Enriching Practice in Linguistically and Culturally Diverse
© Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Enriching Practice in Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Classrooms © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Enriching Practice in Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Classrooms A Guide for Teachers and Teacher Educators Eva Ponte Christina Higgins Caslon Publishing Philadelphia © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Copyright © Caslon, Inc. 2015 All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher. Caslon, Inc. 825 N. 27th St. Philadelphia, PA 19130 caslonpublishing.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ponte, Eva. Enriching practice in linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms : a guide for teachers and teacher educators / Eva Ponte, Christina Higgins. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “Presents a contextualized professional development model that prepares mainstream educators to teach English language learners. Features example of university–school partnership in Hawai‘i. Provides step-by-step guidance for educators in other culturally and linguistically diverse school and community contexts”—Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-934000-18-2 (alk. paper) 1. Linguistic minorities—Education. 2. Children of minorities—Education. 3. Multicultural education. 4. Language and culture. I. Higgins, Christina. II. Title. LC3731.P655 2015 370.117—dc23 2015003083 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Preface This book responds to the demand that all teachers be prepared to teach linguistically and culturally diverse students. The number of students designated as English language learners (ELLs)1 has steadily increased in the United States in the last two decades. In many states, this growth has been very rapid—not only in the number of students who speak languages other than English at home but also in the variety of languages they speak. Unfortunately, teachers are inadequately prepared to respond to these dramatic demographic changes and ELL students’ opportunities to learn are often limited. There is a very real need to improve our understanding of effective practices and to provide professional learning opportunities in these concepts for mainstream teachers. Educating diverse learners to meet high standards is a complex challenge. Preparing in-service and pre-service mainstream teachers for this challenge requires systematic and sustained professional learning. This book proposes an ongoing professional development (PD) model that teachers and teacher educators can adapt for use in any linguistically and culturally diverse school and community context. Specifically, this school-based apprenticeship model guides teachers along a continuum of professional learning that addresses how to better serve the ELL students in their classes. The goals for the PD project are developed from a needs assessment of teachers’ beliefs and practices about teaching ELL students. The needs assessment includes interviews with teachers, documentation of classroom practices, and observations of student learning over the course of the project. The apprenticeship model is sustained with courses or workshops that relate theory to practice and include an online component, field support for teachers, and teacher collaboration. The PD model that we present in this book is a result of the Malihini (newcomer) Project, a year-long federally funded grant project that addressed the needs of in-service teachers and staff working with ELL students in Hawaiian schools. Central to the project were the specific professional 1. Here, we would like to take a moment to indicate that we agree with current notions in the field that call for avoiding labelling linguistically diverse students and favor the use of terms such as emergent bilingual, multilingual, or plurilingual students. We have decided, however, to use the term English language learners because those are the words used in federal and state mandates and, therefore, are currently part of the vocabulary of most educators practicing in our school system. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. vi preface learning goals articulated by the teachers. These goals were to learn more about their ELL students’ cultural backgrounds, linguistic needs, and funds of knowledge, and to develop instructional approaches that enhance these students’ content learning and language development. The project reflects the sociocultural context of schools in Hawai‘i, which include students from very different language groups. Based on the Malihini project, this book provides concrete examples of changes that elementary school teachers made to their linguistic, cultural, and pedagogic classroom landscapes. For example, we demonstrate how teachers incorporated students’ home languages into their sheltered content lesson plans and how they structured classroom activities that required more student collaboration, greater demands for oral language use, and increased engagement. We also show how field supporters helped teachers make improvements in their teaching relative to their goals, and we provide observations of changes in teachers’ beliefs and practices as well as changes in ELL students’ participation patterns throughout the duration of the project. Enriching Practice in Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Classrooms: A Guide for Teachers and Teacher Educators purposefully falls halfway between a detailed discussion of the Malihini Project—where nearly every teacher encounters students who speak English as an additional language— and a “how to” ELL PD guide for teachers, teacher educators, field supervisors, PD providers, and coaches working in other school and community contexts. We balance our discussion of observed changes in teachers’ beliefs and practices with step-by-step guidance for teachers, teacher educators, staff developers, and field support working in other linguistically and culturally diverse contexts. Thus, this book invites readers to (1) learn from the Malihini Project; (2) use our guidance to assess their particular needs; and (3) design, implement, monitor, and evaluate context-responsive practices and professional learning opportunities to improve practice in their own settings. Genesis of the Book We bring complementary experiences and expertise to the Malihini Project. Eva Ponte is an associate professor in the College of Education at the University of Hawai‘i who teaches courses that involve field experiences where student teachers integrate theory and practice in partner school settings. Her involvement in the Malihini Project was a direct result of the needs voiced by educators in schools where her students are commonly placed. Ponte is also the mother of children who speak a language other than English at home and who attend public schools in Hawai‘i. Christina Higgins is an associate professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai‘i whose research and teaching focus on sociocultural © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. preface vii contexts of language learning and use. Together, we guided teachers in the Malihini Project as they engaged with theory and research on multilingualism, second language learning, intercultural communication, and English language pedagogy relative to their teaching practices. The growth in the cultural and linguistic diversity of the United States in the last two decades has been even more acute in Hawaii, which currently has the highest percentage of multiracial U.S. inhabitants. The growth in Hawai‘i’s ELL population has been so steep in the last 20 years that it ranks number 5 in the nation of having the highest percentage of ELL students enrolled in K–12 ELL programs. The increase in the ELL population has been accompanied by a persistent and increasing achievement gap between ELL students and their non-ELL counterparts, both in the nation and in Hawai‘i. We know that teacher quality is one of the crucial factors in promoting student learning and achievement and reducing the achievement gap, and that the majority of teacher certification programs do not provide student teachers with sufficient professional learning opportunities in this area. Teachers today must learn how to scaffold and support ELL students’ language and learning in linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms. The contextually embedded apprenticeship model presented in this book is one way to make this happen. How the Book Is Structured This book is designed for a wide range of educators, including teachers, university-based teacher educators, school-based professional developers, coaches, and field supporters. Although their roles are different, these educators share responsibility for ensuring that students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds can reach high academic standards. We have purposefully structured the book so that these diverse educators can use it to support their individual roles and enhance their collaborations. Each chapter begins with general learning objectives for all readers. The body of the chapter includes concrete examples from the Malihini Project that are accompanied by opportunities for readers to reflect on what they are learning relative to their practice. Each chapter concludes with activities that guide readers’ application of what they have learned. Together, the chapters provide step-by-step guidance for teachers to improve their practices regarding the ELL students in their classes, and for teacher educators (based at the university, district, school, or in partnerships) to design, implement, monitor, evaluate, and sustain a highly embedded ELL PD project in their linguistic and culturally diverse school contexts. The first two chapters are foundational. Chapter 1 introduces the Malihini Project and presents our apprenticeship model. The chapter also outlines important steps involved in planning a new ELL PD project or revamping © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. viii preface existing offerings. Chapter 2 focuses on the importance of collaboration— between schools and universities, staff developers and coaches, teacher educators and field support, and among teachers at school. This chapter also describes how we use the concepts of guided praxis and activity theory to frame the Malihini Project. The chapters that follow provide details about implementation of the ELL PD project with attention to changes in teachers’ beliefs and practices relative to project goals. Chapter 3 illustrates concrete changes that teachers made to the linguistic and cultural landscapes in their classes, and includes numerous examples of how teachers learn to draw on students’ home languages and cultures as resources. This chapter will be of particular value to teachers and teacher educators who work in contexts with ELL students from several different language backgrounds. Chapter 4 examines changes teachers made to the pedagogical landscapes in their classrooms, and provides specific examples of adaptations and accommodations that teachers made to their lesson plans, instructional activities, and assessments to engage their ELL students. This chapter also presents teacher reflections on the changes they made, and their reactions regarding what these changes meant for their understanding of teaching ELL students, structuring classroom activities and interaction, and supporting students’ learning and well-being. The final two chapters examine in detail the PD processes used in our project. Chapter 5 documents how field support is used as a tool to bridge the theory presented in seminars and readings with the practices that teachers implement in the field. This chapter also provides concrete examples of the strategies the field supporters used to enable teachers to implement new ELL instructional strategies successfully in their classrooms. In Chapter 6 we discuss the outcomes of the project, drawing on our field notes, final teacher interviews, and teacher evaluations of the project. This chapter also provides lessons learned for those working in other contexts. Special Features Enriching Practice in Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Classrooms includes a number of special features that benefit teachers and teacher educators working in different configurations and contexts: • Chapter objectives at the beginning of each chapter indicate what readers will be able to do with the chapter content in relation to their own professional learning. • Theory into praxis boxes summarize the big ideas from the literature we used in the Malihini Project and are followed by guided critical reflection questions that encourage readers to connect the big ideas and their practice. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. preface ix • A linguistically and culturally responsive instructional planning framework for teachers to align their unit and lesson planning with state content and language development standards, bring a language and culture lens to their instruction, focus on classroom activities and interaction, and gather formative assessment data to guide student and teacher learning. • Practical instruction and assessment strategies teachers can use in their classrooms, coaches and field supervisors can use to support teacher learning, and teacher educators and PD providers can use to drive systematic and sustained professional learning. • A linguistically and culturally responsive teacher observation protocol to align with the goals of the ELL PD project. Teachers and teacher educators can use this four-point continuum of professional learning to assess teacher needs relative to ELL PD project goals and to document and support teacher development over time. • Figures and photographs provide the reader with concrete examples of the Malihini Project in action and can be used to ground PD group discussions about strategies, implementation, and support and resources needed to carry on the project. • Questions for reflection at the end of each chapter provide teachers and teacher educators with opportunities to relate chapter content to their classroom, school, and community contexts. These questions can also be used to assess learning relative to chapter objectives. Acknowledgments We wish to thank the Malihini Project team for their invaluable contributions to this professional development project. In their work as field supporters at both elementary schools, Priti Sandhu and Anne Jund were crucial guiding and supporting the teachers as they tried out new approaches. Their presence in the teachers’ classrooms and in the weekly seminar made the teachers comfortable with the training and greatly contributed to the success of the project. As our field support coordinator, we also thank Sandy McKay, who mentored Priti and Anne throughout the process and helped us all to see the progress that we were making. Finally, we thank Marissa Poe for the many hours of transcription and technical support that she provided. This project would have been impossible without the gracious support of the teachers and principals at the two elementary schools we worked with. Mahalo nui loa to everyone for their willingness to join the project and for their dedication in supporting English language learners. We also wish to thank the reviewers who provided critical feedback that improved the quality of the book. We are also grateful to Rebecca Field for © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. x preface her unfailing support of the book and the many hours she spent navigating the publishing process with us. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the U.S. Department of Education, which supported the ESEA Title IIA: Improving Teacher Quality Higher Education Grants/Public Law 107–110 grant, administered by the College of Education at the University of Hawai‘i, Ma¯noa. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Foreword Education and society have reached a point where it is no longer necessary to start every book and article on language and education by citing demographic information and changes, where nondominant students of color outnumber white, monolingual English users in school. That is the new reality for many, many U.S. schools. It does remain important, however, to point out that U.S. classrooms and schools are becoming increasingly hypersegregated, especially for nondominant students of color from immigrant families from Mexico, Central America, East Asia, and Africa, as well as for African Americans. Much of what we know about how to work in schools where the majority of students are new and generational immigrants comes from work that focuses on border crossers—immigrant children from Mexico and Central America—especially in the past 20 years (Faltis & Valdés, 2010). This book, however, offers a fresh look at preparing teachers for emergent bilingual children who are not border crossers, Spanish-speakers, or refugee students; they are English learners (ELs) and users of English creoles, whose home languages (e.g., Hawaiian, Japanese, Marshallese, Chuukese, Cantonese, and Mandarin) are as varied as their cultural experiences (islanders, rural, and urban) and social classes. This book is for teacher educators and practicing teachers who want a panoramic view of teaching ELs through the promotion of intergroup relations, participatory language use, and bilingualism in the classroom. Setting the Stage What has not changed over the past 60 years—during which time there have been several spikes in immigration of children and youth of color and movement from place to place globally—is that elementary-to-secondary classroom teachers have been largely unprepared to meet the language and learning needs of students who enter with and participate in school through a language other than English, or language practices that are marked by their grammar and vocabulary as “nonstandard.” The overwhelming majority of classroom teachers remain white and middle-class. They are multi dialectal English speakers, but are socialized to view “standard” English as the default language variety for use within academic contexts. Many believe in what has been called the common knowledge theory of language and © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. xii Foreword language development (Faltis, 2013), a popular view of language and language development that has been formally and informally used by Englishspeaking teachers who have little or no background in teaching ELs and emergent bilingual students. Within this view are the following four premises: 1.Language is a separate entity that originates inside the learners’ heads and develops into an increasingly complex grammatical system of structures that become the basis for how learners communicate thoughts and ideas. 2.Language complexity, fluency, and accuracy develop in a linear process, from words and phrases to simple and complex sentences; from halted to native-like rapidity; and from error-laden to error-free speech. 3.Knowledge of the grammatical rules of a language enables learners to master the language being taught. Mastery means producing error-free, fluent language using complex language systems. 4.Mastering a language is facilitated when learners are explicitly taught the grammatical rules for using the language correctly. All four premises stem from a long-standing cognitivist perspective of language and language development, in which the individual learner’s capacity to develop language used in complex tasks, with fluent and error-free speech, ultimately depends on explicit instruction where learners take in language that is then used to generate the language needed for new tasks (Ellis, 1994). Moreover, when teachers hold these views of language, they are less likely to see the whole child or view language as local practice (Penny cook, 2010). Rather than viewing language as an internal built-in syllabus that guides learners along a predictable path of development, contemporary scholars, like Ponte and Higgins, posit that language is a dynamic system of practices and uses that emerges from interpersonal and localized interactions (see also Faltis & Valdés, in press; García & Kleifgen, 2010). In contemporary scholarship on language and language development, cognition is necessarily tied to social activity and participation with others in communities of practice, a point Ponte and Higgins make throughout this book. In this manner, language practices emerge from, not prior to, social interaction around topics that matter to members of a community of practice. Likewise, from this perspective, ELs in school are better understood as new language (L2) users, whose language-use patterns emerge from and within a complex dynamic system, where elements of users’ home language (L1), bilingual languaging practices (L1/L2) (García & Wei, 2014), and L2 co-adapt and develop over time (Cook, 2002; Valdés, 2005). The key to developing these interactive, participatory practices involves moving away from the common knowledge theory of language and language development and toward a © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Foreword xiii set of instructional strategies and practices that engages all students with spoken and written language, be that the home language, English, or some hybrid of both. English Learner Teaching Practices This Book Showcases Make no mistake about it: The audience for this book is teacher educators, graduate students, and new and practicing teachers. As Ponte and Higgins assert, all teachers need to be language teachers, not just the English language learner specialists in a particular school. The book was developed from a longitudinal study of professional development (PD) involving elementary teachers in two schools in Honolulu, Hawai‘i. Teachers using local practices in local schools engaged in a yearlong PD project that was led by the teachers and facilitated by the authors, Ponte and Higgins. What is special about this PD project is that it emerged out of deep conversations with teachers about the need for changing the status quo, to transform teaching so that the children who were learning English and English language practices would not only experience an enriched curriculum, but also one that supports students’ diverse learning needs through flexible grouping; increased opportunities for interaction, interpretation, and performance; scaffolded instruction, including home language use, in core academic subjects; and culturally and linguistically responsive teaching and assessment. Professional Development Takes Commitment In Chapter 1, Ponte and Higgins make a strong case for prolonged PD. They correctly aver that “quick and dirty” PD workshops have no impact on changing teachers’ investments or past behaviors. Teachers need to believe in and commit to PD, meaning they need to have a voice, provide continuous feedback on what they are learning, and stay with the PD program for a long period of time. As Ponte and Higgins state, “top-down PD workshops are quickly forgotten and often despised as wasting teachers’ time.” In Chapter 2, Ponte and Higgins provide a host of ways for teachers to provide input for quality, long-term PD. Doing so raises the potential for participants to transform their pedagogy, because when teachers have a say in the direction of long-term PD they become recognized as members of a community of practice. Get to Know Your Students Some of the first questions in the PD workshop went something like this: Who are the ELs in your class? How many ELs do you have in your class? What are their speaking and writing abilities? What are your ELs’ home © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. xiv Foreword languages and how do they use them? Lamentably, teachers had little idea who their students were, what their home languages were, or how they used their languages in local practices and for learning. One of the first suggestions that all teachers followed was to get to know their students and their home language practices. In acquiring this information, they found that there was much more to learn about their students, their home communities, and their cultural experiences. Several of the chapters in this book discuss the importance of knowing your students for transforming pedagogy. For me, this is one of most important learning experiences teachers can engage in—getting out of their cultural systems and understanding that there are multiple ways of doing and being. Develop and Plan for Transforming Pedagogical Practices Learning about the ELs in their classrooms was eye opening for the teachers in this PD project. As teachers began to “see” children as learners, as belonging to rich cultural contexts with varied experiences, they also began to understand that they had to change their established teaching practices. This realization was when they truly embarked on a pedagogical journey to learn ways of teaching that are beneficial to ELs, ways that socially and physically integrate ELs with English speakers in all aspects of classroom learning. This change allowed them to move from a teacher-centered curriculum to a learner-centered one that was based on interaction and participation in small- and whole-group discussions. This is where the expertise of Ponte and Higgins proved invaluable to teachers. Chapter 4 provides a panoply of proven instructional strategies and adaptations for teaching ELs. Arguing for praxis, the interweaving of theory and practice, Ponte and Higgins show teachers how and why certain practices for developing interaction, promoting multiple interpretations, and fostering a range of language performance abilities are effective with ELs and users. One of the points made throughout this book is that students’ L1 and L1/L2 abilities are essential for learning in and through an L2, as students’ bilingual practices emerge. Early on in the PD workshops, several teachers mentiond their belief that “students should not speak their L1 in school,” meaning they need to use only English in the classroom and on the playground. Ponte and Higgins contest this view, and, over time, as the teachers become more familiar with their students and their language practices (and the role of the L1 and L1/L2 in learning), their beliefs and practices changed. Instead of prohibiting L1 use in classrooms and school yards, they encouraged it, a powerful transformation. Readers who go through the experiences of these teachers will, I believe, also come to this understanding, and see how L1 and L1/L2 play a critical role in developing English, and in accessing the full range of activities in any classroom. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Foreword xv Sustainability Is Key The PD described in this book was successful because teachers invested in it and because there was a built-in sustainability component. That component was a set of field experiences to support teacher learning and feedback. New pedagogical practices become part of a teacher’s tool kit when there are support systems, such as the following: • Peer mentoring • Videotaping coupled with stimulated recall • Assistance of a senior support teacher to provide critical, guided reflection and praxis regarding how teachers are gaining agency in developing new instructional strategies and understanding about teaching ELs and emergent bilingual students Chapter 5 is filled with strategies, tips, and practices that foster sustained, guided learning and constant critical reflection on the part of the teacher participants. This book will compel teachers to make transformations in their pedagogical language knowledge (Bunch, 2013; Galguera, 2011), while at the same time, supporting them as they gain new understanding of the children they teach. Teachers will come away from this book with the foundational premise that language is involved in all teaching and learning. Christian J. Faltis, University of California, Davis © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. Contents 1 Embedding Professional Development in Educational Settings: Bridging Theory and Practice 1 Chapter Objectives 1 Need for Praxis in Professional Development 3 Malihini Project 4 Theoretical Underpinnings and Practical Components 5 Research Connections 6 Orientation to Language and Culture 8 Roadmap: How to Get Where You Want to Go with Professional Development 10 Step 1. Set Clear Goals and Anticipated Outcomes 15 Step 2. Find out What Teachers Know 15 Step 3. Identify Resources 17 Step 4: Design the Project 18 Developing Coursework That Combines Theory and Practice 18 Offering Field Support That Guides Teachers 20 Creating Communities of Practice That Facilitate Collaboration 20 Step 5: Implement the Project 21 Selecting the School(s) 22 Engaging Teachers and Administrators 22 Creating a Timeline for Coursework Implementation 23 Structuring Field Support 24 Step 6: Evaluate the Project 25 Conclusion 26 Questions for Reflection 26 2Teacher Collaboration in the Development of Praxis: Key Structures for a Successful Project 27 Chapter Objectives 27 Breaking Down Isolation Walls 29 Challenges and Opportunities 30 Icebreaker Activities for Teacher Educators 31 Engaging Teachers in Group Work 32 Challenges and Opportunities 33 Relating Professional Development Directly to Classroom Practices 34 Challenges and Opportunities 40 Encouraging Self-Reflection and Peer Evaluation 42 Challenges and Opportunities 44 © Caslon, Inc. 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All rights reserved. xviii contents Modeling What Is Taught 45 Challenges and Opportunities 46 Understanding the Importance of Field Support 48 Challenges and Opportunities 49 Conclusion 50 Questions for Reflection 51 3Changes to Linguistic and Cultural Classroom Landscapes 53 Chapter Objectives 53 Building a Sense of Responsibility for English Language Learner Students 55 Appreciating the Importance of Home Languages in Mainstream Classrooms 56 Treating the Home Language as a Resource in Very Heterogenous Classrooms 62 Training Teachers to See Home Language and Culture as Learning Resources 63 Creating Multilingual and Multicultural Classroom Spaces 65 Students as Experts: Students Become Language Teachers 71 Teaching Numbers and Learning to Add in Portuguese (Kindergarten) 71 Teaching a Lesson on Writing in German (4th Grade) 75 Promoting Bilingual Writing Practices 78 Japanese–English Writing Activities (Kindergarten) 78 Bilingual Storybooks (4th Grade) 81 Supporting Teachers in Making Productive Use of Classroom Diversity 82 Teachers’ Influences on Each Other 83 Personal Experiences with Language Loss 83 Extending Teachers’ Engagement with English Language Learner Students to Home and Community 86 Conclusion 89 Questions for Reflection 89 4Changes in Pedagogical Classroom Practices 91 Chapter Objectives 91 Using Small-Group Instruction Effectively with English Language Learner Students 93 Participation and Active Engagement 94 Forming Groups 94 Training Students to Do Group Work 97 Promoting Student Talk and Oral Language Development 99 Making Teachers Comfortable with English Language Learner Adaptations 102 Using English Language Learner Instructional Strategies 102 Adapting Lesson Plans for English Language Learner Students 108 © Caslon, Inc. 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All rights reserved. contents xix Adapting Assessments for English Language Learner Students 112 Language Objectives 112 Performance Criteria 114 Systematic Documentation of Learning 117 Student Involvement in Assessment 117 Conclusion 121 Questions for Reflections 123 5Praxis in the Classroom: Field Support 125 Chapter Objectives 125 Summarizing the Field Support Cycle 126 Getting Started 128 Creating a Professional Development Training Team with Field Support 128 Sharing the Field Support Vision 129 Using Scholarly Resources for Teacher Mentoring 131 Establishing and Maintaining Feedback Networks for the Field Supporters 131 Designing Effective Field Support 132 Facilitating Access to and Communication with Teachers 133 Scheduling Frequent and Varied Interactions with Teachers 134 Anchoring Classroom-Based Support in Professional Development Instruction 135 Conferencing with Teachers after Classroom Observations 135 Supporting Teachers in the Field 139 Taking on a Supportive Role 140 Assuming Learner Identities 141 Negotiating Nonjudgmental Observer Positions 141 Negotiating an Expert Status 141 Classroom Visits and Observation Notes 143 Creating Opportunities for Critical, Guided Reflection and Praxis 144 Giving Teachers Agency 145 Linking Field Support to Course Content 146 Providing Effective Feedback about Problems 147 Assisting Teachers to Work through New Ideas 151 Conclusion 152 Questions for Reflection 153 6Preparing All Teachers for Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Classrooms: The Malihini Project Legacy 155 Chapter Objectives 155 Long-Term Changes in Teacher Practices 156 Sonya 157 Ashley 157 Coral 158 © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved. xx contents Challenges and Opportunities 158 Lessons That Inform What Professional Development Providers Should Understand 160 District-Based, Highly Embedded Teacher Professional Development 160 Field Support: The Missing Link 161 Empowering Professional Development Participants: Putting Teachers’ Voices at Center Stage 162 Teachers’ Professional Development in Multilingual and Multicultural Practices 163 Achieving Culturally and Linguistically Sensitive and Effective Instructional Practices 163 Interdisciplinary Research and Practice 165 Questions for Reflection 166 References 167 Index 177 © Caslon, Inc. For authorized use only. All rights reserved.
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