1. education
2. english as a second language

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CHAPTER II
REVIEW TO RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents definition of teaching, young learners, definition of
vocabulary, techniques of teaching, instructional media, CTL technique,
2.1
Definition of Teaching
According to Jarolimek and Foster (1976 : 51) ’’Teaching, one aspect
of education, is an interaction between a teacher, a person who induce
intelligent behaving, and a learner, a person who is acquiring intelligent
behavior’’. It means that teaching is transferring the teacher’s knowledge
to the learners. Based on Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, teach is
to show somebody to do something so that they will be able to do it
themselves; to give somebody information about a particular subject; to
help somebody learn something. It can be concluded that teaching is
helping the students to study to get knowledge and sharing information
between teacher and students.
2.2
Young Learners
Scott and Yteberg ( 1990 : 5 ) Young learner mean ’’children from the
first year of formal schooling (six to seven years old ) to seven or twelve
years of age’’. It means that they are equal to the elementary school
students of the Indonesian schooling system. The education of elementary
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is great value in their increasing, which affect the way they study English.
Therefore, the characteristic of young learners is very important to explain.
Philips ( 1995 : 2 ) ’’ the physical world of young children was dominant
at all the time’’. Furthermore, their own understanding came through
hands, eyes and ears. They had very short and concentration span. Young
children were often happy playing and working alone but in the company
of others.
In http ://www.teyl.com/science.html Oxford University Press stated that
there are some characteristic in the children learning, they are :
1.
Children have fewer inhibitions than adults in making
mistakes.
Children can be more embarrassed around their peers than adults.
Some children experience extreme anxiety when they are asked to
perform in another language.
2.
All children learn a second language in the same way. Culture and
social class are strong factors in determining how a child learns a
second language. Some children learn better from peers than from
adult instruction.
3.
All children learn a second language at the same rate. Outgoing and
sociable children tend to learn a second language more quickly than
shy children. Different cultures also place different value on how
quickly a child learns language.
4.
The younger children are when they begin to learn a second language,
the better they sill learn it. Many children studies have proved the
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opposite. Expect for pronunciation, children who start learning at an
older age perform better and show quicker gains than those who
started learning at an earlier age. We still do not know why this
happens.
Knowing the fact that children have some unique characteristic, the
teacher should
provide the various activity that imply the children’s
characteristic and it must be made the children interest with the lesson.
According to Scott and Ytreberg, characteristic of the young learner :
1. They know that the world is governed by rules. They may not always
understand the rules, but they know that they are there are to be obeyed
and the rules help to nurture a feeling of security.
2. They understand situations more quickly than they understand the
language used.
3. Their own understand come through hands, eyes and ears. The physical
world is dominant at all times.
4. They have a short attention and concentration span
5. Young learner sometimes have difficulty in knowing what is fact and
what is fiction.
6. Young learner are often happy playing and working alone but in the
company of others.
7. Young learner cannot decide for themselves what to learn.
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8. Young learner love to play and learn best when they are enjoying
themselves.
2.2 Vocabulary
2.3.1
Definition of Vocabulary
The goal of teaching and learning English language is that the
students get the four language skills. In learning the four language skills,
they need a lot of vocabularies, because vocabulary has an important role
in communication using the target language. According to Hornby ( 2000 :
1447 )’’ Vocabulary is all the words that person knows or uses : all the
words in a particular language : the words that people use when they are
talking about a particular subject : a list of words their meaning especially
is important for learning a foreign language. It means that vocabulary
mastery is important for learning foreign language’’. It also helps the uses
of language to avoid misunderstanding when the discourse happens.
According to Longman ( 1998 : 1177 ) ’’ Vocabulary is words known,
learned, used. It means that vocabulary is important to know, learn and
use, without having a good vocabulary, they cannot make meaningful
sentences in communication’’.
2.3.2
Kind of Vocabulary
English vocabulary is divided into two kinds, they are active
vocabulary and passive vocabulary.
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a. Active Vocabulary
The students can use the vocabulary in real communication in spoken or
written. Furthermore, they can avoid misunderstanding able when they use
proper words to express what they want According to Hornsby (2000 :
1447) Active vocabulary is the words that you use. It means that active
vocabulary is the words that we use for speaking or writing.
b. Passive Vocabulary
The students sometimes find the difficulties to understand some words,
they may get the meaning bay reading or listening first. The teacher can
help the students to improve the students’ vocabulary mastery through a
challenging activity. Hornsby ( 2000 : 1447 ) says ’’Passive vocabulary is
the words that we recognize and understand when listening or reading
materials’’.
2.4
Technique of the Teaching
Teaching is defined as the way of giving something to the students,
making the students from not knowing something become knowing (
Longman English Dictionary: 1986 : 231 ). It means that to get
knowledge, the people have to practice in real situation through teaching
learning process. Oxford dictionary ( 1999 : 425 )
teaching is to give knowledge, skill, or wisdom to a person.
Teaching can not be defined apart from learning. Nathan Gage (
1964 : 269 ) noted that, To satisfy the practical demands of education,
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theories of learning must be stood on their head, so as to yield theories of
teaching.
Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner
to learn, setting the conditions for learning. Your understanding of how the
learner learn will determine your philosophy of education, your teaching
style, your approach, methods, and classroom techniques.
Teaching process involves many aspects, they are students,
teacher, materials, etc. their involvement causes the teaching learning
process or activities run easily. Understand if we consider teaching as
system. Teaching does not come from teacher only, but also comes from
radios, newspapers, book, internet, etc. It means that the role of teaching is
not only as formal but also as an formal.
Learning by doing is usually use the students in elementary school
setting. It means that they will more active and they can explain their
opinion what will they want and say. It is connected with their
characteristic. Scott and Ytreberg ( 1990 : 7 ) says ’’The way children
learn a foreign language, and therefore the way to teach it, obviously
depends on their development stage. So the teacher should think the right
technique for presenting the material that correlate with the children
needs’’.
Scott and Ytreberg ( 1990 : 7 ) state some points to bear in mind
when a teacher to decide activities for young learner. First the activities
should be a simple enough for children to understand what is expected of
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them. Second, the task should be within their abilities. Third, it needs to be
achievable but at the same time sufficiently stimulating for them to fell
satisfied with their work. Then, the activities should be largely basedindeed, with very young children listening activities will take up a large
proportion of classes time. Finally, written activities should be used
sparingly with younger children. Children at six or seven years old are
often not yet proficient in the mechanics of writing in their own language.
From the statement above, teaching for children must present the
four skills, listening, speaking, reading, and writing but it should think
about the stage of the age of the learner. Furthermore, it is important to
make the students enjoyable with the lesson.
2.5
Instructional Media
Kasbolah( 1995 : 70 ) states ’’that young children tend to react to
situations as a whole. Through experience they start differentiating their
responses to the things around them’’. It can be said that young learners
will easy to learn if they see or touch what they are taught to them. The
teacher can use media to teach young learner. Nurhajati in TEYL on paper
says that means audio visual which maybe used by teachers and learners to
attain certain education objectives. It means that media can help a teacher
in presenting the lesson and make easy the learners to understand the
lesson. Teacher of young learners have to use some visuals in their
teaching activities to facilities their teaching. In general some of the
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visuals are (1) still pictures; (2) realia; (3) drawing or teacher – made
drawing; (4) charts, posters, cartoons; and (5) real objects.
It can be concluded that there are some types of media and the function is
the teacher can choose which media that appropriate with the material, the
students need and also whether is it to prepare or not.
2.6
Contextual Teaching Learning
Johnson ( 2002 : 25 ) stated’’ that CTL is an educational process
that aims to help students see meaning in the academic material they are
studying by connecting academic subjects with the context of their daily
lives, that is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural
circumstances’’. To achieve this aims, the system emphasizes the
following eight components; making meaningful connection, doing
significant and creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching high
standards, using authentic assessment.
Concerning with the students individual needs, teacher should
apply some principles to run CTL. They are :
1. Teacher should plan the lesson fit on the students’ development
appropriate. Here, curriculums, methodology that are used, have to be
used on the condition of the students’ social, emotional and
educational development.
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2. Teacher should make independent learning groups. Students study from
their friends in little groups and study together in the classroom. So,
students will be active.
3. Teacher should make self-regulated learning. Regulated learning has
characteristic, those area awareness in thinking, the strategy using, and
continuing motivation. Based on the survey, children on 5 – 16 years
old get development awareness to the knowledge that they have,
characteristic of the duty which imply their learning, and learning
strategy.
4. Teacher should consider the diversity of students. Because as we know
that students some from different, natural, language and social
economic degree. They should be considered by teacher.
5. Teacher should pay attention to the multiple intelligences students.
6. Teacher should use questioning technique to improve students
development. In order TL can reach the significant degree, so that
students should have ability in making quality questions. It should be
trained for them.
7. Teacher should use authentic assessment. Then assessment that can be
used as like written test, portfolio, homework, quiz, students’ work,
presentation, demonstration, report, journal, interview, discussion
groups.
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2.6.1
Five Main Strategies CTL
Center of occupation research and development (CORD) stated
five strategies to educator to apply CTL, Prof. Dr. H. Wina Sanjaya, M.Pd
(2006, 263-268) they are:
1. Relating. Studying is related to the context of real life experience.
2. Experiencing. Studying is emphasized to exploration, discovery, and
invention.
3. Applying. Here, students study how the knowledge is presented in
exploiting context.
4. Cooperating. Studying is related to the context of interaction in a group.
5. Transferring. Studying by using the knowledge in a new situation or
context.
2.6.2.
1.
Main Component in CTL
Questioning.
Questioning is a center from the CTL, the beginning of knowledge,
and an important aspect of learning. The purpose of question is to know
something, to confirm, to appreciate, to guide, to activate the schemata, to
judge, to clarify, to focus, to avoid misinterpretation. Teacher uses
question to guide students in thinking, to make continuities value of the
students’ understanding. It is taken in reach competency which is needed
in all aspect. There are some kinds of contexts which can be used by
teacher to apply the questioning technique in the classroom. They are
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questioning is one of the entering and including way in doing something.
Questioning is a tool used by someone to start and depend interaction with
others, questioning is a strategy used actively to clarify and to make sure
an information, questioning is a strategy used actively by students to
analyze an explore the idea.
2.
Learning Community.
It can be taken by makes students have habits in talking and
sharing their experience and work together. Learning each other can be
done if there is no dominant side in communication. Generally, the result
of learning community is better than by doing individually. There is
responsibility of team work ; every member of the team work has the
equal responsibility. There is an effort to built learning motivation by
students which has not been able to do it. Learning community creates a
situation and condition, so that students can study with others. The teacher
has role to guide the learning process in a group. There must be two ways
communication and multi ways. There is a willing to receive a better idea
from another. There is a willing to respect another idea. There is no the
only right idea. The students dominant should be reduced, so that there is
an equaling role in learning community. Student asks to his friends.
Learning community concept suggest in order learning result in gotten
from work together with others. The result was gotten from sharing among
friends and groups.
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3.
Reflection.
Reflection is the way of thinking about what has studied or
thinking to back about what has been done in the previous. Reflection is a
description to the activity or knowledge gotten. Reflection gives is a
response to the act, activity, or knowledge gotten. A meaningful
experience is gotten from the process. The knowledge gotten is enlarged
by learning context and will be developed step by step. Teacher helps
students to relate the knowledge gotten which the new one. Therefore the
students will feel that they find something useful for their selves. The key
is how the knowledge is caught and understood in students’ mind.
5.
Authentic Assessment.
Assessment is a process of collecting data which gives description
of students’ development in learning process. Authentic assessment can be
taken from : written test, portfolio, homework quiz, students’ work,
presentation, demonstration, report, journal, interview discussion group. It
is taken to message students’ knowledge and students’ ability. It also
prepares them to apply their knowledge and their ability.
6.
Inquiry.
Inquiry is a complex idea that means many things to many people
in many contexts. Inquiry is question. Question related to what students
has studied. Question must be able to observe and validate meaningfully.
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In this case, their cycles that can be done, as like : observing, questioning,
analyzing, describing concept either individually or in group.
2.6.3
Teaching Strategy in CTL
In CTL, teaching strategy used is teaching problem based learning,
cooperative teaching, teaching based inquiry, teaching based task, teaching
based work, teaching based service.
2.6.3.1 Problem based learning
Problem based learning is an approach using the problem in real
world as a context of students in learning to thing critically, and the skill to
solve the problem and also getting knowledge and essential concept from
the learning subject. Problem based learning is designed to help teacher by
giving the information as many as possible to the students. Ibrahim and
Nur ( 2000 : 7-12 ) stated that there are three purpose in this case. They are
thinking and solving problem skill, modeling of parent’s role and
autonomic and self supporting students.
2.6.3.2 Cooperative learning
Cooperative learning is designed to create the interaction so that
the learning source is not only teacher and book, but it can be students or
somebody else. There are some characteristic in cooperative learning ;
they are positive dependent, face to face, individual accountabilities, and
individual relationship skill. Example : learning method which divided the
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students become groups or teams and every group consists of 5 or 6
students with hydrogen characteristic. Here the academic material from is
texts. Every students has to be responsible to study it. And this groups or
teams can be called as an expert group.
2.6.3.3 Authentic learning
Authentic learning is the learning which gives introduction of the
students to learn meaning context. The students can improve the intelligent
and can solve the problem which are important in real of context life,
because the students always get difficulties to apply the skill that they have
got from school in real daily life because the context of the school is
higher than the context of real life.
The teacher helps the students to learn how to solve problem by
giving the duties which have the real of context life with conducting in the
skills in real of context life. Then to solve these problems, the students
have to identify the problem, try to solve it, analysis, and report the
findings by themselves. Moreover, the students can apply the skill
academic such as : collecting information, accounting, writing, and
reading in real of context life.