1. education
2. school

THE CARNEGIE FOUNDATION
FOR THE A D V A N C E M E N T OF TEACHING
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STANDARDS,
11/28/84,
mge
America's Schools:
The M i s s i o n
E r n e s t L. Boyer
"What d o e s
Education
the U n i t e d
for c i t i z e n s h i p ,
self-worth,
social v a l u e s
neighborhood
and
this and m o r e .
Indeed,
we always
them
W e want
all
to want
in balance
and
and
in this c h a p t e r ,
what our
leaders
accomplish.
is e v i d e n t ,
education
but
children,
W e have
This
is one of the most
I lay out h i g h l i g h t s of
the p e o p l e have wanted
hold
hopeful
that wonderful
are
showing
to
the ebb and
energy
and faith
flow
in
theme.
into the present
time and
our
I state our vision of what
if the schools
future
that will e m b o d y the best c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
expected.
and
monumental
schools
in e m p h a s i s are there,
to the future,
so m u c h has been
been
the history
needed
which
and
these goals,
them m o r e fully.
that
story.
throughout
turn
Y e s , all of
innovate, pay
to implement
on, as the story moves
then
persons,
in A m e r i c a makes clear
all the c h i l d r e n .
ongoing,
T h e shifts
achieve?"
training,
for other
things for certain
in o r d e r
is the d o m i n a n t
Later
thoughts
and
job
and decency.
argue, plan and
the A m e r i c a n
to
all.
for
realize
relentless,
f e a t u r e s of
it
them
if not
such as respect
these
interminably
struggle,
job a w a r e n e s s
the h i s t o r y of education
to struggle
organize
its schools
community, patriotism
wanted
s l o w l y came
willing
S t a t e s want
is
to h e l p the United States achieve a
invested
and
from which
of that past
so much
is
in
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
Evolving
Goals
2
for E d u c a t i o n
and
Schools
T h e B o s t o n Latin G r a m m a r S c h o o l ,
than a random
happening.
founded
in 1635, was
The goal was to prepare
privileged
y o u n g men for H a r v a r d , which,
in turn, would prepare
serve
H i s t o r i a n L a w r e n c e A. Cremin
both
reminds
"was
state and church.
us that,
in the early d a y s of the R e p u b l i c ,
to be only one part of the education
r e l a t i v e l y minor part
at t h a t . " *
I n
the church were considered p o w e r f u l
As
the nation grew,
Philadelphia
letter
model
for
educators,
to "useful
reflected
Classical S c h o o l - o p e n e d
In 1827,
requiring
the C o m m o n w e a l t h
every
geometry
bookkeeping,
general
the new nation's
in 1821.
in
the
secondary
growing
English
An alternative
soon appeared
in
Massachusetts.
of M a s s a c h u s e t t s
in a d d i t i o n
thousand
rhetoric,
to
publicly-supported
to teach A m e r i c a n history,
T o w n s of four
history,
century
passed
town or village of five hundred or more
a school
and
nineteenth
schools
and W o r c e s t e r ,
to e s t a b l i s h
subjects.
in B o s t o n
O t h e r public high
Portland, Maine,
school
school became
in A m e r i c a — t h e
this school was a free,
institution.
extended.
learning."
T h e first p u b l i c high school
academies,
and
too.
a secondary
Franklin's
that d o m i n a t e d
T h e s e schools
commitment
the family
in m o r e p r a c t i c a l skills, such as
and a c c o u n t i n g .
"academies"
education.
people
to
schooling
the m i s s i o n of schooling was
to instruct
writing
them
of the public, and a
those days,
In 1751, B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n established
more
a law
families
algebra,
to the c o m m o n primary
also were
logic, Latin,
and
to offer courses
Gree
k.2
in
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, rage
3
In 1870 there w e r e about
n a t i o n with
about
50,000 students.
Calvin M. Woodward,
campaign
claimed
that high schools were
"manual
an
rather
training"
this same
mathematician,
training
students
a
of
Woodward
He wanted
in the schools, which, he believed,
in the broad g e n e r a l curriculum
more
should
for
be
all
3
The business c o m m u n i t y felt
in the schools was p a r t i c u l a r l y
began
launched
to be
them for work.
W o o d w a r d ' s c a m p a i g n gained wide support
business.
the
period,
and vocational needs.
than preparing
"equal p a r t n e r "
students.
in
that high schools were out
the nation's economic
"gentlemen"
During
a Harvard-trained
to p e r s u a d e A m e r i c a n s
touch with
500 public high schools
from
the ranks
that getting
job
of
training
a t t r a c t i v e , especially as
unions
imposing rules on the m a n a g e m e n t of a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s .
In
the e n d , v o c a t i o n a l education became firmly planted
as a c e n t r a l
goal of s e c o n d a r y
Woodward's
education,
v i s i o n of blending
With
was valued
new v o c a t i o n a l i s m
academic
fusion
of
the m a n u a l and the liberal
in economic
as a shortcut
subjects,
intellect
to better
thus helping
and labor.
m
education
M a n y students saw
jobs.
to scuttle
They
the
"By m u l t i p l y i n g m a n u a l
he said,
"we solve the p r o b l e m s of training
turned
the
away
intended
the end, Woodward
to cave
needs."
in.
terms.
appeared
country
arts.
the industrial expansion of A m e r i c a ,
increasingly
from
but frequently without
training
himself
schools,"
all the m e c h a n i c s
our
4
By the turn of the century, the number of high schools had
grown to 6,000,5 with an enrollment of 519,000 students. 6
This
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, rage
represented
only about
4
8.5 percent
of the youth g r o u p . 7
smaller
percentage-6.3
period,
p r e s i d e n t s of the n a t i o n ' s most p r e s t i g i o u s
learning
high
institutions
school
percent-actually
w e r e distressed
education,
graduated.
professors
and chaired
University,
smooth
the
transition
from school
T e n , mapped
a core of academic
school.
addition
the
and p o l i t i c a l
fashion
work.
was
and
college.
subjects
to be studied
foreign languages,
science, g e o g r a p h y ,
in the
high
there
were
natural
history, civil
government,
economy.
"mental d i s c i p l i n e . "
the c o m m i t t e e said, w e r e to be taught
to all s t u d e n t s .
difference
education
Harvard
body, known as the C o m m i t t e e of
T h e C o m m i t t e e of T e n stressed
subjects,
turn,
1892
of
to L a t i n , G r e e k , and m a t h e m a t i c s ,
"modern s u b j e c t s - — E n g l i s h ,
history, physical
to
in
university
the goals of secondary
This nationally prestigious
m
in
by C h a r l e s W . E l i o t , president
to c l a r i f y
of
requirements.
the N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of E d u c a t i o n
by
this
the
School p e o p l e ,
a g r o u p of e d u c a t o r s , dominated
still
higher
even though a tiny fraction of
w e r e upset by the p a t c h w o r k of c o l l e g e a d m i s s i o n s
appointed
During
by the uneven quality
n a t i o n ' s youth were going on to c o l l e g e .
In r e s p o n s e ,
a
between
Preparation
T h e r e was to be no
education
for
higher
the best p r e p a r a t i o n
for
in the
All
same
substantial
for college
and education
for
education,
the c o m m i t t e e
argued,
life.8
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, rage
5
C h a r l e s W . Eliot put
the n o t i o n of universal
the m a t t e r
education, Eliot
...that the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c
children
sorted
watcnmakers,
before
teamsters,
treated
differently
With
to
to have
its
into
telegraph
and
operators,
so forth,
and
appropriate
Who
are
life c a r e e r s .
Can parents?
teachers?9
Can
education o n c e again e x p a n d e d .
upon
to " A m e r i c a n i z e "
lessons
and, most e s p e c i a l l y ,
s y m b o l of hope
for
The
the new
in h e a l t h ,
citizenship.
arrivals,
sanitation,
One
the corner of C a t h e r i n e and H e n r y S t r e e t s
is a large white building
turn-of-the-
Placed
region of
tawdry flat houses
and dirty
unpretentiousness.
in N e w
that o v e r l o o k s
its n e i g h b o r h o o d .
N o . 1.
nation's
the new A m e r i c a n s .
s t a n d s out p r e e m i n e n t
b e c a u s e of
and
in the m i d d l e of a
streets,
its solid
all the h o p e s of
m i s e r a b l y poor p o l y g l o t p o p u l a t i o n
of the
it
cleanliness
it is the h o m e of Public
in it are centred
the
how the p u b l i c school stood as a
dominates
and
clerks,
these
w r i t e r vividly d e s c r i b e d
York
believe:
to
them E n g l i s h , basic
nutrition,
At
refused
rejecting
the arrival of waves of new i m m i g r a n t s from E u r o p e ,
s c h o o l s w e r e called
century
While
in their s c h o o l s according
these p r o p h e c i e s ?
m i s s i o n of p u b l i c
teaching
teens
farm l a b o r e r s ,
p r o p h e c i e s of their
to m a k e
intends
their
lithographers,
masons,
squarely.
School
the
surrounding
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, rage
district—for
interest
6
its pupils
and endeavor,
of the freedom
the scene of
and
for
they have come
their
greatest
their p a r e n t s an earn
far and worked
hard
to
attain.10
In 1913,
the N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n
b l u e - r i b b o n C o m m i s s i o n on the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n
Education.
In a report
issued
five years
expanded
worthy
school p u r p o s e s
home-membership.
fundamental
school,
shape
interests,
to the list.
in each
individual
ideals, habits, and
and society
toward
ever
and
"command
The report
of
said:
the
the
powers
he will find his place and use that place
both himself
The
the c o m m i t t e e
in a d e m o c r a c y , both within and without
knowledge,
whereby
entitled
Almost as an afterthought,
should d e v e l o p
a
Secondary
to include health, citizenship,
p r o c e s s e s " was added
Education
of
later
C a r d i n a l P r i n c i p l e s of S e c o n d a r y E d u c t i o n ,
appointed
to
nobler
ends.
Early
the
impact of the seminal works of the philosopher
Dewey.12
at
in the twentieth c e n t u r y , secondary schools also
Dewey,
the e x t e n t
eroding
becoming
industrialization
the t r a d i t i o n a l A m e r i c a n
community,
and
John
father of the p r o g r e s s i v e movement,
to which
the c h u r c h . 1 3
and
Concerned
"mere a p p e n d a g e s to the m a c h i n e
was
alarmed
urbanization
institutions-the
felt
home,
that workers
were
the
were
they operate,-
Dewey
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, rage
argued
7
that schools m u s t e d u c a t e the whole child, filling
w h e r e other
model.
institutions
failed.
He looked
in
to the family as
the
"What the best and wisest parent wants for his own child,
that m u s t
the c o m m u n i t y want for all of
Ironically,
while
there was much
talk about
this was also a time of increased
by s o c i a l
children.14
"social
differentiation
in the
that had begun with the
insights of John D e w e y soon lost
misinterpretation
enthusiastic
its way.
Much of
schools
preceptive
the
of D e w e y w a s m a d e by some of his most
supporters,
and
it eventually
and even extreme e x p r e s s i o n s of
1913,
led
to
m
for e x a m p l e , a Los A n g e l e s
proclaimed:
"The p r i n c i p a l b u s i n e s s of
to g r o w - n o t
to read, w r i t e , spell, and cipher.
in i m p o r t a n c e .
unsound,
educational
philosophy.
incidental
learning,"
class.
The progessive movement
careless,
its
superintendent
the child
is to play
These
and
are
If they can be made a part of
the
Play, it is well to use them; if not, they should be handled
sparingly. ,,i5
A backlash was
1920s a m o v e m e n t
w a s viewed
inevitable.
called
Indeed, as early as the
"essentialist"
as the neglect of
education
traditional
to return s c h o o l
in 1 9 3 8 . 1 6
"to the exact and exciting
"mental d i s c i p l i n e s , "
a l g e b r a and
its platform
geometry.
and
what
an
curriculum
T h e E s s e n t i a l i s t C o m m i t t e e for the A d v a n c e m e n t
A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n presented
tne
attacked
fields of study,
o v e r e m p h a s i s on social studies, and thoughtless
revision.
late
studies,"
The
to
of
aim;
support
to save such courses as Latin,
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, rage
8
William Chandler Bagley,
Columbia University,
It
is true that
from
argued
a professor
for the enduring
the world of
the world of 1913 and
today
from
that blow
still follow
youth;
of
and
the S i s t i n e M a d o n n a
has
Island
1929...but
changed....The
storms:
still
is just
world
delight
as beautiful
as
yore.17
Soon the m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a ' s
high
is a different
the law of
H u c k l e b e r r y Finn and T r e a s u r e
College,
values:
the world of
this does not m e a n that e v e r y t h i n g
winds
at T e a c h e r s
school.
And
the last
minority populations.
article, describe
Entrance
the r e v o l u t i o n
transition
The
admissions
it marked
school
the high
to a m a s s
the beginning of a long
for a new social g o a l - u n i v e r s a l
attendance.
In a push
way:
the beginning of
from an elite
from
in a p e r c e p t i v e
in favor of simple elementary
T h i s marked
institution....And
T h e high
this
completing
w e r e young p e o p l e
and N e u f e l d ,
requirements were changed:
completion.
struggle
to be included
Cohen
exams were dropped
school's
teenagers were
high
school
18
school had,
in fact, become
for e x c e l l e n c e
university professors
to m a t c h
the p e o p l e ' s
a c c e s s , a cadre
began to d e s i g n and
test new
college.
of
curricula for
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
the s c h o o l s ,
In 1956, Jerrold
MIT, developed
and E n g l i s h
provided
funds
include
support
"Rigor"
became
Soon
national
and
reform p r o j e c t s
school improvement
to the top of
it w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y
broadened
schools were caught
Pushed
in B r o w n
1958
and
to
another
by the historic U n i t e d States
vs. Board
upon
bypassed
up in yet
of E d u c a t i o n
{1954},
to serve more e q u i t a b l y
students-the
poor,
the
Supreme
public
the
underprivileged,
C o n g r e s s and the courts
moved,
to counter years of s c a n d a l o u s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
b a l a n c e and c o m p e n s a t o r y education
priorities.
in
support.
improvement of s c i e n c e , m a t h e m a t i c s ,
the u n d e r a c h i e v i n g .
belatedly,
the
the c a t c h w o r d of the d a y .
w a s called
historically
at
for the h u m a n i t i e s and social s c i e n c e s as w e l l .
crusade.
education
federal
to push
teaching,
the n a t i o n ' s
decision
was launched
Schools
became urgent
became the battleground
for
Racial
new
social
justice.
When
the V i e t n a m War
confrontation,
education.
meet
of
interest.
reformers,
argued
that
"relevance"
sparked
became
C o l l e g e s drooped
student
at
high
T h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e E d u c a t i o n Act of
for the
foreign-language
Court
received
agenda.
the content of
N a t i o n a l curriculum
it took Sputnik
the n a t i o n a l
to update
a m a t h e m a t i c s project
U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s .
But
Z a c h a r i a s , P r o f e s s o r of P h y s i c s
a new c u r r i c u l u m
school p h y s i c s . 1 9
biology
9
student
the new m a n d a t e
requirements
and
for
and added
High schools followed
including J a m e s C o l e m a n
the road
revolt
suit.
and J o h n H e n r y
to relevance was beyond
the
electives
A new
Martin
s c h o o l . 2 0
to
group
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, rage
E d u c a t o r s w e r e urged
to p r o v i d e m o r e
the y o u n g — w o r k - s t u d y
cities-as-schools,
and
programs,
the
T o d a y ' s high school
and
transmit
the c h u r c h .
they are
"real life" experiences
"action-learning,"
is called
And
upon to provide the
to expect from
services
the c o m m u n i t y
if they fail anywhere along
as stated
Here
is our
recommendations
Four E s s e n t i a l
A high
mission.
are
We
lack
on ways to bring
teachers,
are left
But
is it possible
a coherent p u r p o s e
with the distinct
and vital m i s s i o n .
or e s t a b l i s h
shared.
T h e y seem u n a b l e to put
goals
and
impression
that are
schools
common
widely
The
that every high school have clearly
and p u r p o s e s
teachers,
that
are understood
and supported
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and p a r e n t s of
they
schools?
that high
it all together.
the
all
They are unable to find
educational priorities
at
together,
to serve
for our
vital
adrift.
recommend
students,
being.
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and parents
purposes
We
all.
specific
have a shared vision of what,
to a c c o m p l i s h .
is
it into
Quite
it
to be e f f e c t i v e , must have a clear
and also find
institution
the
Goals
should
a clear
we still want
vision of the m i s s i o n , plus
Students,
trying
students
in the introduction,
school,
institution
and
condemned.
W h a t do A m e r i c a n s want high schools to accomplish?
simply,
for
like.
the values we used
the h o m e and
line,
10
stated
by
the
the
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
institution.
But w h e r e do we begin?
L a t i n G r a m m a r School,
Harvard
11
and Yale, or
universities?
Do we reach back
to p r e p a r e young m e n — a n d
for one of
Do we recapture
women—for
three thousand other c o l l e g e s
the vision of Calvin W o o d w a r d ,
p r e p a r e young p e o p l e more effectively
for
follow
the A m e r i c a n i z i n g
should
high schools c o n t i n u e to take over
troubled
to the
the work p l a c e ?
institutions—the
to
Do we
impulses of the new immigrations?
the work of
and
Or
other
family, the neighborhood,
the
church?
in a school
People
know where they are going,
well-understood
and
students,
critical
objectives,
third,
with
teachers,
and
to be e f f e c t i v e must have a sense of
larger
than a single c l a s s in a single day.
to a c c o m p l i s h .
up the C a r n e g i e
purpose,
a
The vision must
it
m u s t
in s c h o o l and out of trouble, and
than adding
fourth,
and parents sharing
of what they are trying
significant
develop
service.
students, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
students
teachers
further
increase s t u d e n t s ' career options;
vision
keeping
First,
second, p r e p a r e students for
mission.
there m a t c h e s
w h e n we talk to parents,
a spirit of c o m m u n i t y and
High s c h o o l s
sense of
what happens
the following p u r p o s e s emerge:
thinking;
education;
build
that works there is a shared
g o
be
beyond
be more
units the student
has
completed.
W e p r o p o s e four e s s e n t i a l goals and
be
achieved.
the w a y s these goals
can
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
First,
the high school
the c a p a c i t y
effectively
Second,
about
should h e l p all s t u d e n t s
to think c r i t i c a l l y and
through a mastery of
the high s c h o o l should
themselves,
interdependent
curriculum
communicate
help all students
the human h e r i t a g e ,
world
in which
develop
language.
and
learn
the
they live through a c o r e
based upon c o n s e q u e n t i a l
c o m m o n to all
Third,
12
human
experiences
people.
the high school should p r e p a r e all students
work and further education
electives
that d e v e l o p
through a p r o g r a m
individual
aptitudes
for
of
and
interests.
Fourth,
the high school should h e l p all
fulfill
their social and civic o b l i g a t i o n s
s c h o o l and c o m m u n i t y
more
But,
unguided
through
service.
T o d a y , m a n y p r o p o s a l s for school
debated.
students
by a larger
reform are
vision,
heatedly
they amount to
than tinkering with an e l a b o r a t e and c o m p l e x system,
is n e e d e d - a n d
clear
what we believe
and coherent
should
be seeking
a
schools
accomplish.
w e have heard much
improving
what
these four goals c o n s t i t u t e - i s
vision of what the nation's high
to
little
talk about raising a c a d e m i c
test scores, l e n g t h e n i n g
the school
year.
standards,
Many
school
STANDARDS, 11/28/84,
13
p e o p l e seem m o t e c o n c e r n e d
than
they are about what
W e a l s o have heard
another
core,
about
students should
but we h a v e heard
about what
More substance,
w e suggest
a course
know when
talk about adding another
unit of m a t h , or another
education,
how long students stay In
little
unit of
unit of English
about
they
science,
that what
s e q u e n c e for all students.
school
person.
not m o r e time, is our must
is taught
required
the content of a high
urgent
problem.
Our goal
to i m p o s e a s i n g l e c u r r i c u l u m on e v e r y school, but to
the p o i n t
depart.
to the
it m e a n s to be an educated
school
is not
underscore
in school d e t e r m i n e s what
is
learned.
The Curriculum Has a Core
A c o r e of c o m m o n l e a r n i n g
curriculum
should
experiences,
membership
history.
be a s t u d y of
t h e
human
basic
those c o n s e q u e n t i a l
family at a particular
T h e c o n t e n t of
the s p e c i a l i t i e s ,
o
The
ideas,
and t r a d i t i o n s c o m m o n to all of us by virtue of our
in
from c o u r s e s
is e s s e n t i a l .
and focus on m o r e
thirds of the
graduation.
transcendent
Tho -p^t!
The following
T h e n u m b e r of required
should
in
the core c u r r i c u l u m m u s t extend
to c o h e r e n c e
nerence.
curriculum
moment
courses
be expanded
total
units
are
in the
issues,
moving
recommended:
core
from o n e - h a l f
required
beyond
for high
to
two-
school
STANDARDS, 11/28/84,rage15
o
in a d d i t i o n
to s t r e n g t h e n i n g
in L i t e r a t u r e ,
e m p h a s i s should
the traditional
h i s t o r y , m a t h e m a t i c s and
also be given
science,
to foreign
the arts, civics, n o n - w e s t e r n
studies,
language,
technology,
the meaning of work, and the importance of
H i g h l i g h t s of the C o r e C u r r i c u l u m
cours
health.
listed above are as
follows:
Literature:
All students,
literature,
should discover
h e r i t a g e and learn about
written
United
States H ^ o r ^ :
the power
for g r a d u a t i o n
included
f a v o r a one-year
and beauty
o
s t u d y , and
it is the o n e
social
required
by most states.
We
United S t a t e s h i s t o r y c o u r s e
build on the c h r o n o l o g y of
leaders-artists,
the emergence
the lives of a few
reformers, e x p l o r e r s
m i n o r i t i e s and women) w h o helped
^ ^ ^ - ^ U i a t i ^ :
is
from e v e r y one of the high
in our
A m e r i c a , or a s t u d y of
long
literary
United S t a t e s h i s t o r y
s t u d i e s c o u r s e uniformly
would
our c o m m o n
word.
required
schools
through a study of
that
of
influential
(including
shape the
nation.
B e y o n d A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y lies
s w e e p of W e s t e r n C i v i l i z a t i o n .
all s t u d e n t s l e a r n about
W e recommend
the roots of our
national
the
that
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
h e r i t a g e and traditions through a study of W e s t e r n
Civilization.
•^n-ffesterjLCivili^ation:
A l l students should
the c o n n e c t e d n e s s of the human experience
r i c h n e s s of other cultures
a non-western nation.
a
introduces
we call
students
sequence
to the p r o c e s s e s of
biological
l ^ n o l o ^ :
discovery-what
expand
*ake
in
the
sciences.
A l l students should study t e c h n o l o g y :
has
their c a p a c i t y
intelligent
should
to think q u a n t i t a t i v e l y
decisions
involving m e a s u r a b l e
social
raised.
In high school, all students
regarding
quantities.
the
and
have been joined, and the ethical and
issues technology
^neaatics,
to
science
h i s t o r y of n a n ' s use of tools, how science
technology
such
to m a n y d i s c i p l i n e s and
include basic courses
and p h y s i c a l
science
reveals how
W e suggest a two-year
that would
nation.
The study of
the s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d - a n d
their own lives.
study of
students s t u d y / in
World:
p r o c e d u r e s can be applied
the
one-semester
c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l , a single non-Western
S c i e n c e and the Natural
and
through an in-depth
We suggest
required c o u r s e in which
discover
and
situations
Specifically,
we
to
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
b e l i e v e that all high schools should
mathematics
sequence
c o u r s e s be provided
take
for graduation
require a two-year
and that
additional
for students who are qualified
to
them.
Foreign Ianouaae:
A 1 1
s t a d e n t s
with the l a n g u a g e of another
should
ideally begin
s h o u l d
culture.
in elementary
^
^
Such
United S t a t e s could
be home
studies
school and at
two years of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e study should
of all high s c h o o l students.
f a n U i a r
By the year
be
required
2000,
to the world's
least
the
fifth
largest p o p u l a t i o n of p e r s o n s of H i s p a n i c o r i g i n . 1 0
d o e s seem r e a s o n a b l e for all schools in the
States
to offer
IM^rts:
From
United
Spanish.
the dawn of c i v i l i s a t i o n ,
have used m u s i c , d a n c e , and
men
and
the visual arts to
the h e r i t a g e of a p e o p l e and express
sorrows.
It
women
transmit
human joys
and
They are m e a n s by which a c i v i l i z a t i o n can
be
measured.
««CS=
called
A course
in A m e r i c a n
civics-should
government-traditionally
be required of all students,
f o c u s on the t r a d i t i o n s of d e m o c r a t i c
shaping
of
political
o u r
0
thought,
„ „ governmental structures,
and social
issus we confront
and
today.
the
with
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
Health:
about
No knowledge
health,
is m o r e o r u c i a l
without
Therefore,
s t u d y h e a l t h , learning
diminishes
emotional
Work:
about
toward w o r k have changed
what determines
different
forms of
complete a Senior
their
senior y e a r ,
Independent
the
to
to
Project,
should
a written
social
issue
fields of study in
the
core.
to wnrk
^
Learning
T h e h i g h school should
Looking
to
would
the status and rewards
that f o c u s e s on a s i g n i f i c a n t
academic
from s c h o o l
students
it and
through
from o n e c u l t u r e
and draws upon the v a r i o u s
track
it
work?
A l l students, during
confidence
the human body, how
study of work we propose
another?
Transition;
should
well-being.
H o w do they differ
report
be
it, and how a h e a l t h y body c o n t r i b u t e s
ask how a t t i t u d e s
o
all students
the life c y c l e , what n o u r i s h e s
The o n e - s e m e s t e r
years?
knowledge
it, no other life goal can
successfully achieved.
c h a n g e s over
than
to work and further
into p r o g r a m s
to the year
h e l p all students m o v e
for
with
education.
those who "think" and
2000 w e c o n c l u d e
that, for most
Today,
those
agents,
we
who
STANDARDS, 11/28/84,rage19
twelve years of schooling will be insufficient.
graduates will change jobs several times.
Today's
New skills will t
required, new citizenship obligations will be confronted.
necessity, education will be lifelong.
o
C
We recommend:
The school program should offer a single track for
all students, one that includes a strong grounding
in the basic tools of education and a study of the
core curriculum,
while the first two years would be
devoted almost exclusively to the common core, a
portion of this work would continue into the third
or fourth year.
o
The last two years of high school should be
considered a "transition school," a program in which
about half the time is devoted to "elective
clusters."
o
The "elective cluster" should be carefully
designed.
Such a program would include advanced
study in selected academic subjects, the exploration
of a career option, or a combination of both.
o
In order to offer a full range of elective clusters,
the high school must become a connected
institution.
Upper-level specialty schools
arts or science or health or computers, for
(in the
S T A N D A R D S , 11/28/84, mge
may be appropriate
in some districts.
High
should also establish connections with
P l a c e s beyond
the s c h o o l s - s u c h
schools
learning
as libraries,
m u s e u m s , art galleries, colleges and
industrial
laboratories.
There
is also an urgent need to help students tigure out
what they should d o after graduation.
o
G u i d a n c e services should be
expanded.
N o
Therefore, we
significantly
counselor should have a case load of
m o r e than one hundred students.
Moreover,
school
d i s t r i c t s should provide a referral service
c o m m u n i t y agencies for those students
freguent
O
and sustained professional
A new student Achievement
should
r e c o r d
to
needing
assistance.
and Advisement Test
be developed, one that could
(SAAT)
eventually
replace the SAT.
The academic achievement
of the test would
link it to the core curriculum
to what the student has studied.
The
portion
advisement
section would assess personal characteristics
interests
to help students make decisions
intelligently
about their futures.
and
and
more
The purpose
is
not to screen students out of options but to help
them move on with confidence to colleges and to
jobs.
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
T h e n e e d s of the student
for g u i d a n c e are m a t c h e d by
need of the school to be better
oecter
a c h i e v e this,
the following
i
„ F „ r , „ j about
,
informed
through the s t a t e s - s h o u l d
Education-working
expand
its national
to include a s a m p l i n g of g r a d u a t e s
high s c h o o l s at f o u r - y e a r
their post-high
intervals
school p l a c e m e n t
i n f o r m a t i o n should
graduates.
is p r o p o s e d :
T h e United states D e p a r t m e n t of
of s c h o o l s
its
the
to t e a m
survey
from
about
and e x p e r i e n c e .
be m a d e a v a i l a b l e
to
all
Such
participating
schools.
-Service;
the Mew C a r n e g i e
Beyond
the formal a c a d e m i c p r o g r a m
belp all students meet
-ring
teach
snould
h i g h
s o h o o l
beyond
h i g h
Ke
^
^
^
to p a r t i c i p a t e
^
should
obligations.
^
^
^
^
s t u d s n t 3
3 h o u i d
a new C a r n e g i e
in v o l u n t e e r work
war*
school.
in the c o m m u n i t i e s of
They
which"
recommend:
s c h o o l
requirement
them
their s o c i a l and civic
y o u n g
be encouraged
All
the high school
t h e m s e l v e s and feel m o r e r e s p o n s i b l y engaged.
they are a p a r t .
O
nnih
3 t u d e n t s
c o u l d
evenings, weekends
c o m p i e t e
unit-that
a
^
would
^
involve
in
m
the c o m m u n i t y or at
f u l (
.
and d u r i n g
u
t h i 3
the
r e q u l r e m e n t
summer.
STANDARDS,
11/28/84,
21
o
Students themselves should be given
responsibility
the
to help organize and monitor
the new
service program and to work with school officials tc
assure that credit is appropriately
Strengthening
assigned.
Connections
High schools do not carry on their w o r ^ m
are conneotea
education.
T h e y
to elementary and iunior h i g h schools and to highlr
Xn the end, the quaiity o f
wxll he shaped
connections.
isolation.
in l a r g e
m e a s u r e
School-college
b y
the A m e r i c a n high
^
t h e
school
^
relationships can he improved
in a
variety of ways:
O
A l l states should establish
a School-College
Coordination Panel to define
the recommended
academic
requirements to smooth the transfer
school to p u b l i c higher
°
E V
"
y
h i 9 h
sch
"university
°o1
"
from
education.
the nation
should offer a
in the school" program and a variety of
other a r r a n g e m e n t s - c r e d i t
by e x a m i n a t i o n ,
admission and advance p l a c e m e n t - t o p e r m i t
students to accelerate
O
minimum
their academic
Each college or university should form
early
able
programs.
a
c o m p r e h e n s i v e p a r t n e r s h i p with one
if With one or more
schools.
secondary
STANDARDS, 11/28/84, mge
22
school
needs
need the h e l p o £
the s c h o o l s .
of e d u c a t i o n .
The
T h e
q u a l i t y
industry end business and,
Q f
„ork
,, ^
^
^
following s c h o o l - b u s i n e s s p a r t n e r s h i p s are
proposed,
°
B u s i n e s s e s should p r o v i d e help for
students
through
counseling
volunteer
disadvantaged
tutorial and
family
s e r v i c e , and support special school
p a r t - t i m e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p experience
for high
and
risk
students,
O
B u s i n e s s e s should provide enrichment p r o g r a m s
gifted
s t u d e n t s , especially
mathematics,
°
outstanding
those in science
and for those in the new
should
consider
provide cash awards
teachers.
I n
addition,
for
and
technologies.
for
they
should
e s t a b l i s h i n g E n d o w e d chair P r o g r a m s
in the
schools.
O
corporate
g r a n t s should p r o v i d e sabbaticals
outstanding
business
principals
and a d i s c r e t i o n a r y
principals
to w o r k with teachers on
programs.
P u r t h e r , large c o r p o r a t i o n s
tHe u s e of their
two e a c h year
training
to
fund
for
creative
facilities
to house an A c a d e m y for
should
donate
for a week
Principals
or^
_
STANDARDS, 11/28/84,
23
O
TO h e l p s c h o o l s
improve their p h y s i c a l plant
science laboratories,
and
business should sponsor
f a c i l i t i e s and equipment p r o g r a m .
appropriate industries
should
I„
a
addition,
conduct inventories
s c i e n c e l a b o r a t o r i e s and h e l p upgrade
of
school
equipment,
excellence:
The p „ h ,
Finally,
commitment.
f o r m s , and
school
sohool i m p r o v e m e n t
i t m u s t come from many sources.
w e have
is
13
tranform the schools.
The
single
Th
u e
e
rre^s^u^lnt-
is s o m e t h i n g
0 0 0 6
a n d
^
a 9 e n d a
D r e q p n
be
S C h
^ s t i c k
action
to bring9
^iate
a 3 S n d a
hinh
this effort
_
a
a ? p r o
^
h l 3 h
our
to
, 13
will
is that all
that
hut
thai- f=
O W
e x c e l l
and
interconnected
reform
p
h •
Each institution
•
important
intJrest
and to search
to the schools-
e v e r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n we
excellence
to
last.
solutions
m e a s u r e ^h
m e a s u r e the need for
.
,
a h
about that r e f o r m .
What
federal
to b m
k •
to help bring excellence
tried to t h i n , inclusively,
interconnected
school
school.
and the
the s i m p l e a n s w e r , m a y e x c i t e a m o m e n t a r y
the impact w i l l not
Not
together
ogecner
local
schools.
« o o n e r e f o r m can
problems.
Citi.ens,
state a g e n c i e s an^ i
• ,
a g e n c i e s and l e g i s l a t u r e s ,
g o v e r n m e n t m u s t must work
our p u b l i c
oublic
H o w we as a nation regard our s c h o o l s has a p o w e r f u l
boards,
solution,
Is dependent on
° 0 l s fcake
sustained.
for
for
every
renewal.
«teps to
achieve
STANDARDS, 11/28/84,
mge
Conclusion
to be w r i t t e n
STANDARDS,
11/28/84,
25
FOOTNOTES
L a w r e n c e A. C r e m i n .
3
York:
T h e Geni.t<=
Vintage B o o k s , " i f i f f — M f
a
American Education
(New
4
5
Ibid.
1981, vol. n o ,
Office,
no. f o * p !
1975), p .
369,
PP. 10, 369, and
7 ^ 1 9 7 6
«
r
"'T ? e
72?
^conD.c..
c a r n e g l e
ofSummer
High
Government Printing
F o u n d a t i o n
C a l c u l a t i o n s
Y or,=
c S a ^ r V ? ^ 1
. S 5 5 5 " ™ 6 '
1974},
T h s
A s s u m p t i o n s in the Report of f h J r
fundamental
Ten
Eoucation.; Review, v o ?
xxx,3 25-43" " e e
'"
10
A. R . D u g m o r e . "New Cif-i^^r,^ *
fiffii, A p r i l , 1 9 0 3 ^ ed^
no. 6^ p p ?
f I h e ^ o r l ^ s
11.
12.
Wi 1 7 i am T-,
» ..
' '
13
14.
Ibid., p . 19,
j
STANDARDS, 11/28/84,
mge
26
15
*
Si??"*
Wisconsin
Press,
197?? ^ '
2
^-293*™''
D n i v e
«Ity-5f~
17.
18.
19.
20.
C o h e n and N e u f e l d ,
"The F a i l u r e of
Charles E. si1hsrean
^ • •
Remaking of
i m f ? " " ^
I ^ T O r r f r T s f 1 ^ ^ ^ 2 - 1 ^ ^
a
s
H
s
igh
S o h o o l s
,.
p.
r o o m :
?ork:
Random~~House,