1
Eastern Asia (excluding China) & South-Eastern Asia
1.8
Latin America & the Caribbean
Southern Asia
1.7
2.7
1.4
Eastern Asia (excluding China) & South-Eastern Asia
1.4
Northern Africa & Western Asia
1.4
Caucasus & Central Asia
2.1
Sub-Saharan Africa
Developing regions
1.6
Sub-Saharan Africa
1
Higher mortality
in urban areas
2.8
Southern Asia
2.3
Caucasus & Central Asia
0
Latin America & the Caribbean
3
Equal
Higher mortality in rural areas
1.7
1.7
Developing regions
1.8
0
Note: Analysis is based on 82 developing countries with data on
under-five mortality rate by residence, accounting for 75 percent
of total births in developing countries in 2010.
1
Higher mortality
among the richest
20%
Equal
3
Higher mortality among
the poorest 20%
Note: Analysis is based on 73 developing countries with data on underfive mortality rate by household’s wealth quintile, accounting for 71
percent of total births in developing countries in 2010.
According to household survey data from 82 countries,
children from rural areas in developing regions are at a
disadvantage in terms of living beyond their fifth year.
Rural–urban disparities are the most pronounced in
Northern Africa and Western Asia, Eastern and SouthEastern Asia (excluding China) and in Latin America and
the Caribbean, where overall child mortality is quite low.
Children from the poorest 20 per cent of households also
face steeper odds in surviving their first five years of life; in
the developing regions as a whole, they are nearly twice as
likely to die before their fifth birthday as children in the richest
20 per cent of households.
Mothers’ access to education is a survival factor for under-fives
Ratio of under-five mortality rate of children of mothers with no education to that of children of mothers with secondary or higher
education, and of children of mothers with no education to children of mothers with primary education, 2000/2010
Northern Africa & Western Asia
Children of mothers with no education compared to children of
mothers with secondary or higher education
3.3
1.9
Latin America & the Caribbean
Children of mothers with no education compared to children of
mothers with primary education
3.3
1.6
Southern Asia
Note: Analysis is based on 78 developing countries with data on
under-five mortality rates by mother's education, accounting for
75 percent of total births in developing countries in 2010.
2.3
1.5
Mothers’ education remains a powerful determinant of
inequity. Children of educated mothers—even mothers
with only primary schooling—are more likely to survive
than children of mothers with no education.
Eastern Asia (excluding China) & South-Eastern Asia
2.1
1.3
Sub-Saharan Africa
2.0
1.4
Developing regions
2.7
1.5
0
1
Higher mortality Equal
among children
of educated mothers
2
3
4
Higher mortality among children of less educated mothers
It is possible to speed up the decline in under-five mortality
by expanding interventions that target the main factors.
Along with ensuring education, empowering women,
removing financial and social barriers to accessing basic
services, making critical services more available to the
G oa l 4: R ed uc e c h i ld m o r ta li t y | 29
poor and improving health system accountability are
policy measures that improve equity. An equity-focused
approach brings greatly improved returns on investment
by averting far more child deaths and episodes of
undernutrition, and by expanding key primary health and
nutrition interventions.
Improved measles immunization
coverage is saving lives, but not all
regions have advanced since 2000
Impressive as these gains are, they remain fragile. An
estimated 19.1 million children—many of whom are
the poorest and most marginalized, and live in hard-toreach areas—did not receive MCV1 in 2010. Coverage
levels in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia have not
yet reached 90 per cent. Moreover, reported measles
cases, after decreasing from 2000 to 2008 and
remaining stable in 2009, took a turn upward in 2010.
Large outbreaks were reported in Africa, the Eastern
Mediterranean, Europe, Eastern and South-Eastern Asia,
and Oceania.
Proportion of children in the appropriate age group who
received at least one dose of measles-containing vaccine,
2000 and 2010 (Percentage)
Oceania
66
59
Sub-Saharan Africa
55
75
Caribbean
76
76
Southern Asia
An important challenge is to resume progress in reducing
measles-related mortality cases and make further headway
on the measles objectives set forth in 2010 by the World
Health Assembly. Recent complacency and declines in
political and financial commitments to measles control
need to be addressed. Priorities are uniform high coverage
with two doses of MCV1 through routine services or SIAs,
and better suboptimal monitoring of subnational coverage
with the first and second doses of MCV1.
59
78
Western Asia
86
85
South-Eastern Asia
80
91
Latin America
94
94
Caucasus & Central Asia
93
94
Northern Africa
93
96
Eastern Asia
84
99
Developed countries
92
94
Developing countries
70
84
0
25
2000
50
75
in 2010. These gains are in part due to improvements in
routine coverage among children in the appropriate age
group who received the first dose of measles-containing
vaccine (MCV1), and to the successes of supplementary
immunization activities (SIAs) in vaccinating children who
are beyond the reach of existing health services. Through
increased routine immunization coverage and large-scale
immunization campaigns, sub-Saharan Africa has made
the most progress, with an 85 per cent drop in measles
deaths between 2000 and 2010.
100
125
2010
Reductions in measles-related mortality have made
important contributions to improvements in child survival.
Accelerated efforts to reduce measles deaths have resulted
in a 74 per cent reduction in global measles mortality,
from an estimated 535,300 deaths in 2000 to 139,300
Goal 5
Improve maternal
health
Target
Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the
maternal mortality ratio
Maternal mortality has nearly halved since 1990,
but levels are far removed from the 2015 target
Maternal mortality ratio, 1990, 2000 and 2010 (Maternal deaths per
100 000 live births, women aged 15-49)
Sub-Saharan Africa
850
740
500
Southern Asia
590
400
220
Oceania
320
260
200
Caribbean
280
220
190
South-Eastern Asia
410
240
150
Northern Africa
230
120
78
Latin America
130
96
72
Western Asia
170
110
71
Caucasus & Central Asia
71
62
46
Eastern Asia
120
61
37
Developing regions
440
350
240
Developed regions
26
17
16
0
100
1990
200
300
2000
400
2010
500
600
Target
700
800
900
G oa l 5: I m p rov e m at er n a l h e a lt h | 31
An estimated 287,000 maternal deaths occurred in
2010 worldwide, a decline of 47 per cent from 1990.
Sub-Saharan Africa (with 56 per cent of these deaths)
and Southern Asia (29 per cent) together accounted for
85 per cent of the global burden in 2010, with 245,000
maternal deaths between them. The number of maternal
deaths per 100,000 live births—the maternal mortality
ratio, or MMR—was also down, from 440 in 1990 to
240 in 2010, for the developing regions as a whole.
Nearly two thirds of deliveries in the
developing world are attended by skilled
health personnel
But the MMR in developing regions was still 15 times
higher than in the developed regions. At the high end,
sub-Saharan Africa had an MMR of 500. At the other
end of the scale in developing regions, Eastern Asia had
the lowest level, at 37 deaths per 100,000 live births.
Sub-Saharan Africa also had the largest proportion of
maternal deaths attributed to HIV, at 10 per cent, with the
Caribbean subregion close behind at 6 per cent. Of the
19,000 worldwide deaths formally referred to as “AIDSrelated indirect maternal deaths”, 17,000 (91 per cent)
were in sub-Saharan Africa.
Southern Asia
Proportion of deliveries attended by skilled health personnel,
1990, 2000 and 2010 (Percentage)
Sub-Saharan Africa
42
44
45
30
36
49
Caribbean
70
70
70
South-Eastern Asia
48
65
Western Asia
59
Northern Africa
74
68
51
75
71
Latin America
84
75
83
Eastern Asia
94
97
99
Developing regions
0
10
1990
92
20
55
59
30
40
2000
50
65
60
70
80
90 100
2010
A skilled health professional (doctor, nurse or midwife)
can administer interventions to prevent and manage
life-threatening complications such as heavy bleeding, or
refer the patient to a higher level of care when needed.
In developing regions overall, the proportion of deliveries
attended by skilled health personnel rose from 55 per
cent in 1990 to 65 per cent in 2010.
The regions with the highest maternal mortality, sub-Saharan
Africa and Southern Asia, are also those with the lowest
coverage of births attended by skilled health personnel—
less than half. In some regions that are approaching
high levels of coverage, such as South-Eastern Asia and
Northern Africa, progress has slowed during 2000-2010,
compared with the previous decade. Southern Asia stands
out, on the other hand, for an acceleration of skilled birth
attendant coverage since 2000.
32 | T h e Mi llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Antenatal care for pregnant women is up
across all developing regions
Southern Africa leads all other African
sub-regions in maternal care
Proportion of women aged 15-49 attended at least
once by skilled health personnel during pregnancy, 1990,
2000 and 2010 (Percentage)
Proportion of women in Africa aged 15-49 attended at
least once by skilled health personnel during pregnancy,
1990, 2000 and 2010 (Percentage)
Southern Asia
West Africa
58
53
54
71
North Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
69
71
58
61
77
73
63
77
62
77
82
Southern Africa
Northern Africa
54
71
Central Africa
Western Asia
53
66
67
90
91
94
79
0
Caribbean
85
88
20
1990
40
2000
60
80
100
2010
Note: Regions are according to the ECA classification. Data were
insufficient to calculate regional estimates for East Africa.
92
Eastern Asia
70
89
92
South-Eastern Asia
79
90
93
Latin America
72
90
96
Developing regions
63
0
10
1990
20
30
40
2000
50
60
71
70
80
80
90 100
2010
Antenatal care is also among the interventions that can
reduce maternal mortality and morbidity. The antenatal
period is critically important for reaching women with
interventions and information that promote health, wellbeing and survival of mothers as well as their babies.
Coverage—at least one visit with a doctor, nurse or
midwife—has progressively increased in developing
regions from 63 per cent in 1990 to 71 per cent in
2000, and then to 80 per cent in 2010.
Encouragingly, the rate of care accelerated in the recent
decade in Southern Asia, Northern Africa and Western
Asia. In South-Eastern Asia, Eastern Asia, and Latin America,
where a high rate of coverage of about 90 per cent had
already been achieved by 2000, progress slowed.
The African region presents large intra-regional disparities
in terms of coverage of basic maternal health interventions
like antenatal care. While Southern Africa reported almost
universal coverage in 2010, in West Africa about one
third of pregnant women did not receive antenatal care
visits.
G oa l 5: I m p rov e m at er n a l h e a lt h | 33
More pregnant women are receiving
care with the recommended frequency,
but gaps still exist in regions most in
need
Proportion of women aged 15-49 attended four or more times
by any provider during pregnancy, 1990, 2000
and 2010 (Percentage)
Sub-Saharan Africa
50
48
46
Southern Asia
24
27
48
Northern Africa
23
37
66
Caribbean
59
66
72
South-Eastern Asia
54
70
80
Latin America
71
82
89
Developing regions
37
43
55
0
20
1990
40
2000
60
2010
80
100
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends
a minimum of four visits for antenatal care, including, at
a minimum, screening and treatment for infections and
identification of warning signs during pregnancy. Across
most developing regions, there has been steady progress
in such coverage, with an acceleration in Northern Africa
and Southern Asia since 2000.
Despite this progress, in 2010 almost half of pregnant
women in the developing regions still did not have the
recommended number of visits. And in sub-Saharan
Africa, the proportion with enough visits has actually
fallen since 1990. Data on numbers of visits do not reflect
the critical factor of quality of care, which is difficult to
measure.
34 | T h e Mi llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Fewer teens are having children in most
regions, but progress has slowed
Number of births per 1,000 women aged 15-19,
1990, 2000 and 2009
Sub-Saharan Africa
126
122
120
Latin America
80
Caribbean
69
Oceania
65
62
Western Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa continues to have the highest birth
rate among adolescents (120 births per 1,000 adolescent
women), with little progress since 1990. In Latin America
and the Caribbean, the adolescent birth rate remains high
and only recently began to decline.
91
88
80
78
In countries where marriage at a young age is relatively
common, developing and implementing culturally
sensitive programmes to delay the age at marriage and
enacting and enforcing laws concerning a minimum age
for marriage could assist in further reducing adolescent
childbearing.
84
63
50
48
Southern Asia
46
88
58
South-Eastern Asia
54
40
45
Caucasus & Central Asia
44
28
29
Northern Africa
33
29
43
Eastern Asia
15
6
6
Developed regions
34
26
23
Developing regions
55
52
0
20
1990
40
64
60
2000
80
2009
Very early childbearing brings with it heightened health
risks for mothers and their infants. Early childbearing
is also linked to outcomes such as lower educational
attainment and poverty. In all developing regions, the
number of births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 19 years
decreased between 1990 and 2000. Since that time,
the rate of decline has slowed or even reversed in most
regions.
100
120
140
G oa l 5: I m p rov e m at er n a l h e a lt h | 35
The large increase in contraceptive use
in the 1990s was not matched in the
2000s
Increased access to safe, affordable and effective
methods of contraception has provided individuals with
greater choice and opportunities for responsible decisionmaking in reproductive matters. Contraceptive use has
also contributed to improvements in maternal and infant
health by serving to prevent unintended or closely spaced
pregnancies. Use increased rapidly from 1990 to 2000
in many regions, but since then the pace of progress has
tended to slow.
Proportion of women who are using any method of
contraception among women aged 15-49, married
or in union, 1990, 2000 and 2010 (Percentage)
Sub-Saharan Africa
12
18
25
Oceania
More than half of all women aged 15 to 49 who
were married or in a union were using some form of
contraception in 2010 in all regions except sub-Saharan
Africa and Oceania. Women in sub-Saharan Africa had
the lowest level of contraceptive prevalence, and their
2010 level of 25 per cent is even below that of other
regions in 1990. However, there is wide variation in
contraceptive use within the region, with a rapid increase
in some countries and minimal change in others. The
coming challenge to family planning programmes and
health services is the growing number of women of
reproductive age in this region.
28
32
38
Southern Asia
39
48
56
Western Asia
44
51
58
Caucasus & Central Asia
49
59
60
Caribbean
53
59
61
Northern Africa
44
58
62
South-Eastern Asia
48
57
63
Latin America
62
71
74
Eastern Asia
78
86
84
Developed regions
68
71
72
Developing regions
52
60
62
0
10
1990
20
30
2000
40
50
60
2010
70
80
90
36 | T h e Mi llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
The unmet need for family planning
remains persistently high in regions with
low levels of contraceptive use
Proportion of women who have an unmet need for family
planning among women aged 15-49, married or in union,
1990, 2000 and 2010 (Percentage)
Sub-Saharan Africa
27
26
25
Caribbean
As changes in contraceptive prevalence and the unmet
need for family planning have slowed globally over
the past decade, the proportion of demand for family
planning satisfied (that is, contraceptive prevalence
divided by overall demand for family planning) has
slowed as well, increasing from 78 per cent in 1990 to
83 per cent in 2000, and to just 84 per cent in 2010.
20
18
17
Western Asia
22
20
17
Southern Asia
22
18
16
Caucasus & Central Asia
19
14
13
South-Eastern Asia
19
16
13
Northern Africa
23
14
12
Latin America
17
12
10
Eastern Asia
6
3
4
Developing regions
16
13.5
12.8
0
5
1990
10
2000
15
20
2010
The unmet need for family planning—expressing the
percentage of women aged 15 to 49, married or
in a union, who report the desire to delay or avoid
pregnancy, but are not using any form of contraception—
has shown a slow decline over time. The rate of progress
in the developing regions has even decelerated between
2000 and 2010, indicating the potential for expansion
of family planning programmes. In sub-Saharan Africa,
for example, one in four women of childbearing age in a
marriage or union had an unmet need for contraception
in 2010.
25
30
G oa l 5: I m p rov e m at er n a l h e a lt h | 37
Aid to reproductive health care and family planning remains low
Official development assistance to health, total (constant 2010 US$ millions) and proportion going to reproductive health care and
family planning, 2000-2010 (Percentage)
Millions
Percentage
Total aid to health
(constant 2010 USD millions)
20,000
20,002
Aid to reproductive
health care (percentage)
18,660
18,066
50
16,872
Aid to family planning
(percentage)
40
15,427
15,000
12,500
30
9,701
10,000
10,030
7,716
6,554
5,000
20
6,338
11.5
9.3
10.7
6.1
8.4
5.7
5.6
3.2
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
8.5
6.5
5.1
1.0
1.8
1.3
2004
2005
2006
Funding for family planning services and supplies is key to
closing the gap in meeting the demand for contraception.
Yet aid for family planning as a proportion of total aid for
health declined over the past decade, with only a small
resurgence between 2009 and 2010, from 2.5 to 3.2
per cent of total aid for health. Funding necessary to meet
7.0
7.6
3.2
2007
10
5.7
6.2
3.3
2.5
3.2
2008
2009
2010
0
the demand for contraceptives is especially relevant, given
the growing number of reproductive age women and
of those wishing to use contraceptives in the developing
regions.
Goal 6
Combat HIV/AIDS,
malaria and other
diseases
Target
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
New HIV infections continue to decline in the
hardest-hit regions
HIV incidence rates (Estimated number of new HIV infections per year per 100
people aged 15-49), 2001 and 2010
Sub-Saharan Africa
0.59
0.41
West Africa*
0.34
0.30
Southern Africa*
1.92
1.08
North Africa*
0.02
0.02
Eastern Africa*
0.33
0.29
Central Africa*
0.54
0.37
Caribbean
0.09
0.05
South-Eastern Asia & Oceania
0.03
0.03
Latin America
0.04
0.03
Caucasus & Central Asia
0.01
0.03
Southern Asia
0.03
0.02
Eastern Asia
0.01
0.01
Western Asia
< 0.01
< 0.01
Developed regions
0.04
0.04
Developing regions
0.09
0.07
0
0.5
2001
1.0
2010
1.5
2.0
2.5
Range of estimates
* The composition of the five subregions in Africa is shown on page 67 in the
section on regional groupings.
G oa l 6: Co m bat H I V/A I D S , m a l a r i a a n d ot h er dis e a s e s | 39
severe in Southern Africa. The main route of transmission
in sub-Saharan Africa is heterosexual transmission.
Fewer people are becoming infected with HIV, with
the decline in new infections happening faster in some
countries than in others.
The Caribbean has the second highest regional HIV
incidence, although the growth of the epidemic has
slowed considerably since the mid-1990s.
Of the 33 countries where new infections have fallen,
22 are in sub-Saharan Africa, the region most affected
by the AIDS epidemic. Annual new infections in 2010—
2.7 million people, 390,000 of whom were children—
were 21 per cent lower than the 1997 peak and 15 per
cent lower than in 2001.
HIV incidence and prevalence is substantially lower in
Asia than in some other regions. But the absolute size
of the Asian population means it has the second largest
number of people living with HIV.
Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 70 per cent of new
HIV infections in 2010, while it is home to just 12 per cent
of the global population. However, the rate varies widely
within the region, as the epidemic continues to be most
In contrast to other regions, new HIV infections continue
to grow in the Caucasus and Central Asia. Injecting drug
use remains the leading cause.
More people than ever are living with HIV due to fewer AIDS-related deaths and the
continued large number of new infections
Number of people living with HIV, number of people newly infected with HIV and number of AIDS deaths in the world (Millions),
1990-2010
People newly infected with HIV and number of deaths due to AIDS (Millions)
People living with HIV (Millions)
4.0
40
35
3.5
3.0
2.5
25
26
27
29
31
30
31
31
32
32
33
34
30
30
25
23
2.0
20
21
19
16
1.5
15
14
12
1.0
10
10
9
5
0.5
0.0
1990
1991 1992
1993 1994
Number of people living with HIV
1995 1996
1997 1998
1999 2000
2001 2002
Number of people newly infected with HIV
At the end of 2010, an estimated 34 million were living
with HIV, up 17 per cent from 2001. This persistent
increase reflects the continued large number of new
infections along with a significant expansion of access to
life-saving antiretroviral therapy, especially in more recent
years.
The proportion of women living with HIV has remained
stable at 50 per cent globally, although women are
disproportionally affected in sub-Saharan Africa (59 per
2003 2004
2005 2006 2007
Number of deaths due to AIDS
2008 2009
2010
0
Range of estimates
cent of all people living with HIV) and in the Caribbean
(53 per cent).
The number of people dying of AIDS-related causes fell to
1.8 million in 2010, down from a peak of 2.2 million in
the mid-2000s. A total of 2.5 million deaths have been
averted in low- and middle-income countries since 1995
due to the introduction of antiretroviral therapy.
4 0 | Th e Mi llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Comprehensive knowledge of HIV transmission remains low among young people,
along with condom use
Percentage of women and men age 15-24 with comprehensive
knowledge of HIV transmission, selected countries, 2005/2010
Condom use among women and men 15-24 reporting multiple
sexual partners*, selected countries, 2005/2010 (Percentage)
Nigeria
Nigeria
22
29
33
56
Ghana
United Republic of Tanzania
32
28
34
36
Uganda
32
Mozambique
33
38
37
Cameroon
Kenya
32
34
37
67
Mozambique
Zimbabwe
36
34
38
59
Zambia
Uganda
38
39
41
45
United Republic of Tanzania
Zambia
39
42
43
42
Lesotho
Ghana
39
43
29
61
Malawi
Lesotho
42
42
46
60
Kenya
Malawi
48
48
46
55
Zimbabwe
Cameroon
53
68
46
0
10
Women
20
30
40
56
50
60
70
80
Men
Comprehensive, correct knowledge of HIV and AIDS
is fundamental to the uptake of HIV services and to
behavioural change. Yet such knowledge remains low in
sub-Saharan Africa, at 26 per cent among young women
and 35 per cent among young men (aged 15-24). In
eight of 11 countries with the highest numbers of new
infections in the region, there was a reported condom-use
rate of 45 per cent or greater among men. This relatively
widespread use contrasts with low knowledge levels
among both young men and young women in the same
countries. Condom use remains low among young women
in most countries. The limited condom use may be linked
with restrictions on availability. In sub-Saharan Africa, only
eight condoms are available per adult male per year.
0
10
Women
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Men
*Percentage of young women and men 15-24 who had more than one
partner in the past 12 months and who reported the use of a condom
during their last sexual intercourse.
Levels of access to HIV testing in the region also remain
low, particularly among young men. For this group there is
no entry point comparable to maternal health programmes
for young women, which provide testing and services for
the prevention of mother-to-child transmission. In nine of
the 11 countries considered, fewer than 20 per cent of
men were tested.
Several recent media campaigns have demonstrated the
potential of reaching large numbers of adolescents with
HIV prevention messages to increase knowledge and
to change behaviour. Such campaigns are especially
G oa l 6: Co m bat H I V/A I D S , m a l a r i a a n d ot h er dis e a s e s | 41
effective if the messages are complemented with sexuality
education and other communication content used with
adolescents.
In Kenya and Zambia, a television drama told the stories
of several friends as they navigated the turbulent waters
of life, love and HIV in a Nairobi university setting. An
evaluation found that 60 per cent of young people in
Nairobi watched the drama, and 90 per cent of viewers
reported changes in their thinking on HIV testing, concurrent
relationships and stigma. The airing of a TV drama in
Trinidad and Tobago also produced positive effects. In
Ukraine, 1 million people tuned in to the December 2009
television debut of a film focusing on young people and
their futures in a context of risky behaviour and drug use.
An evaluation showed that 42 per cent of viewers intended
to discuss the drama with friends, and that messages
around unsafe sex were transmitted clearly.
Technological innovations designed to improve HIV
services and to transmit information are particularly suited
to young people, many of them connected through cell
phones, the Internet and television.
Target
Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for
HIV/AIDS for all those who need it
Treatment for HIV grew at a record
pace in 2010, but fell short of the MDG6
target
Number of people receiving antiretroviral therapy (Millions),
2002-2010, and number of deaths due to AIDS-related causes
(Millions), 2000-2010
7
6
5
4
3
2
Inequalities in access to education
between orphans and non-orphans are
narrowing
In 2009, about 17.1 million children around the world
were estimated to have lost one or both parents to AIDS;
15.0 million of these children lived in sub-Saharan Africa.
Over the last three decades, there has been growing
interest and investment in protection, care and support for
children affected by HIV/AIDS. National monitoring data
show that these investments are paying off. Most countries
in sub-Saharan Africa have made significant progress
towards near parity in school attendance for orphans and
non-orphans 10-14 years of age.
1
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Number of people receiving antiretroviral therapy
Number of deaths from AIDS-related causes
At the end of 2010, 6.5 million people were receiving
antiretroviral therapy for HIV or AIDS in developing
regions. Although this represents an increase of over
1.4 million people from December 2009, the largest oneyear increase ever, the 2010 target of universal access
was largely missed.
Between 2008 and 2010, about 1.3 million new people
were enrolled and retained on antiretroviral therapy. At
this rate, less than 14 million people will be receiving
antiretroviral therapy at the end of 2015, over one million
short of the target agreed at the United Nations High-level
Meeting on HIV/AIDS, held in June 2011. In the current
economic context, reaching the 15 million target is likely
to depend on increasing the efficiency and efficacy of the
global HIV response.
42 | Th e Mi llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Access to treatment for people living
with HIV expands in all but one region
Proportion of people living with HIV who are receiving
antiretroviral therapy*, 2009 and 2010 (Percentage)
Northern Africa
20
24
Without treatment, approximately one third of children
born to women living with HIV will become infected in
the womb, at birth or through breastfeeding. The risk can
be greatly reduced by treating an expectant mother with
antiretroviral medicine. In 2010, an estimated 48 per cent
of pregnant women living with HIV in developing regions
received the most effective antiretroviral regimens—which
do not include single-dose nevirapine. Sub-Saharan Africa
is home to about 92 per cent of the 1.5 million pregnant
women who are in need of treatment each year.
Caucasus & Central Asia
21
26
Eastern Asia
23
32
Southern Asia
26
33
Sub-Saharan Africa
were receiving antiretroviral therapy at the end of 2010,
up from 350,000 at the end of 2009. These children
represented an estimated 22 per cent of all children under
15 who needed treatment in developing regions, up from
21 per cent in 2009.
40
49
South-Eastern Asia & Oceania
Target
48
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the
incidence of malaria and other major diseases
53
Latin America & the Caribbean
60
63
Significant and durable progress against
malaria is underway
Western Asia
66.2
65.8
Developing regions
40
48
0
10
2009
20
30
2010
40
50
60
70
80
90
Range of estimates
* Antiretroviral therapy coverage is measured among people
living with HIV with a CD4 cell count at or below 350
cells/mm3.
The share of people living with HIV receiving antiretroviral
therapy in developing regions continued to increase in
2010, rising to 48 per cent of the 13.7 million people
estimated to need treatment, up from 40 per cent in
2009. The largest gain in coverage, by 38 per cent,
came in Eastern Asia. In sub-Saharan Africa, by contrast,
treatment expanded by only 20 per cent. More than 50
per cent of eligible people in sub-Saharan Africa still are
not receiving antiretroviral therapy.
Ten countries, including three with generalized epidemics
(Botswana, Namibia and Rwanda), have already attained
universal access to antiretroviral therapy (defined as
coverage of at least 80 per cent of the population in
need).
Antiretroviral therapy coverage varies by sex and age.
In 2010, coverage was higher among women (53 per
cent) than among men (40 per cent). And coverage
among children in developing regions was lower than
among adults. About 450,000 children under age 15
Coverage of at-risk populations with malaria prevention
and control measures continues to increase, bringing
about a further decline in estimated numbers of malaria
cases and deaths. The malaria map continues to shrink,
and in 2011 one more country—Armenia—was certified
to be free of malaria.
Reductions in reported malaria cases of more than 50 per
cent have been recorded between 2000 and 2010 in
43 of the 99 countries with ongoing malaria transmission.
Downward trends of 25 to 50 per cent were achieved
in 8 more countries. There were an estimated 216 million
episodes of malaria in 2010, of which approximately
81 per cent, or 174 million cases, were in Africa. An
estimated 655,000 malaria deaths occurred in 2010, of
which 91 per cent were in Africa and 86 per cent were
children under 5 years of age. The estimated incidence
of malaria globally has decreased by 17 per cent since
2000, and malaria-specific mortality rates by 25 per
cent. Although these rates of decline were not sufficient
to meet the internationally agreed targets for 2010 of a
50 per cent reduction, they nonetheless represent a major
achievement.
G oa l 6: Co m bat H I V/A I D S , m a l a r i a a n d ot h er dis e a s e s | 43
Thanks to increased funding, more children are sleeping under insecticide-treated
bed nets in sub-Saharan Africa
Proportion of children under five sleeping under insecticide-treated mosquito nets, sub-Saharan Africa, early 2000s and late 2000s
(Percentage)
0.00 - 9.99
10.00 - 24.99
25.00 - 49.99
50.00 - 74.99
Data not available
Note: Map reflects borders as of 2010
International funding for malaria control has continued to
rise, enabling endemic countries to greatly improve access
to insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs). Moreover,
household surveys indicate that 96 per cent of persons
with access to an ITN within the household actually use
it. The percentage of children sleeping under ITNs in
sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to have grown from 2 per
cent in 2000 to 39 per cent in 2010.
In addition, programme data indicate that the reported
percentage of the population at risk who were protected
by indoor residual spraying (IRS) rose from less than 5 per
cent in 2005 to 11 per cent in 2010.
The number of rapid diagnostic tests and artemisininbased combination therapies procured is also increasing,
and available facility-level data indicate that the
worldwide percentage of reported suspected cases
receiving a parasitological test grew from 67 per cent in
2005 to 73 per cent in 2009. The largest increase was
in sub-Saharan Africa.
There are worrisome signs, however, that momentum,
impressive as it has been, is slowing, largely due to
inadequate resources. International funding appears to
have peaked at $1.9 billion in 2011, well short of the
$5-6 billion required for universal access to malaria
prevention and control measures. Within endemic
countries, domestic spending on malaria often remains
inadequate. Funding shortfalls jeopardize success in
achieving the health-related Millennium Development
Goals, especially in Africa.
Another reason for concern is that resistance to
artemisinins—a vital component of drugs used in the
treatment of P. falciparum malaria—has been reported
in a growing number of countries in South-Eastern Asia.
In 27 countries in Africa and 41 countries globally,
resistance to pyrethroids, the insecticides used in ITNs—
and most commonly used in IRS—has been reported.
Unless properly managed, such resistance potentially
threatens future progress.
4 4 | Th e Mi llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
The tide has been turning in the spread
of tuberculosis
Number of new tuberculosis cases per 100,000 population
(Incidence) (including people who are HIV-positive), 1990, 2002
and 2010
Sub-Saharan Africa
The absolute number of new cases has also started to
fall, although very slowly. Since 2006, the decline in the
incidence rate has been exceeding the rate of growth
in the world’s population. If this trend is sustained, the
world will achieve the target of halting the spread and
beginning to reverse the incidence of the disease.
The anti-TB drive is closing in on a 50 per
cent cut in the 1990 death rate
218
299
276
Oceania
Number of tuberculosis deaths per 100,000 population
(excluding people who are HIV-positive), 1990 and 2010
233
229
231
Oceania
56
South-Eastern Asia
33
235
224
213
South-Eastern Asia
51
28
Southern Asia
207
206
Southern Asia
42
184
27
Caucasus & Central Asia
116
143
132
Sub-Saharan Africa
37
30
Caucasus & Central Asia
26
20
Eastern Asia
157
105
83
Eastern Asia
20
Northern Africa
64
54
49
4
Latin America & the Caribbean
12
3
Latin America & the Caribbean
88
57
43
Northern Africa
8
5
Western Asia
8
4
Western Asia
57
43
32
Developed regions
8
4
Developed regions
38
33
27
Developing regions
0
50
1990
100
Developing regions
30
18
174
167
151
150
2002
0
10
1990
200
250
2010
300
350
400
Range of estimates
In 2010, there were 8.8 million people worldwide
newly diagnosed with tuberculosis, including 1.1 million
cases among people with HIV. Globally, incidence rates
peaked at 141 per 100,000 people in 2002 and have
been falling since then.
20
30
2010
40
50
60
70
80
90
Range of estimates
Mortality and prevalence rates for tuberculosis are falling
in most regions. It is estimated that there were 1.4 million
deaths from tuberculosis in 2010, including 350,000 of
people with HIV. Current projections suggest that the Stop
TB Partnership target of halving 1990 death rates by 2015
can be achieved at the global level and in several regions.
Trends in prevalence rates are more uncertain, but it is
estimated that 12 million people were living with the
disease in 2010.
G oa l 6: Co m bat H I V/A I D S , m a l a r i a a n d ot h er dis e a s e s | 45
More TB patients are successfully treated
Tuberculosis cases successfully treated among cases detected
under DOTS, 1994 and 2009 cohorts (Percentage)
Caucasus & Central Asia
73*
74
Worldwide, 5.7 million patients were officially notified
of their diagnosis in 2010, equivalent to a best estimate
of 65 per cent of all new cases. Among patients in the
2009 cohort, 87 per cent were successfully treated. This
was the third year in succession that the target of 85 per
cent of successfully treated cases was exceeded at the
global level.
Oceania
61
76
Latin America & the Caribbean
65
77
Sub-Saharan Africa
60
80
Although increasing numbers of tuberculosis patients
have access to high-quality treatment, more than one
third of new cases still go unreported and are not treated
in DOTS programmes. Worryingly, over 84 per cent
of the estimated 290,000 cases of multi-drug resistant
tuberculosis in 2010 were not being diagnosed and
treated according to international guidelines.
Western Asia
72
86
Northern Africa
80
87
Southern Asia
74
Moreover, many HIV-positive tuberculosis patients do
not know their HIV status and most of them are not yet
accessing antiretroviral therapy. Gaps in funding remain
large, despite increases over the past decade.
88
South-Eastern Asia
82
90
Eastern Asia
88
95
Developed regions
68
64
Developing regions
75
87
0
10
1994
20
30
40
2009
50
60
70
* Data refer to 1995
Between 1995 and 2010, a cumulative total of 46
million tuberculosis patients were successfully treated
under Directly Observed Treatment Short Course (DOTS)
strategy (during 1995-2005) and its successor, the Stop
TB Strategy (launched in 2006). Up to 7 million lives were
saved.
80
90 100
Goal 7
Ensure
environmental
sustainability
Target
Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country
policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental
resources
Forest area increase in Asia is helping to slow, but
not reverse, global losses worldwide
Net change in forest area between 1990 and 2000 and between 2000
and 2010 (Million hectares per year)
3.0
Africa
Asia
2.0
Europe
2.2
North &
Central
America
Oceania
South
America
1.0
0.9
0.7
<0.01 -0.04
0.0
-0.6
-0.3
-0.7
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-3.4
-4.1
-4.1
-4.2
-4.0
-5.0
Net gain
1990-2000
2000-2010
Net loss
1990-2000
2000-2010
The reduced rate of forest loss is due to less deforestation plus the
establishment of new forests, as well as the natural expansion of existing
forests. As a result, the net loss worldwide decreased over the last 20
years, from -8.3 million hectares per year in the 1990s to -5.2 million
hectares per year in the last decade.
South America and Africa saw the largest net losses of forest areas
between 2000 and 2010. Oceania also reported a net loss, largely
due to severe drought and forest fires in Australia. Asia’s net gain
of some 2.2 million hectares annually in the last ten years is mostly
attributable to large-scale afforestation programmes in China, India and
Viet Nam. Rapid conversion of forest lands to other uses continued in
many other countries in the region.
A decrease in forest area impacts negatively on the many socioeconomic benefits and services that forests provide. It is hard to assign
a dollar value to these benefits, but they include livelihoods for a
G oa l 7: En s ur e en v i ro n m en ta l s us ta in a bi li t y | 47
large proportion of the world’s population, especially
in developing countries, and serve as economic safety
nets in times of need. Globally, forest management and
conservation provide employment for around 10 million
people, and many more benefit directly or indirectly.
Aside from timber, forests provide food, fodder, wild
meat, medicinal plants and materials for utensils and
construction. Research suggests that women in the
developing world are integrally involved in the collection,
processing, marketing and sale of these products.
The economic crisis pushes down global
greenhouse gas emissions—slightly, and
for the short-term
Emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), 1990, 2008 and 2009
(Billions of metric tonnes)
Eastern Asia
3.0
7.7
8.3
Southern Asia
1.0
2.6
2.8
Latin America & the Caribbean
1.0
1.6
1.6
Western Asia
0.6
1.3
1.3
South-Eastern Asia
0.4
1.2
1.2
Sub-Saharan Africa
0.5
0.7
0.7
Northern Africa
0.2
0.5
0.5
Caucasus & Central Asia
0.5*
0.5
0.5
Oceania
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Developed regions
14.9
14.1
13.2
Developing regions
6.7
16.1
16.9
World
21.7
30.2
30.1
0.0
5.0
10.0
1990
2008
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
2009
*Data refer to 1992
Defying the long-term trend, carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions decreased globally—by 0.4 per cent, down
from about 30.2 billion metric tons in 2008 to some
4 8 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
30.1 billion metric tons in 2009. From 1990 through
2008, emissions had increased almost every year, with
particularly high growth since 2002. But even with the
unprecedented dip, 2009 emissions were still 39 per cent
above the 1990 level.
The 2009 reduction is attributable to slowing economic
activity during the global crisis. Emissions from developed
regions were especially affected, falling by 7 per cent
compared to 2008. In the developing regions as a
whole, the emissions continued to increase, but at a lower
rate than in previous years: by 5.4 per cent in 2009,
compared with about 10 per cent in 2004 and in 2003.
Overall, the decrease in the developed regions more than
offset the increase in the developing regions.
Per capita emissions remained far higher in the developed
regions, at 10 metric tons of CO2 per person in 2009
as against only 3 metric tons in the developing world
and just 0.6 metric tons in sub-Saharan Africa. But, as
in previous years, emissions per unit of economic output
were higher in the developing regions—0.6 kilograms of
CO2 per dollar of economic output, versus 0.37 kilograms
in the developed regions.
In 2011, the international community made another
step forward in enhancing the international climate
change regime. At the United Nations Climate Change
Conference in Durban, South Africa, it was agreed to take
stronger action on controlling climate change–inducing
greenhouse gas emissions. A process was launched
to develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an
agreed outcome with legal force under the Framework
Convention and applicable to all Parties, which would
come into effect and begin its implementation in 2020.
The Conference also acknowledged the gap between the
agreed reduction in emissions and the actual reduction
needed for planetary well-being, underlying the need to
further strengthen international action.
The small, crisis-driven decrease of global emissions in
2009 is clearly of a short-term nature and, once the
global economy recovers, the emissions are likely to move
upward again. Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions
remains topical and urgent.
The successful implementation of the
Montreal Protocol clears the way for
extending control to more substances
Consumption of all ozone depleting substances (ODSs),
1986-2010 (Thousands of metric tons of ozone-depleting
potential)
1,400
1,200
Developed regions
Developing regions
Caucasus, Central Asia, Eastern
and South-Eastern Europe
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
1986
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
The twenty-fifth anniversary of the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer comes this
year, 2012, with many achievements to celebrate. Most
notably, there has been a reduction of over 98 per
cent in the consumption of ozone-depleting substances.
Further, because most of these substances are also potent
greenhouse gases, the Montreal Protocol has contributed
significantly to the protection of the global climate system.
The reductions achieved to date leave hydrochlorofluoro­
carbons (HCFCs) as the largest group of substances
remaining to be phased out. Given the Protocol’s
successful track record, and status of universal ratification,
Governments have been considering an amendment
that would take on HFCs, a class of global warming
chemicals that are often used as substitutes for certain
ozone-depleting substances.
The parties to the Protocol are now hoping to achieve
universal ratification of all of the Protocol’s amendments as
well. Failure to ratify all of the amendments by the end of
the year could lead to the imposition of trade sanctions
on non-parties, which in turn would preclude them from
procuring HCFCs needed for a measured, thoughtful
phase-out.
For the other main categories of ozone-depleting
substances, the phase-out period is winding down.
Parties are now paying closer attention to several small
classes of exempted uses, through better tracking or
reporting, in order to identify and phase out uses that
G oa l 7: En s ur e en v i ro n m en ta l s us ta in a bi li t y | 49
have ozone-friendly alternatives. The Parties also continue
to discuss environmentally safe management and the
destruction of ozone-depleting substances, such as
those contained in obsolete stockpiles and in existing
equipment.
Target
Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss
Biodiversity is still being lost, even as more areas of the earth’s surface are protected
Growth in terrestrial areas protected, 1990-2010 (Percentage)
Under 1
1 - 10
10 - 100
Over 100
No data available
Growth in marine protected area (up to 12 nautical miles from land), 1990-2010 (Percentage)
No marine area
Under 1
1 - 10
10 - 100
Over 100
By 2010, protected areas covered 12.7 per cent of the
world’s land area, but such protection extended to only
1.6 per cent of the total ocean area.
Since 1990, protected areas have increased in number
by 58 per cent, and in their extent by 48 per cent. But
growth has varied widely across countries and territories.
Terrestrial protection doubled between 1990 and 2010
in 59 of 228 countries with available data, and marine
protection doubled in 86 of 172 countries with available
No data available
data. In contrast, growth of less than 1 per cent, or no
growth at all, occurred in the terrestrial protected area
system of 54 countries, and in the marine protected area
system of 35 countries.
Despite their relatively small extent, marine protected
areas have expanded at a faster pace than those on
land. The extent of protection increased especially in
costal waters out to 12 nautical miles—from 3.1 per cent
in 1990 to 7.2 per cent in 2010.
50 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
The most important sites for species
conservation remain unprotected
Conservation action is slowing the rate
at which species are moving towards
extinction
Proportion of key biodiversity areas completely covered
by protected areas, 1990-2007 (Percentage)
IUCN Red List Index of species survival (showing declines in
population and distribution as species move towards extinction),
birds, observed and expected, 1988-2008
50
0.922
40
0.921
30
0.920
0.919
20
0.918
10
0.917
0.916
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Important Bird Areas
2007
0.915
Alliance for Zero Extinction sites
Protected-area coverage of these important sites has
increased over time. But in terms of proportion, the
extent of protected area covering key biodiversity sites
as a share of overall conservation land preserves has
declined annually since 1950. Adequate protection
and management of AZEs and IBAs, among other
important sites, is called for to forestall extinctions,
safeguard ecosystem services, preserve the benefits that
people derive from these sites, and support international
commitments under the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
1994
2000
2004
2008
Observed RLI for birds
Note: Data refer to 10,993 Important Bird Areas and 588 Alliance
for Zero Extinction sites.
New research has confirmed that appropriately located
protected areas can reduce declines in status of species.
But despite an increase in these areas, half of the world’s
most important terrestrial sites for species conservation
remain unprotected. There are, for example, 588 Alliance
for Zero Extinction sites (AZEs), supporting the only
remaining population of one or more highly threatened
species. Fifty-one per cent of these critical sites are wholly
unprotected, as are 49 per cent of the 10,993 Important
Bird Areas (IBAs). Only 22 per cent of AZEs and 28 per
cent of IBAs are completely covered by protected areas.
1988
Expected RLI for birds in the absence of conservation action
IUCN Red List Index of species survival (showing declines
in population and range as species move towards extinction),
mammals, observed and expected, 1996-2008
0.862
0.860
0.858
0.856
0.854
0.852
0.850
1996
2008
Observed RLI for mammals
Expected RLI for mammals in the absence of conservation
action
Note: A Red List Index value of 1.0 means that all species are
classified as ‘least concern’, and hence none are expected to go
extinct in the near future. A value of zero indicates that all species
have gone extinct.
G oa l 7: En s ur e en v i ro n m en ta l s us ta in a bi li t y | 51
A substantial proportion of species in all taxonomic groups
examined to date are threatened with extinction, ranging
from 13 per cent in birds to 63 per cent in cycads, a
group of rare plants that have remained unchanged for
millions of years. Worse still, in those groups for which
trends in extinction risk can be quantified, many more
species are deteriorating in status than are improving.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s
(IUCN) Red List Index (RLI) quantifies trends in overall
extinction risk for sets of species. The index shows
that, while the status of the world’s birds, mammals
and amphibians is declining, trends would have been
considerably worse without conservation interventions.
These measures range from establishing protected areas
to controlling hunting of certain species. Absent these
actions, the RLI shows a substantially steeper decline—by
at least 18 per cent for both birds and mammals.
Conservation measures have produced a result equivalent
to preventing 39 bird species from moving one Red List
category closer to extinction between 1988 and 2008,
and to stopping 29 mammal species from moving one
category closer to extinction between 1996 and 2008.
Encouragingly, these figures are a gross underestimate,
particularly since they do not account for many species
that would have deteriorated even further without
conservation interventions. However, it remains the case
that overall declines are steep, and human-driven species
extinctions continue at unprecedented rates.
For amphibians, conservation action has yet to make
much impact. An important cause implicated in amphibian
declines—the fungal pathogen chytridiomycosis—was
discovered only recently.
Overexploitation of marine fisheries
reached a new peak in 2008
Proportion of overexploited fish stocks, 1974-2009 (Percentage)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1974
1979
1984
1989
1994
1999
2004
2009
In 1974, only 10 per cent of fish stocks were
overexploited—falling below the level of biological
sustainability and requiring strict management plans to
rebuild their stock abundance and restore productivity. By
1989, the rate of overexploitation had reached 27 per
cent. It then stabilized, with some fluctuations, until 2006.
Alarmingly, in spite of fisheries policy and management
actions taken by coastal States, the share of overexploited
fish stocks shot up again in 2008, to 32 per cent. In
2009, of 395 monitored fish stocks accounting for 70 per
cent of the global catch, 30 per cent were overexploited.
Among the remaining stocks, 57 per cent were estimated
to be fully exploited—producing catches at or very close
to the maximum sustainable level. Fully exploited stocks
may even be at risk of decline if not properly managed.
Only 13 per cent of stocks were underexploited—under
relatively low fishing pressure and holding a potential
for increased production—in 2009. However, these are
usually not large stocks, and their capacity to contribute
to increased worldwide production is limited. Despite
some advances, the global fishery faces ever-growing
pressures from demand, overcapitalization of fishing fleets,
degradation of habitats and environment, and climate
change. Fishery policy and management will need to
focus on overcapacity and on integration with national
political and economic decision making.
As a warning sign of continued and growing
overexploitation, global production of marine capture
fisheries peaked at 87.8 million tons in 1996 and
declined to 79.5 million tons in 2009.
52 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
The number of people using improved drinking water
sources reached 6.1 billion in 2010, up by over 2 billion
since 1990. China and India alone recorded almost half
of global progress, with increases of 457 million and 522
million, respectively.
Target
Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population
without sustainable access to safe drinking water
and basic sanitation.
The work is not yet done. Eleven per cent of the global
population—783 million people—remains without access
to an improved source of drinking water and, at the
current pace, 605 million people will still lack coverage
in 2015.
The world has met the MDG drinking
water target, five years ahead of
schedule
In four of nine developing regions, 90 per cent or more
of the population now uses an improved drinking water
source. In contrast, coverage remains very low in Oceania
and sub-Saharan Africa, neither of which is on track to
meet the MDG drinking water target by 2015. Over
40 per cent of all people without improved drinking water
live in sub-Saharan Africa.
Proportion of population using an improved water source,
1990 and 2010 (Percentage)
Oceania
55
54
78
Sub-Saharan Africa
49
75
61
Caucasus & Central Asia
88
87
94
South Eastern Asia
71
86
88
Western Asia
85
89
93
Southern Asia
72
86
90
Eastern Asia
68
84
91
Northern Africa
87
94
92
Latin America & the Caribbean
85
93
94
Developed regions
98
99
99
Developing regions
70
86
85
World
76
89
0
20
1990
40
2010
60
80
88
100
Target
In 2010, 89 per cent of the world’s population was using
improved drinking water sources, up from 76 per cent
in 1990. This means that the MDG target of halving the
proportion of the population without sustainable access to
safe drinking water has been met, five years ahead of the
2015 target. If current trends continue, 92 per cent of the
global population will be covered by 2015.
Since it is not yet possible to measure water quality
globally, dimensions of safety, reliability and sustainability
are not reflected in the proxy indicator used to track
progress towards the MDG target. As a result, it is likely
that the number of people using improved water sources is
an overestimate of the actual number of people using safe
water supplies. Continued efforts are required to promote
global monitoring of drinking water safety, reliability and
sustainability and to move beyond the MDG water target
to universal coverage.
G oa l 7: En s ur e en v i ro n m en ta l s us ta in a bi li t y | 53
Rural areas are still far behind cities in water access
Population with and without an improved drinking water source,
world, urban and rural residence, 1990 and 2010 (Millions)
4,000
Urban
Rural
130
653
3,000
In absolute terms, because of population growth, the
number of people without an improved source in urban
areas actually increased. In rural areas, on the other
hand, the number of people without an improved
source of water decreased, from 1.1 billion in 1990 to
653 million in 2010. However, the gap between urban
and rural areas still remains wide, with the number of
people in rural areas without an improved water source
five times greater than in urban areas.
1,139
109
2,000
3,343
2,747
2,142
1,000
Coverage with improved drinking water sources for
rural populations is still lagging. In 2010, 96 per cent
of the urban population used an improved drinking
water source, compared with 81 per cent of the rural
population.
1,896
0
1990
2010
1990
Using improved sources
2010
Not using improved sources
Poorer people in sub-Saharan Africa are at a disadvantage in access to drinking water
Drinking water coverage by wealth quintiles, urban and rural residence, sub-Saharan Africa, based on population-weighted averages
from 35 countries (Percentage)
Urban areas
Rural areas
100
21
80
6
8
13
36
32
100
66
53
60
32
80
57
53
46
60
62
64
40
40
59
59
62
20
20
39
25
34
43
15
0
5
Poorest
20%
Second
20%
Piped on premises
Middle
20%
Fourth
20%
Richest
20%
Other improved sources
Inequality remains a concern. An analysis of data from 35
countries in sub-Saharan Africa (representing 84 per cent
of the region’s population) shows significant differences
between the poorest and richest fifths of the population
in both rural and urban areas. Over 90 per cent of the
0
46
1
Poorest
20%
Second
20%
Middle
20%
52
2
Fourth
20%
9
Richest
20%
Unimproved sources
richest quintile in urban areas use improved water sources,
and over 60 per cent have piped water on premises. In
rural areas, piped-in water is non-existent in the poorest
40 per cent of households, and less than half of the
population use any form of improved source of water.
5 4 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
Women bear the main burden for collecting water in sub-Saharan Africa
Where water supplies are not readily accessible,
water must be carried from its source. According to an
analysis of data from 25 countries in sub-Saharan Africa,
representing 48 per cent of the region’s population,
women and girls bear the primary responsibility for such
water collection.
Distribution of the water collection burden among women,
children under age 15 and men, in households without
piped water on premises, sub-Saharan Africa, based on
population-weighted averages from 25 countries, 2006/2009
(Percentage)
6
Boys
Only one quarter of the population in these countries
had water on their premises in 2010. For the remaining
75 per cent, water had to be collected from some
distance. The time and energy devoted to this manner
of water collection is considerable, even under the most
conservative assumption of only one trip per day. For the
25 countries combined, it is estimated that women spend
at least 16 million hours each day per round trip; men
spend 6 million hours; and children, 4 million hours.
23
Men
62
Women
9
Girls
Despite improvement in most of the developing regions, the MDG sanitation target is
still out of reach
Proportion of population by sanitation practices, 1990 and 2010 (Percentage)
100 67
41
36
25
31
15
13
13
18
4
18
4
0
6
9
6
80
10
26
60
8
24
10
40
9
32
32
0
0
7
5
8
3
10
7
5
1
32
59
12
19
17
6
19
14
2
5
5
25
13
7
19
14
3
6
7
7
20
0 24
1990
41
26
2010 1990
Southern
Asia
Improved
30
46
2010 1990
Sub-Saharan
Africa
69
South-Eastern
Asia
Shared
55
55
2010 1990
68
2010 1990
Oceania
80
Latin America
& the Caribbean
Unimproved
72
2010 1990
90
80
85
2010 1990
Northern
Africa
Open defecation
27
66
2010 1990
Western
Asia
2010
Eastern
Asia
36
56
1990 2010
Developing
regions
G oa l 7: En s ur e en v i ro n m en ta l s us ta in a bi li t y | 55
Sanitation coverage increased from 36 per cent in 1990
to 56 per cent in 2010 in the developing regions as a
whole. Despite progress, almost half of the population in
those regions—2.5 billion—still lack access to improved
sanitation facilities.
The greatest progress was achieved in Eastern and
Southern Asia, where sanitation coverage in 2010 was,
respectively, 2.4 and 1.7 times higher than in 1990.
In contrast, progress was slowest in Western Asia and
sub-Saharan Africa, and no improvement was achieved in
Oceania over the 20-year period.
At the current pace, and barring additional interventions,
by 2015 the world will have reached only 67 per cent
coverage, well short of the 75 per cent needed to
achieve the MDG target.
The number of people forced to resort to open defecation remains
a widespread health hazard and a global scandal
The number of people who do not use any facility and
resort to open defecation has decreased by 271 million
since 1990. But there remain 1.1 billion people—or
15 per cent of the global population—with no sanitation
facilities at all. Daily, entire communities are exposed to
the considerable health and environmental hazards of
inadequate human waste disposal.
In 11 countries, a majority of the population still practices
open defecation. Even in countries with rapidly growing
economies, large numbers of people still must resort to this
practice: 626 million in India, 14 million in China and 7
million in Brazil. Nearly 60 per cent of those practicing
open defecation live in India.
In sub-Saharan Africa, access to sanitation is highly correlated
with wealth and residence
Proportion of population by sanitation practices and wealth quintile, urban and rural areas, sub-Saharan Africa,
based on population-weighted averages from 35 countries (Percentage)
Urban areas
Rural areas
100
4
9
21
1
100
9
19
80
32
14
80
44
26
35
27
61
60
37
60
37
40
91
40
80
39
40
34
70
59
20
24
42
15
0
Poorest
20%
49
20
Second
20%
Middle
20%
Improved and shared facilites
Fourth
20%
Richest
20%
Unimproved facilities
An analysis of data from 35 countries in sub-Saharan
Africa (representing 84 per cent of the region’s population)
shows that over 90 per cent of the households in the
richest urban quintile benefit from improved sanitation,
0
Poorest
20%
22
Second
20%
26
Middle
20%
33
Fourth
20%
Richest
20%
Open defecation
while access in rural areas falls below 50 per cent even
among the wealthiest households. In the poorest rural
quintile, over 60 per cent of households practice open
defecation.
56 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s Rep o r t 2012
Urban–rural differences in sanitation
coverage are starting to even out, but
remain stark
Target
By 2020, to have achieved a significant
improvement in the lives of at least 100 million
slum dwellers
Urban/rural ratio for the proportion of the population using
an improved sanitation facility, 1990 and 2010
Improvements in the lives of 200 million
slum dwellers bring achievement of the
MDG target, even as rapid urbanization
swells the ranks of the urban poor
Southern Asia
4.6
2.1
Sub-Saharan Africa
2.2
1.8
Oceania
Proportion of urban population living in slums, 2000 and
2012 (Percentage)
1.9
1.8
Sub-Saharan Africa
Western Asia
65
1.7
62
1.4
Southern Asia
Latin America & the Caribbean
2.1
1.4
46
35
South-Eastern Asia
South-Eastern Asia
40
1.9
31
1.4
Eastern Asia
Eastern Asia
37
3.3
28
1.3
Western Asia
Northern Africa
21
1.7
25
1.1
Oceania
Caucasus & Central Asia
1.1
1.0
24
24
Latin America & the Caribbean
29
24
Developed regions
1.1
1.0
Northern Africa
20
13
Developing regions
3.1
1.7
0
1
1990
2
3
4
5
Developing Regions
39
33
2010
Rural–urban disparities in access to sanitation are even
more pronounced than for access to drinking water. Eight
out of ten people use an improved sanitation facility in
cities around the world, compared to only half of the rural
population in the countrysides.
Fully 72 per cent of all those lacking access to improved
sanitation live in rural areas, as do 90 per cent of those
subject to the high-risk practice of open defecation (949
million people). This rural sanitation crisis persists even in
regions with high coverage of improved drinking water:
17 per cent of rural dwellers in Latin America and the
Caribbean and 9 per cent in Northern Africa still resort to
open defecation.
0
20
2000
40
60
80
2012
The share of urban slum residents in the developing world
declined from 39 per cent in 2000 to 33 per cent in
2012. More than 200 million of these people gained
access to improved water sources, improved sanitation
facilities, or durable or less crowded housing, thereby
exceeding the MDG target. This achievement comes well
ahead of the 2020 deadline.
But despite a reduction in the percentage of urban
population living in slums, the absolute number of slum
dwellers continues to grow. Fed by an accelerating pace
of urbanization, 863 million people are now estimated to
be living in slums compared to 650 million in 1990 and
760 million in 2000. The achievement of the MDG target
does not lessen the need to improve the lives of the urban
poor and to curb the increase in numbers of slum dwellers.
G oa l 7: En s ur e en v i ro n m en ta l s us ta in a bi li t y | 57
Progress has been made in measuring security of tenure
Taking into account that the target of improving the lives of
100 million slum dwellers has been reached, in April 2011
the UN-Habitat Governing Council adopted a resolution
to put in place global and national strategies and
frameworks extending beyond this objective. In particular,
the Council targeted improved security of tenure, as was
originally spelled out in the Millennium Declaration.
UN-Habitat and partners have now made considerable
progress in developing a methodology consistent across
countries and regions to measure security of tenure.
Observations using this method are being implemented
in 25 cities around the world through Urban Inequities
Surveys. People or households are considered to have
secure tenure when there is evidence of documentation
that can be used as proof of secure tenure status; or when
there is either de facto or perceived protection against
forced evictions.
At the outset of MDG monitoring, security of tenure was
selected as one of five indicators for assessing progress
on the slum target. However, due to lack of globally
comparable data, this component was not utilized in
estimates produced to date.
Households in cities around the world lack tenancy or ownership
documents, and many fear eviction
Proportion of households with adequate document for proof of ownership or tenancy, and proportion of households that feel secure
from eviction, selected cities, 2004/2007 (Percentage)
100
Have ownership
or tenancy document
Secure from eviction
88
86
80
79
77
74
78
81
79
73
73
70
64
60
59
54
61
55
40
20
0
Dakar
(Senegal)
Kolkota
(India)
Lagos
(Nigeria)
Mumbai
(India)
Cairo
(Egypt)
Sao Paolo
(Brazil)
Addis Ababa
(Ethiopia)
Casablanca
(Morocco)
Note: Data indicate that possession of ownership or tenancy document varies widely across cities—from the highest proportion of 88 per cent, reported
in Casablanca, to the lowest – 54 per cent – in Dakar.
The most visible violation of housing rights facing the
urban poor today is the practice of eviction without due
legal process. Despite existence of ownership or tenancy
documents among clear majorities in all cities surveyed,
insecurity regarding possible eviction is high, ranging from
45 per cent of inhabitants in Lagos to nearly 20 per cent
in Sao Paolo.
Measures to reduce the risk and stress associated with
lack of documents and fear of eviction are based on
recognizing and respecting a plurality of tenure systems,
including intermediate forms of tenure arrangements and
alternative forms of land administration and land records.
Goal 8
Develop a global
partnership for
development
Core development aid falls in real terms for
the first time in more than a decade, as donor
countries face fiscal constraints
Official development assistance (ODA) from developed countries, 2000-2011
(Constant 2010 US$ billions and current US$ billions)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2000 2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Net debt forgiveness grants
Multilateral ODA
Humanitarian aid
Total net ODA in current US dollars
2010 2011
(Preliminary)
Bilateral development projects, programmes and technical cooperation
In 2011, net aid disbursements amounted to $133.5 billion, representing
0.31 per cent of developed countries’ combined national income.
While constituting an increase in absolute dollars, this was a 2.7
per cent drop in real terms over 2010, the year official development
assistance (ODA) reached its peak. Clearly, fiscal constraints in several
countries belonging to the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of
the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
have affected their budgets.
If debt relief and humanitarian aid are excluded, bilateral aid for
development programmes and projects fell by 4.5 per cent in real
terms.
In 2011, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden
continued to exceed the United Nations ODA target of 0.7 per cent of
gross national income (GNI). The largest donors by volume were the
United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Japan. In real
terms, the largest rises in ODA were registered by Italy, New Zealand,
Sweden and Switzerland. By contrast, ODA fell in 16 of the 23 DAC
countries, with the largest cuts recorded in Austria, Belgium, Greece,
G oa l 8: D e v elo p a g lo ba l pa r tn er s h i p f o r d e v elo pm en t | 59
Japan and Spain. G7 countries provided 69 per cent of
DAC ODA; DAC-EU countries contributed 54 per cent.
Aid had been steadily increasing for more than a decade.
Net ODA rose by 63 per cent between 2000 and the
peak year, 2010. ODA has long been considered a
stable source of development financing. It cushioned the
immediate impact of previous financial crashes, such
as the Mexican debt crisis in the early 1980s and the
recession of the early 1990s.
Looking ahead, the OECD-DAC Survey on Donors’
Forward Spending Plans for 2012 to 2015 suggests that
global country programmable aid (CPA) may rise by
6 per cent in real terms in 2012. However, this is mainly
due to expected increases in soft loans from multilateral
agencies funded from capital replenishments during 20092011. From 2013, global CPA is projected to stagnate.
Such a development would confirm earlier findings that it
takes several years from the onset of a recession for the
full impact to be felt on aid flows.
Based on donors’ current projections, there may be a
slowdown in incoming aid from 2013 that varies among
developing regions. CPA in Latin America is likely to
continue to fall, while it may rise somewhat for Southern
and Central Asian countries, including Bangladesh,
Myanmar and Nepal. The Survey projects few changes
in CPA for Africa, although recent events in the Sahel
and North African countries may result in some upward
reprogramming. For countries defined as being in fragile
situations (46 countries in 2011), the Survey projects little
change in total CPA. The largest increases are expected
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Kenya, and
the largest declines in Haiti and Afghanistan.
In 2009-2010, out of an average annual total of
$94.7 billion of sector-allocable aid, $24.9 billion—or
26 per cent—was directed to the achievement of the
goals of gender equality and women’s empowerment.
Target
Address the special needs of the least developed countries, landlocked countries and small island developing states
Aid dips as a share of total donor income, as well as for LDCs and sub-Saharan Africa
Net official development assistance from OECD-DAC countries
as a proportion of donors’ gross national income,
1990-2011 (Percentage)
Total ODA
0.40
ODA to LDCs
0.35
ODA as a percentage of the combined GNI of donors
belonging to OECD-DAC increased between 2000 and
2010, reaching 0.32, before declining to 0.31 per cent
in 2011.
Aid continues to concentrate on the poorest countries, with
the group of least developed countries (LDCs) receiving
about one third of donors’ total aid flows. ODA to LDCs
rose slowly from a low of 0.05 per cent in the late 1990s
to 0.11 per cent of donors’ GNI in 2010—bringing it
closer to the United Nations target of 0.15 per cent.
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
2011
(preliminary)
Bilateral aid to sub-Saharan Africa (where 31 of the 48
LDCs are located, as well as 14 of the 31 landlocked
developing countries) was $28.0 billion in 2011,
representing a fall of 0.9 per cent in real terms compared
with the previous year. By contrast, aid to the African
continent increased by 0.9 per cent, to $31.4 billion, as
donors provided more aid to Northern African countries
after the revolutions in the region. Between 2010 and
2011, the LDCs also experienced a reduction in incoming
net bilateral ODA flows of 8.9 per cent in real terms, to
$27.7 billion.
6 0 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Target
Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system
Trade rebounds after the crisis, with market access largely unimpaired
World trade bounced back after the 2008-2009
collapse that accompanied the global financial crisis. The
recovery was particularly strong for developing countries,
whose value of exports surpassed pre-crisis levels. While
interest groups seized the opportunity of the crisis to call
for renewed protectionism, the incidence of such actions
remained very limited in developed economies and did
not affect the market access of developing countries.
On the other hand, the critical situation faced by most
developed economies and the difficulties encountered in
the negotiation of the Doha Round were not conducive
to new trade initiatives. Progress, accordingly, remained
limited. Still, the average of tariffs imposed by developed
countries is now at a low level. The greatest potential for
further progress on market access for developing countries
currently lies with possibilities for lowering barriers of entry
into emerging markets.
Least developed countries benefit from true preferential treatment
in trade with richer nations
Proportion of developed country imports from developing
countries admitted duty-free under true preference and
duty-free under most favoured nation treatment (MFN)*
1996-2010 (Percentage)
Proportion of developed country imports from the least
developed countries (LDCs) admitted duty-free under true
preference and duty-free under most favoured nation treatment
(MFN)* 1996-2010 (Percentage)
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
1996
1998
2000
2002
Duty-free under true preference
2004
2006
2008
2010
Duty-free under MFN
Thanks to the strong levels of exports from the developing
countries in general over the past decade, preferential
arrangements conceded by developed countries tended
to focus more on least developed and low-income
countries. While there is a similarity between overall
duty-free access granted to developing and to least
developed countries, now close to the 80 per cent mark,
most of LDC access is truly preferential. This is because
LDC exports benefit from a preference margin in relation
to other competing products, which have to pay the most
favoured nation (MFN) duty tax. In contrast, when exports
from non-LDC developing countries access developed
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
* Duty-free under true preference is calculated by subtracting from the
total duty-free access all products receiving duty free treatment under
the most-favoured-nation treatment (MFN) regime.
economy markets free of duty, it is generally because the
product is no longer taxed under the MFN regime. In
this case, there is no particular preference with respect to
other trade partners.
It should be noted that MFN-duty free includes not only
raw products, but also processed manufactures. Under the
Information Technology Agreement, production and trade
of electronic equipment has rapidly burgeoned among the
more advanced developing countries.
-10
G oa l 8: D e v elo p a g lo ba l pa r tn er s h i p f o r d e v elo pm en t | 61
1996
Average tariffs decline for agricultural products only
Developed countries' average tariffs on imports of key products
from developing countries and preferential margin received,
1996-2010 (Percentage)
15
1998
2000
2002
Agricultrual goods
Clothing
Textiles
2004
2006
2008
2010
Margin agricultural goods
Margin clothing
Margin textiles
Developed countries' average tariffs on imports of key products
from the least developed countries (LDCs) and preferential
margin received, 1996-2010 (Percentage)
15
10
10
5
5
0
0
-5
-5
-10
-10
1996
1998
2000
2002
Agricultrual goods
Clothing
Textiles
2004
2006
2008
2010
Margin agricultural goods
Margin clothing
Margin textiles
0
Except
for agricultural products exported by LDCs, the
margin of preference granted by developed countries on
imports
intensive in unskilled labour (from both developing
-5
countries and LDCs) has remained practically constant
over the past decade.
-10
1998
2000
Agricultrual goods
Clothing
Textiles
2002
2004
2006
2008
Margin agricultural goods
Margin clothing
Margin textiles
1998
2000
Agricultrual goods
Clothing
Textiles
The
decrease in tariffs applied to products exported by
Developed countries' average tariffs on imports of key products
developing
least developed
countries
in 2010 was
from the leastand
developed
countries (LDCs)
and preferential
margin received,
1996-2010
significant
only in
the case(Percentage)
of agricultural products. The
result was an increase in the margin of preference over
15
the MFN tariff, especially notable in the case of LDCs.
On the other hand, average tariffs paid on clothing
10
imports
originating from LDCs recorded a small increase.
This was due to larger purchases by the United States of
products exported by those Asian LDCs (Bangladesh and
5
Cambodia) that do not benefit from LDC preferences in
the United States market for their clothing exports.
1996
1996
2010
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Margin agricultural goods
Margin clothing
Margin textiles
The average across beneficiary countries, however,
masks a wide heterogeneity. Small island States and
African LDCs, as well as other low-income African
countries, benefit from a virtually complete preferentialduty exemption on clothing, and a very low tariff on
agricultural exports. But Asian LDCs still have to pay
about 3 per cent duty on their agriculture and textile
exports and 7 per cent on clothing.
In addition, the actual rate of utilization of these
preferential schemes can vary, due to conditions that
impede or limit their use—for example, rules of origin
or high administrative costs. The rate of utilization of
preference varies according to countries but has been
improving over time. It is now estimated to be about 85
per cent of all eligible imports.
62 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Target
Deal comprehensively with developing countries’ debt
Interrupted in 2009, the downward
trend of developing countries’ debtservice ratios resumes
Debt service as a proportion of exports
has improved from even pre-crises
levels in the developing world, although
not for LDCs and small island States
External debt service payments as proportion of export
revenues, 2008, 2009 and 2010 (Percentage)
Western Asia
9.2
8.8
9.0
External debt service payments as proportion of export
revenues, all developing countries, 2000-2010 (Percentage)
Northern Africa
14.0
12.0
12.6
11.6
4.7
6.6
11.7
Latin America & the Caribbean
10.0
7.9
8.0
7.4
6.9
7.2
6.3
6.8
South-Eastern Asia
3.0
6.0
4.1
4.0
4.0
11.3
3.4
3.6
4.0
3.0
3.0
Southern Asia
2.0
5.1
3.6
2.9
0.0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
A country’s external debt burden affects its
creditworthiness and vulnerability to economic shocks.
Better debt management, the expansion of trade and,
for the poorest countries, substantial debt relief have
reduced the burden of debt service. Between 2000
and 2008, the ratio of public and publicly guaranteed
debt service to exports for developing regions declined
substantially, from 12.6 per cent to 3.4 per cent. The
trend was interrupted by the sharp fall of export revenues
due to the 2009 economic crisis, when export earnings
of developing countries declined by 17.6 per cent and
total public debt service remained at about the same
level as in 2008. In 2010, export earnings of developing
countries rebounded by 23.4 per cent and total public
debt service remained steady. This reinstated the longerterm downward trend in the average ratio of public debt
service to exports.
Sub-Saharan Africa
2.5
3.9
2.7
Oceania
2.8
1.9
1.6
Caucasus & Central Asia
0.7
1.1
1.1
Eastern Asia
0.6
0.6
0.6
Developing regions
3.4
3.6
3.0
Small island developing
7.6
9.3
10.9
Least developed countries
2.9
5.3
3.7
0
2
2008
4
2009
6
8
10
12
2010
In some regions, including Latin America and the
Caribbean, Southern Asia and Oceania, ratios of external
debt payments to export revenues have fallen below
G oa l 8: D e v elo p a g lo ba l pa r tn er s h i p f o r d e v elo pm en t | 63
these, 36 countries have reached the “decision point”
stage in the process and have had future debt payments
reduced by $59 billion (in end-2010 net present value
terms); and 32 that have reached their “completion point”
have received additional assistance of $33 billion (in end2010 net present value terms) under the Multilateral Debt
Relief Initiative.
their 2008 level. Debt-service burdens also declined
in Western Asia, Northern Africa and the small island
developing States, but as export earnings also continued
to decline in 2010, the ratio continued to increase.
Forty countries are eligible for debt relief under the
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. Of
Target
In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and
communications
The extraordinary rise in mobile cellular subscriptions continues in the developing world
Number of fixed-telephone and mobile-cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, 1995-2011
120
Mobile-cellular subscriptions, developed regions
Fixed-telephone subscriptions, developed regions
Mobile-cellular subscriptions, developing regions
Fixed-telephone subscriptions, developing regions
100
80
60
40
20
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011*
* Data for 2011 are preliminary estimates.
By the end of 2011, the number of mobile cellular
subscriptions had grown to an estimated six billion,
including 1.2 billion active mobile broadband
subscriptions. This increase brings mobile cellular
penetration levels to 87 per cent worldwide and 79
per cent in the developing regions. At the same time,
more than one third of the world’s population is using
the Internet, increasingly through high-speed broadband
Internet access.
Key factors driving consumer demand, and allowing
more and more people to join the information society, are
technological progress, user-oriented services, information
and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure
investments and falling ICT service prices.
Mobile cellular subscriptions continue to rise yearly at
double-digit growth rates in the developing world. In
2011, 75 per cent of the worldwide subscriptions were
in the developing regions, up from 59 per cent in 2006.
Mobile cellular penetration in sub-Saharan Africa now
exceeds 50 per cent, compared to a fixed telephone
penetration of only 1 per cent of the population.
By the end of 2011, moreover, over 160 countries in the
world had launched 3G mobile broadband services and
45 per cent of the population worldwide was covered by
a high-speed mobile broadband signal.
6 4 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o r t 2012
Almost two thirds of Internet users worldwide are now in developing regions,
although rate of use is lagging in Africa
Number of Internet users, 2006
Number of Internet users, 2011*
Total population: 6.6 billion
Total population: 7 billion
37% of
all users
5,428
649
503
Not using the Internet
915
56% of
all users
4,524
44 % of
all users
1,532
Internet users in developed regions
63% of
all users
Internet users in developing regions
* Data for 2011 are preliminary estimates.
The number of Internet users continues to grow rapidly. By
the end of 2011, close to 35 per cent, or more than one
third, of the world’s population was online. Developing
countries have increased their share of total users sharply.
In 2006, these countries accounted for 44 per cent of
all users, at a time when only 18 per cent of the world’s
population was online. The developing world share of the
world’s Internet users rose to 63 per cent in 2011, when
35 per cent of the world was online.
Major regional differences remain, however. While
Internet penetration levels in the developing regions rose
to 26 per cent by the end of 2011, they remain below 15
per cent in sub-Saharan Africa.
G oa l 8: D e v elo p a g lo ba l pa r tn er s h i p f o r d e v elo pm en t | 65
A global “digital divide” remains
in terms of quantity and quality of
broadband Internet access
Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 population, 2001-2011
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011*
Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 population,
2007-2011
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2007
2008
2009
Developed regions
Developing regions
* Data for 2011 are preliminary estimates.
2010
2011*
As the number of broadband subscriptions worldwide—
both fixed and mobile—takes off, the majority of
Internet users now access the Internet over highspeed connections. In the developing regions, mobile
broadband penetration stood at 8.5 per cent at the close
of 2011, compared with 4.8 per cent fixed broadband
penetration.
Mobile technology and services have helped to
overcome major infrastructure barriers and brought more
people online. But there is an important broadband
divide, between regions and between developed and
developing countries, in terms of capacity, quality and
speed. While in developed economies an increasing
number of fixed broadband subscriptions provide speeds
of above 10 Mbit/s, many subscriptions in developing
countries are slower than 2 Mbit/s. Slow delivery limits
the type and quality of applications and services that can
be accessed over the Internet.
Mobile broadband technology helps to increase
coverage and mobility. However, currently deployed
mobile networks and providers usually allow only limited
data access, often at lower speeds, making mobile
broadband subscriptions unsuitable for intensive users,
and in particular for businesses and institutions. This limits
the potential and benefit of mobile broadband services
when used to replace, rather than complement, fixed (or
wired) broadband access.
6 6 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o rt 2012
A note to the reader
Measuring progress towards the MDGs
Progress towards the eight Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) is measured through 21 targets and 60
official indicators.1 This report presents an accounting to
date of how far the world has come in meeting the goals
using data available as of June 2012.2
Most of the MDG targets have a deadline of 2015, using
1990 as the baseline against which progress is gauged.
Country data are aggregated at the subregional and
regional levels to show overall advances over time.
The composition of MDG regions and subregions is
based on United Nations geographical divisions, with
some modifications necessary to create—to the extent
possible—groups of countries for which a meaningful
analysis can be carried out. In addition to the MDG
regional groupings, the report also shows data for
subregions in Africa, based on the classification adopted
by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa.3
Although the aggregate figures are a convenient way
to track progress, the situation of individual countries
within a given region may vary significantly from regional
averages. Data for individual countries, along with the
composition of all regions and subregions, are available
at http://mdgs.un.org.
The basis for this analysis
Regional and subregional figures presented in this report
are compiled by members of the United Nations InterAgency and Expert Group on MDG Indicators (IAEG).
In general, the figures are weighted averages of country
data, using the population of reference as a weight. For
each indicator, individual agencies were designated as
official providers of data and as leaders in developing
methodologies for data collection and analysis (see
below for a list of contributing organizations).
Data are typically drawn from official statistics provided
by governments to the international agencies responsible
for the indicator. To fill data gaps, data for many of the
indicators are supplemented by or derived exclusively
from data collected through surveys sponsored and
carried out by international agencies. These include many
1 The complete list of goals, targets and indicators is available
at http://mdgs.un.org.
2 Given the time lag between collecting data and analysing
them, few indicators can be compiled for the current year.
Most of them are based on data from earlier years—
generally up to 2010 or 2011.
3 The composition of these sub-regions is shown in the next
section “Regional groupings”.
of the health indicators, which are compiled, for the most
part, from Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) and
Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS).
In some cases, countries may have more recent data that
have not yet become available to the relevant custodian
agency. In other cases, countries do not produce the data
required to compile the indicator, and the responsible
international agencies estimate the missing values. Even
when national data are available, adjustments are often
needed to ensure international comparability. Data from
international sources, therefore, often differ from those
available within countries.
The United Nations Statistics Division maintains the official
website of the IAEG and its database (http://mdgs.
un.org). In an effort to improve transparency, the country
data series in the database are given colour codes to
indicate whether the figures are estimated or provided
by national agencies; they are also accompanied
by metadata with a detailed description of how the
indicators are produced and the methodologies used for
regional aggregations.
Improving monitoring systems
Reliable, timely and internationally comparable data on
the MDG indicators are crucial for devising appropriate
policies and interventions needed to achieve the MDGs
and for holding the international community to account.
They are also important in encouraging public support
and funding for development, allocating aid effectively,
and comparing progress among regions and across
countries. Although considerable progress is being made,
reliable statistics for monitoring development remain
inadequate in many poor countries. Building statistical
capacity in those countries demands increased and
well-coordinated financial and technical support from
development partners. It also requires country ownership
and government commitment to spur the institutional
changes needed to ensure the sustainability of capacitybuilding efforts.
As a result of recent efforts, data availability in the
international series for the assessment of trends for all
MDGs has continued to improve. In 2011, 122 countries
had data for at least two points in time for 16 to 22
indicators; in contrast, only four countries had this data
coverage in 2003.
R EG IONAL G ROUPING S | 67
Regional groupings
Developed regions
Northern Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
South-Eastern Asia
Eastern Asia
Southern Asia
Western Asia
Caucasus & Central Asia
Oceania
Latin America & the Caribbean
This report presents data on progress towards the
Millennium Development Goals for the world as a whole
and for various country groupings. These are classified
as “developing” regions and “developed” regions.* The
developing regions are further broken down into the
subregions shown on the map above. These regional
groupings are based on United Nations geographical
divisions, with some modifications necessary to create,
to the extent possible, groups of countries for which a
meaningful analysis can be carried out. A complete list
of countries included in each region and subregion is
available at mdgs.un.org.
African subregions
For some MDG indicators, data are presented
separately for smaller subregions in Africa, based
on the classification adopted by the United Nations
Economic Commission for Africa.
The designations employed and the presentation of
the material in the present publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the
Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
* Since there is no established convention for the designation
of “developed” and “developing” countries or areas in
the United Nations system, this distinction is made for the
purposes of statistical analysis only.
North Africa
West Africa
Central Africa
Eastern Africa
Southern Africa
6 8 | T h e M i llenn ium D e v elo pm en t G oa l s R ep o rt 2012
Contributing agencies
For more information visit the UN Statistics Division
Millennium Development Goals website at http://mdgs.un.org
Contributions on data and analysis for each indicator
presented for the eight goals were provided by individual
agencies as indicated below:
Visit the UN Millennium Development Goals website at
www.un.org/millenniumgoals
•• Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger: FAO,
ILO, UNHCR, UNICEF and World Bank
Visit the UN Millennium Campaign Office website at
www.endpoverty2015.org
Photo credits:
•• Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education: UNESCO
Cover:
•• Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower
women: ILO, IPU and UNESCO
Page 2: ©Mohammad Popal/IRIN
•• Goal 4: Reduce child mortality: UNICEF and WHO
Page 7: © Manoocher Deghati/IRIN
•• Goal 5: Improve maternal health: OECD, UNFPA,
UNICEF, United Nations Population Division and WHO
•• Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases:
UNAIDS, UNICEF and WHO
•• Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability: CIDIAC,
FAO, IUCN, UNEP, UNEP-WCMC, UNICEF,
UNFCCC and UN-Habitat
•• Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development:
ITC, ITU, OECD, UNCTAD, World Bank and WTO
©UNDP Picture This/Kaushik Majumder, India
Page 6: © Tun Tun Aung/Mandalay
Page 8: © UNDP Picture This/Victor Diaz Kintanar, Philippines
Page 9: © Tommy Trenchard/IRIN
Page 14: © UN Photo/Martine Perret
Page 16: © Tun Tun Aung/Mandalay
Page 17: © UNICEF/Marco Dormino
Page 19: © UN Photo/Kibae Park
Page 20: © FAO/Giulio Napolitano
Page 21: © UNDP Picture This/Trinh Te Ha, Viet Nam
Page 23: © UNDP Picture This/Rabin Chakrabarti, India
Page 25: © UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Page 26: © Sara Duerto Valero/United Nations
Page 29: © Nancy Palus/IRIN
Page 30: © UN Photo/Martine Perre
Page 33: © IRIN Babe
Page 34: © David Longstreath/IRIN
Page 37: © UNDP Picture This/Chetan Soni, India
Page 38: © UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe
Page 45: © Siegfried Modola/MSF
Page 46: © UN Photo/Ky Chung
Page 47: © UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe
Page 58: © Sara Duerto Valero/United Nations
Page 61: © Siegfried Modola/IRIN
Page 64: © UNDP Picture This/Devendra Sharma, India
Editor: Timothy Wall
Copyright © United Nations, 2012
All rights reserved.
| 5
2 | The Millennium Development Goals: Report 2010
“We can report broad progress.
. . .
Working together, governments, the United
Nations family, the private sector and civil society
can succeed in tackling the greatest challenges.
As the 2015 deadline is fast approaching, we
must be united and steadfast in our resolve to
accelerate progress and achieve the MDGs.”
— UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
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