1. careers
2. career planning

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PASSION FOR WORK AND THE
SUBJECTIVE CAREER: A CASEOF UNITED STATES
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
BY
JACQUELINE Y. A. CHELE
UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
SUMMER 2014
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PASSION FOR WORK AND THE
SUBJECTIVE CAREER: A CASEOF UNITED STATES
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
BY
JACQUELINE Y. A. CHELE
A Project Report Submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in
Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters in
Business Administration (MBA)
UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
SUMMER 2014
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted to any
other college, institution or university other than the United States International
University in Nairobi for academic credit.
Signed:
Date:
Jacqueline Y. A. Chele (ID 636746)
This project has been presented for examination with my approval as the appointed
supervisor.
Signed:
Date:
Dr. Joseph Ngugi
Signed:
Date:
Dean, Chandaria School of Business
ii
COPYRIGHT
All rights reserved. No part of this proposal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the author.
iii
ABSTRACT
The general objective of this research was to examine the relationship between passion
for work and the subjective career. This objective was supported by these specific
objectives: to establish the relationship between passion for work and the subjective
career and to investigate how passion for work impacts the individual elements of the
subjective career: career motivation, career commitment, career maturity and success, and
career self-efficacy.
The research employed a descriptive design in studying the target population formed by
the graduate students of the United States International University, registered under the
Chandaria School of Business. A representative sample of the population was obtained
through the use of a formula, and the population sampled through simple random
sampling. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire that contained mostly
close-ended questions in the form of measurement scales adapted from various literature.
Collected data was edited, coded and cleaned prior to analysis. This analysis was carried
out using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20. Both descriptive
and inferential techniques were utilised to product measures of central tendency, spread,
dispersion, correlations and regression models. The results produced were presented in
the form of tables, graphs and charts.
The first objective in this study was to investigate the relationship between passion for
work and the subjective career. The findings showed that there is a significant
relationship between passion for work and the subjective career, based on correlation
values obtained from the results (r= 0.825, 0.669. 0.667 and 0.177 for carer motivation,
commitment, maturity and success, and self-efficacy, respectively). However, the extent
of this relationship is subject to the individual interactions between the individual
dimensions of the subjective career, as well as the presence of factors not examined in
this study.
The second objective was to investigate the impact of passion for work on the individual
elements of the subjective career, namely motivation, commitment, maturity and success,
and self-efficacy. The findings revealed significant positive regression models between
passion for work and motivation (y= 0.277 + 0.887x), commitment (y= -0.383 + 0.905x)
iv
and maturity and success (y= 1.214 + 0.604x), while also revealing a less than moderate
dependence of self-efficacy on passion for work (y= 3.667 + 0.126x).
The study concluded that passion for work does bear significant impact on the
individual‟s subjective career, based on the findings of the three specific objectives
mentioned previously. In addition to this conclusion were recommendations for
improvements to the study, specifically in relation to the reliability and validity of the
measurement scales used. Recommendations for further research focused on investigating
passion in relation to other factors of the career, such as career change, as well as
activities outside the realm of work. Further research on passion in relation to career
competence, passion with respect to different populations and examination of career
trends in Kenya was also encouraged.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First, to God: thank You for the grace, strength and inspiration to do this project. Thank
you to my supervisor, Joseph Ngugi, for the wisdom, guidance and encouragement in
putting together this piece of work. Thank you as well to Zachary Mosoti for the vital
lessons in APA referencing. My heartfelt gratitude goes to the students who filled out my
questionnaires, as well as their lecturers for allowing me to interrupt precious time during
their lectures. Thank you also to the staff at the University Library for the assistance I
received in doing my research. Special mention goes to Azenath. To my friends, this
journey redefined interesting thanks to you! Last, and certainly not least, to my family:
for your support and encouragement throughout my time at USIU; it means a lot to me.
vi
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to every single individual who seeks to pursue their passion. It is
not for nought that you labour tirelessly.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STUDENT’S DECLARATION ..............................................................................................ii
COPYRIGHT ......................................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... vi
DEDICATION........................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xi
CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background of the Study .................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................... 5
1.3. General Objective ............................................................................................................... 5
1.4. Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................. 5
1.5. Significance of the Study ................................................................................................... 6
1.6. Scope of the Study .............................................................................................................. 6
1.7. Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................ 7
1.8. Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 9
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 9
2.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.2. Relationship between Passion for Work and the Subjective Career .................................. 9
2.3. Impact of Passion for Work on the Individual Elements of the Subjective Career .......... 15
2.4. Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 21
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 21
3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 21
viii
3.2. Research Design ............................................................................................................... 21
3.3. Population and Sampling Design ..................................................................................... 22
3.4. Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 24
3.5. Research Procedure .......................................................................................................... 24
3.6. Data Analysis Methods .................................................................................................... 25
3.7. Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 26
RESULTS AND FINDINGS ................................................................................................. 26
4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 26
4.2. General Information ......................................................................................................... 26
4.3. Passion for Work and the Subjective Career .................................................................... 34
4.4. Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 42
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 43
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 43
5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 43
5.2. Summary .......................................................................................................................... 43
5.3. Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 44
5.4. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 46
5.5. Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 47
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 49
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 57
APPENDIX I: AUTHORIZATION ........................................................................................ 57
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................ 58
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Age Distribution and Skewness .............................................................................. 28
Table 4.2: Sector/Industry of Employment .............................................................................. 32
Table 4.3: Reliability of Variable Measurement Scales .......................................................... 36
Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics of Variables .......................................................................... 37
Table 4.5: Correlation of PW to CM, CC, CS, and SE ............................................................ 38
Table 4.6: Linear Regression Model for PW and CM ............................................................. 39
Table 4.7: Linear Regression Model for PW and CC .............................................................. 40
Table 4.8: Linear Regression Model for PW and CS .............................................................. 41
Table 4.9: Linear Regression Model for PW and SE............................................................... 41
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Gender Distribution ............................................................................................... 27
Figure 4.2: Age Distribution .................................................................................................... 29
Figure 4.3: MBA Concentration .............................................................................................. 30
Figure 4.5: Position/Level in Organization .............................................................................. 33
Figure 4.6: Number of Years Spent in Current Position .......................................................... 34
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Fourteen years into the twenty-first century, the concept of career has never been as redefined, dynamic and exciting as it is today. This concept has transitioned from a time
where the prevailing perspective was that of one life dedicated to one career, to one
described as boundary-less, multi-directional and filled with several learning cycles
(Baruch, 2004).
The more traditional approach to career has been focused on advancement, where
evaluation is based on upward mobility within the organization. It has been considered as
the profession that one chooses to spend their life in, including the path taken, the roles,
positions and sequence of jobs that contribute to this chosen career (Baruch, 2004;
Coetzee, 2006). This linear progression is characterized by extensive hierarchy, structure
and rigidity and is managed largely by the organisation, even though it belongs to the
individual (Baruch, 2004). This traditional construct lends itself to what is known as the
external, or objective, career, which identifies those steps that an individual has to follow
within an organisation or profession, in order to make progress. The objective career
includes aspects such as career management, career planning, career development and
career paths (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2006).
The contemporary career concept, also referred to as the protean career (Hall and Mirvis,
1995), views the individual as the driver of their career. Progression is no longer about
upward mobility, but has taken on a new dimension of learning and experiences, which
contribute to the individual‟s competencies, direction and overall professional life,
through the various positions, roles and assignments that they handle in this life (Coetzee,
2006). If need be, the individual is at liberty to reinvent their career over time. The
protean construct exemplifies that individual who is on a search for fulfilment and
meaning (Baruch, 2004; DeSimone, Werner and Harris, 2002), and includes aspects such
as career self-management, career competency, career success, career motivation, career
commitment, career maturity and career self-efficacy (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2006).
These aspects constitute the internal, or subjective career, which Schein (1990) describes
as the “themes and concepts one develops that make sense out of one‟s own occupational
1
pursuits.” (p. 257). This refers to the attitudes, values, needs and perceptions that
individuals have in relation to career. The subjective career is about perceived talents and
abilities, basic values, and career motives and needs (Cascio, 2003).
In the protean career, the individual‟s performance in their line- or lines- of work is
defined by their own criteria of good performance. Good performance, or success, in the
traditional approach, is at the discretion of the organisation, where it is pegged on salary
and position (Baruch, 2004; Hall, 1996). In essence, the subjective career focuses on a
sense of where an individual is headed in their work life, while the traditional, objective
career zeroes in on the sequence of employment-related experiences in the course of the
individual‟s lifetime. As today‟s turbulent business environment pushes organizations
into flatter, more flexible structures, career opportunities also morph in tandem to this,
thus appearing riskier, less defined, and full of adventure (Coetzee, 2006).
With this evolution of career, one thing remains unchanged: the uncertainty faced by
individuals as they wonder whether they will be happy in their vocations (Christensen,
2011). This is magnified in the contemporary approach to career, which characterizes the
world of work in the twenty-first century; the protean career brings with it a greater level
of uncertainty, fear, rapid change and a lack of the typical supports that have been
previously used to identify individuals and help them make sense of what is going on
around them (such as defining oneself by job title, or in relation to the employer)
(DeSimone, Werner and Harris, 2002).
With such uncertainty, remaining motivated may take on an entirely new, complex
dimension, as the individual seeks fulfilment, beyond a regular salary. This is reinforced
by both Abraham Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs, which culminates in self- actualisationthe ultimate level of satisfaction, fulfilment and meaning- and Frederick Herzberg‟s
theory of motivation- the idea that money is, in fact, not the principle motivator in one‟s
life, but rather, the prospect of growing in knowledge, responsibility, impact in the lives
of others, as well as recognition for achievements (Christensen, 2011). This has given rise
to an alternative way of viewing work. It is not just the routine of waking up every day to
get through an eight-to-five job. Armstrong (2009) defines work as “the exertion of effort
and the application of knowledge and skills to achieve a purpose” (p. 252). Work has
moved from just earning a living (making money), to a phenomenon that presents the
opportunity to not only use, but develop abilities, as well as exercise power and foster
2
companionship. Work is seen as something that can produce various forms of satisfaction
including recognition, prestige, achievement and a sense of doing something worthwhile
(Armstrong, 2009). Thomas (1999) describes the essential components of work as
producing or achieving something- that it is not an end in itself; involving a degree of
obligation or necessity, and involving effort and persistence- though not wholly
pleasurable, it still harbours pleasurable elements.
However, the centrality of work in the lives of individuals seems to arise from the moral
necessity to exert oneself and seek paid employment, as opposed to being idle (Noon and
Blyton, 2007). This, perhaps, has led to what has become a mundane feature of everyday
life- the daily „struggle‟ of getting out of bed, fighting with endless traffic to be in the
office by eight in the morning, and barely getting through the working day until five in
the evening, when more traffic is faced, to get home and try and rest before the routine is
repeated the next day, and the next, and the next. As a result, there is a greater need to
find meaning in work; to move beyond the feeling of stagnation, lack of stimulation,
authenticity and motivation, to a place where one is doing what they really want to do,
while gaining from it (Ibarra, 2011; Wrzesniewski, Berg and Dutton, 2011). Holbeche
and Springett (2004) remark, “The search for meaning appears to be part of a
fundamental human need to feel of value and to make a difference...people need and want
to belong to communities in which they can make meaningful contributions. Work, for
many people, provides a source of identity and a feeling of togetherness. It gives us a
sense of our status in society” (p. 253).
It must be noted that how one‟s career unfolds is dependent on how they value work.
Some may see it as merely a way towards monetary gain or higher positions in the
organisation. However, others may view work as a calling, elevating it to the pedestal of
giving meaning to their existence. A secondary dimension to those that value work deeply
is that this value varies with individuals. This can be seen from the disparity in the quality
and quantity of involvement in their work (Forest, Mageau, Sarrazin and Morin, 2010).
Herein lies the place of passion.
Passion, according to the dualistic model proposed by Vallerand et al. (2003), is
described as a strong inclination towards an activity that one loves, in which they invest a
significant amount of time and energy, that they find important, and that defines them
(Vallerand et al., 2003). Building on this definition, passion for work can be defined as
3
the extent to which one „loves‟ to work and derives joy from investing in work-related
activities (Baum and Locke, 2004; Shane et al., 2003).Passion for work is exhibited in
different ways; there are those who value their work tremendously and give their all
towards it, as described earlier. There are also those in the business world who have
seemingly lost their passion for work and constitute part of the population of the
unwilling participants in the mundane struggle alluded to previously. But there are also
those professionals who have let go of what would normally be seen as a satisfying job,
and have instead transitioned into a more fulfilling occupation that they feel makes them
happy and allows them to utilise their talents and gifts. Such major career changes
characterize the role passion plays in career development, and the number of people
making these changes-or thinking about making such a change- has grown significantly
over the last decade (Ibarra, 2011).
Passion has been shown to make a difference in the lives of individuals. Philippe,
Vallerand and Lavigne (2009) put it thus: “Indeed, people who frequently engage in an
activity that they deeply love and value may feel good about this activity and experience
positive emotions during task engagement. In addition, they may also come to feel more
zest and meaning in their life than people who are not passionate about anything in their
life, because passionate people have something to look forward to when they rise in the
morning. In that sense, people who are passionate about an activity should experience
higher levels of well-being than individuals who do not engage in such a type of activity
in their life” (p. 4).
Linking the impact of passion, as presented above, with the elements of one‟s career in
today‟s business world has the potential to propel the individual‟s subjective career: their
motivation, commitment, competency, self-efficacy, and eventual maturity and success.
However, the extent of this propulsion remains unknown, and forms the subject of this
study.
The subject of this study is the United States International University (USIU). Established
in 1969, the university caters to 5815 students at undergraduate, graduate and doctoral
levels (USIU Factsheet, 2014).These students are all at different stages of their careers,
with various factors influencing their progression. This study seeks to assess how passion,
as one such factor, influences the subjective career of the students at USIU.
4
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The dawn of the twenty-first century has seen mounting interest in psychology from a
positive perspective, as well as greater investment in the quest for what makes life more
fulfilling and worth living (Philippe et al., 2009). In addition to this, the number of people
quitting stable, well-paying jobs to move into careers that allow them to explore their
passions is increasing.
It is clear that the role of passion in career progression is quite significant. However, the
extent of this significance has not been assessed in relation to the elements of the
subjective career. Past studies have focused on passion in relation to heavy work
investment (Houlfourt et al., 2014), work and work satisfaction (Forest et al., 2011;
Perrewé et al., 2014; Thorgren et al., 2013; Nimon and Zigarmi, 2011; Zigarmi et al.,
2009), addiction (Burke and Fiksenbaum, 2009), well-being (Philippe et al., 2009; Forest
et al., 2012), work performance (Ho, Wong and Lee, 2011; Vallerand et al., 2007),
entrepreneurship (Clercq, Honig and Martin, 2011) and life satisfaction (Lafrenière et al.,
2012).These research perspectives, though significant, have not addressed passion in
relation to one‟s career has a whole. This study presents an opportunity to find out more
about the impact of passion on the twenty-first century career, as well as open up further
areas of research.
1.3. General Objective
The general objective of this research was to examine the relationship between passion
for work and the subjective career.
1.4. Specific Objectives
The specific objectives were:
i. To establish the relationship between passion for work and the subjective career.
ii. To investigate how passion for work impacts the individual elements of the subjective
career: career motivation, career commitment, career maturity and success, and career
self-efficacy.
5
1.5. Significance of the Study
This study will be of significance to several classes of people, as expounded in the
following sections.
1.5.1. Students and Professionals
The outcome of this research will aid students and professionals to plan their career paths
from a perspective that allows them to take advantage of what they enjoy doing. It will
also help them evaluate their current status, and build or alter it appropriately.
1.5.2. Human Resource Managers and Practitioners
This study is particularly important for those in the human resource profession, as it will
allow them to gain new insight into what makes people tick, thus enabling them to craft
new strategies for engagement in the workplace.
1.5.3. USIU Management
This study will benefit the management of the university in that it will provide an
opportunity to evaluate the programmes being offered on the basis of whether they are
enabling students in their journey towards career success, thus allow them to plan for
future students.
1.5.4. Academicians and Researchers
Research on the concept of passion in relation to various aspects is growing, and this
study will contribute to that body of growth by elaborating on the impact of passion on
career.
1.6. Scope of the Study
The scope of this study was the United States International University Africa campus
located in Kasarani area, off Thika Road, in the outskirts of Nairobi. The study was
conducted in the Summer Semester of 2014, on the graduate students at the university,
using the dualistic model of passion proposed by Vallerand et al. (2003).The study was
carried out on students in the Chandaria School of Business drawn from the Masters in
Business Administration (MBA) programme.
6
Possible limitations to the study included lack of honest responses and non-cooperation of
respondents. Mitigation strategies against these limitations included verbal appeal for
honesty at the time of administering the questionnaire to complement the confidentiality
and honesty statements that preceded the survey. The second limitation was mitigated
through measures such as the use of a simple, well-designed questionnaire, administration
of the survey during a convenient time (such as during assigned breaks) and verbal
appeal.
1.7. Definition of Terms
Passion
Passion is a strong inclination towards an activity that one loves, in which they invest a
significant amount of time and energy that they find important, and that defines them
(Vallerand et al., 2003).
Passion for work
This describes the extent to which one „loves‟ to work and derives joy from investing in
work-related activities (Baum and Locke, 2004; Shane et al., 2003).
Subjective Career
This constitutes the themes and concepts one develops that make sense out of one‟s own
occupational pursuits (Schein, 1990).
Career Motivation
Career motivation is a multi-dimensional construct internal to the individual, influenced
by the situation, and reflected in the individual‟s decisions and behaviours (London,
1983).
Career Commitment
The passion individuals have for their chosen work roles or personal career goals efforts
(Schreuder and Coetzee, 2006).
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Career Maturity
Career maturity is the ability to make career decisions that reflect decisiveness, selfreliance, independence, and willingness to compromise between one‟s personal needs and
the requirements of one‟s career situation (London, 1993).
Career Success
This describes the positive psychological outcomes or achievements one has accumulated
as a result of experiences over the span of working life (Ayres, 2006).
Career Self-Efficacy
Career self-efficacy is a person‟s enduring belief that he or she is capable of performing
across a variety of situations and tasks (Chen, Gully and Eden, 2001).
1.8. Chapter Summary
This chapter highlighted the background of the study regarding passion and the extent of
its impact on the subjective career. In addition to this, the chapter elaborated on the
problem statement regarding the study, its general objectives, specific objectives,
significance, scope and definition of terms used throughout the research paper. Chapter
two will focus on a review of literature specific to the dualistic model of passion, as well
as the elements of the subjective career in relation to passion, as guided by the specific
objectives. Chapter three addresses the research methodology that will be used in the
collection of data, including the research design, population, sample size and sampling
technique. Chapter four exhibits the results produced from statistical analysis of the
responses accumulated from the respondents, while chapter five focuses on the
discussions and conclusions drawn from the results of the research.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
In order to gain a better understanding of passion in relation to career, it is crucial to
appreciate the level of research that has contributed to this relationship. This chapter
focuses on a review of literature that examines passion for work, the subjective career and
the dimensions that make up the subjective career in light of the objectives of this study:
investigating the relationship between passion for work and the subjective career, and
how this passion impacts the elements within the subjective career.
2.2. Relationship between Passion for Work and the Subjective Career
An understanding of the relationship between passion and career is hinged on an equally
important understanding of the concept of passion relative to activities, as well as
comprehension of the subjective career. In a 2003 study, Vallerand et al. explored the
idea of passion as a major influencer behind what makes the lives of people more
fulfilling and worth living. They examined passion with regard to its positive attributesfuelling motivation, enhancing well-being and providing meaning- as well as its more
negative attributes- how it can lead to harmful emotions, inflexible persistence, and
interference with the achievement of a balanced, fulfilled life. The focus of the study was
the examination of passion with respect to activities- an alternative perspective to that of
passionate love, for which numerous empirical studies exist. This study postulated a dual
approach towards passion, aided by a new definition: “a strong inclination toward an
activity that people like, that they find important, and in which they invest time and
energy” (Vallerand et al., 2003: p. 757).
The dual construct proposes two distinct types of passion: harmonious and obsessive
passion. The two are differentiated according to how the passionate activity has been
internalized into one‟s identity (Vallerand et al., 2003). Internalization, as defined by
Deci and Ryan (2000), refers to the process that individuals go through in transforming
socially-sanctioned values and behaviours into values that are personally endorsed. This
process can either be autonomous or controlled (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick and Leone, 1994).
Autonomous internalization involves people voluntarily recognizing principles as input,
and assimilating them into their identity. In essence, they accept these principles fully, as
9
their own. On the other hand, controlled internalization would see people compelled to
identify with the principles. As a result, their behaviours and values would remain
external, or would only be internalized partially in the identity. Vallerand et al. (2003)
argued that the internalization process would determine the type of passion that an
individual would develop towards their given activity.
Autonomous internalization of principles leads to the development of harmonious
passion. This type of passion is described as a strong desire to freely engage in the chosen
activity. In the case of harmonious passion, the activity being undertaken does occupy a
significant area of the individual‟s identity. However, this area does not overpower the
identity, and is in harmony with other facets of the individual‟s life. Constraints and
contingencies are not associated with harmonious passion and control of the activity
remains in the hands of the individual- despite the important place that the activity
occupies in their life (Vallerand et al., 2003; Deci and Ryan, 2000; Sheldon, 2002; Forest
et al., 2012). An appropriate illustration of harmonious passion is that of a teacher who
highly values and loves their occupation (teaching), yet can engage in it in a free and
enthusiastic manner without creating conflict with other important aspects of their life
such as relationships with friends and family. Pleasure and self-actualization can therefore
arise from the teacher‟s teaching, without actually jeopardizing their personal life (Forest
et al., 2012).
It is important to make the distinction between harmonious passion and work
engagement. While harmonious passion describes a “self-defining characteristic that is
part of people‟s sense of who they are,” (Vallerand et al., 2003: p. ) work engagement
depicts a state of mind typified by dedication, intense vigour and absorption in one‟s
work (Hakanen et al., 2006; Schaufeli et al., 2002). Simply put, work engagement means
that one can be highly dedicated and absorbed in what they do without being necessarily
passionate for it. They can be motivated autonomously toward their activity because they
recognize the importance of accomplishing that task, without having a passion for it
(Vallerand and Houlfort, 2003; Deci and Ryan, 2000).
Obsessive passion, on the other hand, is influenced by controlled internalization. Because
controlled internalization arises from compulsion, the individual cannot help but engage
in the activity. This means that the passion has to run its course due to its controlling
nature. Unlike harmonious passion, this results in a disproportionate part of the
10
individual‟s identity being occupied, coupled with conflict with other activities
(Vallerand et al., 2003). This controlled internalization is depicted by intra and/or
interpersonal contingencies linked with the activity- contingent self-esteem, high
performance or social acceptance- which result in the development of obsessive passion
for that activity. A love for this activity, concomitant with strong engagement are typical
of obsessive passion. When control over this engagement is lost, however, the activity
spirals to the point where those who are obsessively passionate about it cannot help but
engage in it- even when ill-advised to do so (Forest et al., 2012). This can result in
“negative and maladaptive affective, cognitive, behavioural and interpersonal outcomes”
(Forest et al., 2012: p. 1237). If the teacher in the above example becomes so invested in
their work that they derive their self-esteem from it, they can be said to be obsessively
passionate about what they do, and this can generate conflict between their work and
other spheres of their existence- to the point where neglect of family and social life are
the order of the day (Forest et al., 2012).
Having examined what passion consists of, the focus shifts to how this passion translates
to passion for work. While Baum and Locke (2004) as well as Shane et al. (2003)
describe passion for work as the extent to which one „loves‟ to work and derives joy from
investing in work-related activities, Zigarmi et al. (2009) define employee work passion
as “an individual‟s persistent, emotionally positive, meaning-based, state of wellbeing
stemming from reoccurring cognitive and affective appraisals of various job and
organizational situations that results in consistent, constructive work intentions and
behaviours” (p. 312). This extrapolates the former construct of passion into the career
context, and forms the basis of the discussion in relation to passion for work. What
exactly does passion for work entail?
According to Ho et al. (2011), job passion refers to “a job attitude comprising both
affective and cognitive elements that embody the strong inclination that one has towards
one‟s job” (p.28). From this definition, job passion (passion for work) can be said to
consist of two elements; the first is affective in nature, constituting the strong, intense
liking for and enjoyment of the job. The second element focuses on the cognitive aspect,
where the perceived importance or significance of the job to the individual is captured,
such that the job is internalized and defines who the individual is (Cardon et al., 2009;
Vallerand et al., 2003). Ho et al. add that job passion is distinct from other common work
11
attitudes, and given that it can be distinguished into obsessive and harmonious forms sets
it apart, allowing for the possibility of different outcomes based on the form of passion
identified.
The nature of work is such that a considerable portion of an individual‟s life is spent on
going to school and training in order to gain the opportunity work, and, having attained
this opportunity, devoting more than fifty percent of their waking time to work- whether
directly or indirectly. By virtue of this, individuals either identify and define themselves
by their work, or carry on with it-viewing it only as labour; retired individuals often
continue engaging in actions related to their former jobs. Simply put, there are those who
just see work as work, while others love their work such that a single day may be seen as
insufficient when it comes to doing that which they want to do while at work. Work
elicits a sense of pleasure and excitement that makes them feel alive. This describes the
individual who is passionate about their work and builds on the concept of passion toward
activities (Vallerand and Houlfort, 2003).
Applying the dualistic theory to the work (or career) setting, it is clear that harmonious
and obsessive passions will relate differently to the affective, cognitive and behavioural
outcomes inherent in work (Forest et al., 2011). While harmonious passion relates
positively to the flow of work, affective commitment, mental health, vitality and having
fun in the process of work, obsessive passion relates to distress, carrying work home and
constantly thinking about it, especially outside the workplace (Gorgievski, Moriano and
Bakker, 2014). Thus the worker who is harmoniously passionate about their work
engages in it willingly; they are not compelled to do it, but perform out of choice. The
individual exercises control over their work, revelling in it and the experiences it brings
about, while enjoying the harmony present with other aspects of their life. This
individual‟s work reflects what they like about themselves and they carry it out without it
taking up the entire space that defines their identity. The obsessively passionate worker,
on the other hand, may or may not like his job, but feels compelled to engage in it as a
result of the internal force that is controlling him. This individual is unable to disengage
from the work and cannot envision his life without it, possibly becoming emotionally
dependent on it. This lack of control leads to the work taking up disproportionate space in
the individual‟s identity, resulting in conflict between their work and other activities in
their life (Vallerand and Houlfort, 2003). Burke and Fiksenbaum (2009) concur with this
12
dual construct in relation to work, stating that “passion can create motivation, increase
well-being, and provide meaning in one‟s life, but it can also lead to negative emotions,
rigid persistence, and unbalanced life” (p. 352).
Passion within the organizational context has been shown to prevail, based on studies
carried out by Vallerand and Houlfort (2003). The research, involving more than 300
workers from a variety of fields, revealed that 77 percent of the workers exhibited a
moderate level of passion toward their work. Not only did this cement the existence of
passion in the workplace, but it also showed that passion is not a concept reserved for a
chosen few. On the contrary, it is a phenomenon experienced by a majority of workers.
The research also revealed that this passion was evenly distributed: 38 percent exhibited
harmonious passion, while 39 percent had an obsessive passion (Vallerand and Houlfort,
2003). With performance earning strong emphasis within organizations, the influence of
passion in the workplace cannot be underestimated. Vallerand (2008) highlighted the
impact of passion when it comes to performance, asserting that it represents one of the
underlying motivational factors that push individuals to spend a considerable amount of
time in perfecting their skills towards achieving exceptional proficiency.
The quest for greater proficiency, especially in the professional arena, has led to a
departure from the norm, where dynamism is embraced in order to achieve this
proficiency. The notion of the subjective career is one that has arisen from the changing
dynamics of an individual‟s career, where the „one-life-one-career‟ perspective has given
way to the boundaryless career, characterized by a series of learning cycles within a
variety of career pathways (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2006; Baruch, 2004; Coetzee, 2005;
Weiss, 2001). Cascio (2003) adds that this concept of career consists of three aspects:
perceived talents and abilities; basic values and; career motives and needs. Changes in the
way careers are run have led to a shift in the way in different aspects of career are viewed.
For instance, commitment: in the traditional construct, commitment was practiced in an
organizational context, where one being committed to their job meant that they keep the
same job for a long period of time (Enache et al., 2013). Colarelli and Bishop (1990) as
well as Ballout (2009) add that the nature of today‟s work life means that lifelong
employment within a specific organization can no longer be guaranteed and therefore
encourage commitment to one‟s career, rather than to one‟s employer. With time, the
concept of organizational commitment has lost relevance, giving way to constructs of
13
career commitment and job satisfaction, as people search for more emotionally-satisfying
lives through the discovery of their vocations (Gratton and Ghoshal, 2003). Srikanth and
Israel (2012) add that an individual‟s career commitment can be related to their work
commitment, which, in turn can lead to desirable outcomes within their career. Colarelli
and Bishop (1990) assert that individuals who are committed to their careers develop
career goals and stick to them, preventing the need and expectation of pursuing their
career while under a single organization. Those with high levels of career commitment
are, in turn, pushed to find ways of achieving their goals and are therefore more likely to
seize opportunities than individuals with low levels of career commitment (Ellemers, de
Gilder and van den Heuvel , 1998).
In essence, the subjective career focuses on the individual‟s sense of where they are going
regarding their work life, while the objective career (the route one takes in an
organization or profession to make progress) focuses on the individual‟s sequence of
experiences related to employment during their lifetime (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2006).
Because the subjective career focuses on the individual‟s perception of their work life, it
can be postulated that passion for work will relate significantly with the subjective career.
Passion produces positive impact. Passionate individuals long for engagement in their
chosen work, and therefore produce a uniform pattern of behaviour (Perrewé et al., 2011).
Passion breeds motivation, well-being and meaning in life (Burke and Fiksenbaum,
2009). However, these positive results of passion stem from its harmonious nature. The
obsessive character of passion represents its dark side, as postulated by Ho et al. (2011).
Obsessive passion is associated with inflexibility and rumination (Vallerand et al., 2003;
Ratelle et al., 2004). Cardon et al. (2009) link this kind of passion with aggressive
behaviour in relation to active pursuit of goals, elimination of barriers and accumulation
of job-related materials and support. This behaviour may, in turn, be construed as
threatening, especially when work resources seem to be finite. The potential for social
stress is therefore amplified, particularly because behaviour may also be viewed as selfserving. In summary, the impact of passion will be dictated by how behaviours have been
internalized and expressed (Perrewé et al., 2014). These behaviours will reflect how the
individual‟s career develops over time.
14
2.3. Impact of Passion for Work on the Individual Elements of the Subjective
Career
The following sections present research thus far on passion and the elements of the
subjective career.
2.3.1. Passion for Work and Career Motivation
The connection between passion and motivation comes from the similarity between the
two themes. They direct and energize behaviours, as well as lead to important cognitive,
affective and behavioural consequences (Houlfort et al., 2014; Deci and Ryan, 2000;
Vallerand, 1997; Vallerand 2010; Vallerand and Houlfort, 2003).
Through a study on high performing individuals, Ericsson and Charness (1994) concluded
that the underlying forces that led to the full engagement of the individuals in their
deliberate practice was unclear. Vallerand et al. (2007) proposed passion as the energy
underlying the afore-mentioned persistent involvement. They surmised that “being
passionate for an activity leads individuals to dedicate themselves fully to their activity,
thereby allowing them to persist, even in the face of obstacles, and to eventually reach
excellence” (p. 506). Vallerand et al. (2003) showed that passion and motivation are
distinctly different constructs. Career identity, insight and resilience (and therefore career
motivation) can also be viewed through how this motivation arises-whether intrinsically
or extrinsically. Deci (1975) describes intrinsic motivation as taking part in an activity out
of pleasure and enjoyment- a concept similar to that of harmonious passion, with respect
to liking the activity. However, intrinsic motivation differs in that activities carried out in
this manner may not necessarily be internalized in the person‟s identity (Deci and Ryan,
1985), but are best perceived as a natural emergence from the person-task interaction at
short-term level (Koestner and Losier, 2002). Extrinsic motivation also sees the
individual engage in an activity; however, this engagement is done not out of pleasure,
but in order to obtain something outside the sphere of the activity. This is contrary to the
concept of passion, which is founded on a liking of the activity. Extrinsic motivation does
not take liking the activity into account (Vallerand et al., 2007).
In support of the distinction between passion and motivation, Vallerand et al. (2003) have
shown that passion produces affective outcomes when controlling for both intrinsic and
15
extrinsic motivation. Their definition of passion as “a strong inclination towards an
activity that one loves, in which they invest a significant amount of time and energy that
they find important, and that defines them” (p. 757) incorporates the idea that an
individual likes the activity, but this activity is also important for them. They therefore
define themselves in relation to it. It can therefore be concluded that intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation are not comparable to harmonious or obsessive passion
(respectively). Harmonious passion endears itself to self-identity, while intrinsic
motivation does not. Similarly, obsessive passion includes the element of the individual
liking the activity, which extrinsic motivation does not require. Extrinsic motivation relies
on an external stimulus, which obsessive passion does not need (Ho et al., 2011).
Through a study on Australian artists, Bridgstock (2005) concluded that though
financially dissatisfied, the artists persevered in their occupation; this perseverance was
attributed to passion as the driving force. Passion in this case was described as a simple,
yet complete, desire for the job (Davidson, 2004). Burk and Fiksenbaum (2005)
supported this notion further through a study on Australian psychologists and Norwegian
journalists, remarking that passion creates motivation. However, they added that as much
as it is a source of motivation, it is not the only source, citing addiction as an alternative
driver of work.
2.3.2. Passion for Work and Career Commitment
Crosswell and Elliot (2004) carried out a study on Australian teachers towards exploring
the dimension of passion in relation to their commitment and engagement in their
teaching vocations. This study was based on the changing characteristics of commitment,
from a one-dimensional, external construct, to a multi-dimensional, multi-layered
phenomenon (Day, 2000, 2004) that incorporates an emotional attachment to the
teachers‟ work and their corresponding personal levels of commitment (Day, 2004; Elliot
and Crosswell, 2001).Crosswell and Elliot (2004) put forward the premise that teacher
commitment is not focused solely on external dimensions, but that a significant
relationship exists between teacher passions, values, beliefs and teacher commitment,
which distinguishes teacher commitment as a highly personalised perspective of the self
and its relationship to education. This was in light of the fact that this commitment has
considerable bearing on the teachers‟ performance, ability to innovate and integrate new
16
ideas into their practice, absenteeism, turnover, impact on students‟ achievement and
attitudes towards school (Firestone, 1996, Tsui and Cheng, 1999).
The study examined a group of thirty (30) teachers who had taught for between nine (9)
to twenty-seven (27) years. Of the data analysed, six categories were identified, which
focused on how the teachers represented their commitment. One of these categories was
the representation of commitment as a passion; that teacher commitment involves an
emotional link to the work involved in teaching, both generally and in relation to specific
aspects of the profession. Of significance was the finding that the conceptualization of
commitment has moved “beyond dimensions of external referents and practice, to a more
complex, sophisticated notion of passion, ideology and values” (Crosswell and Elliot,
2004: p. 7).
The teachers assessed produced the theme of a positive emotional attachment being
required if the phenomenon of commitment is viewed from the perspective of passion,
emotional involvement or a love of particular aspects of the job. It was evident that a
committed teacher has a passion for teaching and gains great satisfaction from certain
elements of their role. This commitment encompassed either a general passion for
teaching, or a passion for specific aspects of the role, among the diverse elements present.
An additional finding was that not everyone would value the same things, or would be
willing to invest their time and energy into the same area; simply put, a diversity of
passions existed among the teachers (Crosswell and Elliot, 2004). The findings of this
study extended into the realm of motivation; it was clear that a passion, or „love‟, of the
job is what constitutes the sustaining and motivating factor for the teachers, given their
difficult and complex roles. Being able to rise above the everyday difficulties faced was
facilitated by the teachers‟ passion for their work, with them considering this passion or
emotional attachment as a core element of their commitment. It is passion, not mere
external rewards or recognition that is essential to maintaining and sustaining the
teachers‟ interest in their jobs, and the willingness to remain in the profession. The
conclusion drawn from this finding was the clear existence of a “very intimate connection
between a „passion‟ for the work of teaching and teaching commitment” (p.7).
While Crosswell and Elliot‟s (2004) study focused on the teaching profession, these
findings can be extrapolated to include other professions. Although different professions
require different levels of emotional attachment, remaining committed to that profession,
17
and being able to deal with the daily difficulties presented is not something that can be
left to external stimulants of commitment, or motivation. Having a passion for the activity
at hand would produce a more satisfying outcome, and would enable one to extend their
passion to their career.
2.3.3. Passion for Work, Career Maturity and Success
In a 2009 study on entrepreneurial passion, Cardon et al. proposed that entrepreneurial
passion for activities associated with a particular identity (as described by harmonious
passion), would lead the entrepreneur to set more challenging goals, thus resulting in
higher levels of creative problem-solving. Their thinking behind this was that
entrepreneurial passion would influence behaviour, and ultimately effectiveness, through
its arbitrary effect on goal-related cognition (which feeds back to career maturity, based
on Super et al.‟s model). These arbitrary or mediated effects of goal cognition reflect the
coordination between passion and cognition during the pursuit of goals. Based on this,
Cardon et al. (2009) postulated that the passion exhibited by the entrepreneur would
influence the level of challenge inherent in their goals, their commitment to these goals,
as well as the nature of their striving towards attainment of these goals. This, in turn,
would feed into differential effects on the entrepreneur‟s ability to solve problems
creatively, persist and absorb their identity-relevant tasks. This would ultimately have a
significant bearing on the entrepreneur‟s effectiveness and therefore success.
Cardon et al.‟s (2009) reasoning is founded on two primary reasons. They assert that the
valence of passion boosts belief in the possibility of success with regard to activities that
affirm and validate the identity associated with the entrepreneur‟s passion. They add that
when engaged in activities that they are passionate about, entrepreneurs are more
confident and positive in making evaluative judgements about the prospects for success in
those activities. When the entrepreneur‟s success beliefs are bolstered, he or she is more
likely to set more challenging goals, than that entrepreneur whose approach to the focal
activity lacks the energy of passion. The second reason underlying Cardon et al.‟s
proposal is that when passionate about a particular role identity, entrepreneurs are likely
to have a more expansive range of thought-action processes, therefore resulting in an
enlarged sense of their capabilities and personal resources. Where the situations faced are
shrouded in uncertainty with respect to the probability of success, those entrepreneurs that
experience passion are at an advantage in that they are more prone to be emboldened by
18
the heightened sense of their capabilities and resources, thus set more challenging goals
than the entrepreneurs without passion. Baum and Locke (2004) agree with this position,
suggesting that entrepreneurs with passion are more prone to acquire and invest
resources, such as time and effort, in order to develop the required capabilities for
activities that they like and goals that they aspire toward.
In summary, these studies illustrate passion‟s role in setting challenging goals. From a
broader point of view, they show how passion can influence the cognitive capabilities of
an individual, thus ultimately affect their success. Influence on these capabilities, in turn,
feeds into determining the level of maturity that one has reached in relation to their
career.
2.3.4. Passion for Work and Career Self-efficacy
In a study on how employees perceive entrepreneurial passion, Breugst et al. (2012)
identified one of the limitations to their study as the presence of additional mediating
factors in the perception of entrepreneurial passion by employees. One of these factors
was the propensity for passion to trigger feelings of supervisory support and higher levels
of self-efficacy in the employees, as passionate entrepreneurs believe, and convey this
belief, that their goals can be achieved. Meyer et al. (2002) supplement this view by
relating perceptions of support and self-efficacy to higher levels of commitment.
Self-efficacy is based on how an individual believes they are able to perform across
different situations and tasks; Vallerand et al. (2007) proposed that passion represents a
major motivational force that underlies deliberate practice of activities, and therefore
informs how the individual would perform these activities. This proposal was drawn from
research that has shown that people who attain exceptional performance levels must
undergo long, active-learning processes, during which they improve and refine their
knowledge, skills and abilities (Ericsson and Charness, (1994). Vallerand et al.‟s position
in this regard was that passion proves an important source of fuel that would allow people
to persist through the long and at times frustrating practice sessions that would eventually
enable them to attain high performance levels. Their confidence in this hypothesis was
also based on a previous study (Vallerand et al., 2003) that associated harmonious and
obsessive passion with prolonged involvement in activities, which would appear to
facilitate development of competence and achievement of excellence. This study also
19
showed that passion does not exert its influence directly, but sets things in motion by
providing individuals with the energy and goals to engage in deliberate practice, which
bears direct influence on performance.
In testing the role of both types of passion in facilitating engagement in deliberate
practice, therefore predicting performance, Vallerand et al. (2007) found that the dualistic
model of passion is highly applicable to the attainment of performance. Their study
demonstrated that both harmonious and obsessive types of passion may indirectly
facilitate performance attainment, but may also engender differential well-being and
processes toward achievement of goals.
In summary, passion has a bearing on the extent of self-efficacy of an individual. This is
because it has been shown to influence performance, which, in turn, is at the core of selfefficacy, determining how one would do in different situations and tasks.
2.4. Chapter Summary
This chapter aids in understanding the research that has been carried out thus far
regarding the concept of passion, specifically the dualistic model that can be used to
explain it, and how it can be applied in the context of an individual‟s career. In addition to
this, the chapter reviews literature that relates this passion to the elements of an
individual‟s subjective career- motivation, commitment, maturity and self-efficacy, and
how these relations come about. Chapter three discusses the research methodology that
will be used in this study towards investigating the relationship between passion for work
and the subjective career, as well as the extent to which this passion has an impact on the
elements under the subjective career.
20
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
The objective of this study was to assess the impact of passion for work as a driver of the
subjective career, aided by the following objectives: to assess the level of significance of
passion for work; to investigate how passion for work impacts the individual elements of
the subjective career, namely motivation, commitment, maturity, success and selfefficacy and; to investigate the relationship between passion for work and the subjective
career. This chapter focuses on the methodology behind the research that was carried out
at the United States International University. It commences with a description of the
research design utilised in the course of the study, including its rationale. The population
and sample of the study are also elaborated on, in addition to the methods and procedures
used to collect and analyse the data, concluding with a summary of the chapter.
3.2. Research Design
Research design, refers to the blueprint, or master plan, that identifies the methods and
process for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (Cooper and Schindler,
2011; Zikmund et al., 2010). This study adopted a descriptive research design in an
attempt to answer the afore-mentioned questions. Descriptive research is concerned with
describing the characteristics of events, persons, or situations, as well as depicting any
relationships or associations that may exist among the variables under study (Sekaran and
Bougie, 2013). A descriptive approach was chosen for this study due to its ability to
enable the following mechanisms: understanding of the characteristics of a group in a
given scenario; systematic thinking of aspects within a certain situation; the emergence of
ideas that can be probed further, and the making of simple decisions (Sekaran and
Bougie, 2013)
For purposes of this research, the design was quantitative and correlational in nature,
where the aim was describe the relationships between the chosen variables. Passion for
work was the independent variable, that is, that variable that influences the dependent
variables. The dependent variable was subjective career, measured through career
motivation, commitment, maturity and self-efficacy. In order to examine the
21
characteristics and relationships underlying these variables, a survey strategy was
adopted. Fink (2003) describes a survey as a system that is used to collect information
regarding people in order to explain their knowledge, behaviour and attitudes. This
strategy was suitable to the descriptive research design because it enabled collection of
both quantitative and qualitative data on many types of research questions. The survey in
use for this research was a one-time or cross-sectional study, where data was gathered
once, over several days. The survey incorporated measurement scales for each variable
that had previously been tested and utilised in previous research.
3.3. Population and Sampling Design
The following sections detail the population and sampling design that were utilised in this
study.
3.3.1. Population
Population is described as the “total collection of elements about which we wish to make
some inferences” (Cooper and Schindler, 2011: p. 364). The population involved in this
study was drawn from the graduate students at USIU, under the Chandaria School of
Business. These students represented a diverse range of careers and backgrounds, suitable
to the nature of this study, and formed the basis of the sample to be investigated.
3.3.2. Sampling Design
The sampling design can be viewed as the blueprint for developing the required sample
for a study and consists of the sampling frame, technique and sample size employed in the
research (Cooper and Schindler, 2011).
3.3.2.1. Sampling Frame
A sample is a representative fraction of a population that embodies the characteristics of
that population. The sampling frame, in turn, describes the list of elements from which
the sample is drawn (Cooper and Schindler, 2011). In this study, the sampling frame was
the graduate MBA students in the Chandaria School of Business at USIU, as provided by
the Registrar‟s office. According to the Registrar, the number of MBA students currently
registered in the Summer 2014 Semester number 520 in total.
22
3.3.2.2. Sampling Technique
Probability sampling was the approach that was used in obtaining the sample required for
this study. This sampling technique is based on random selection, which assures a nonzero chance of selection for each element of the population (Cooper and Schindler, 2011).
This technique was suitable for the purpose of this study because it provided estimates of
precision, as well as created an avenue for generalization of the findings to the population
of interest.
Simple random sampling within the MBA arm of the Chandaria School of Business was
carried out.
3.3.2.3. Sample Size
Sekaran and Bougie (2013) define sample size as “the actual number of subjects chosen
as a sample to represent the population characteristics” (p.398). According to statistics
provided by the Registrar‟s Office at USIU, MBA students registered in the Summer
2014 semester number 520. Determination of an appropriate sample size for this
population was executed using the sample size formula developed by the National
Education Association and utilized by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) in the development of
a generalized scientific guideline for sample size decisions:
X2 * Np (1-p)
s=
d2(N-1) + X2p(1-p)
where:
s= required sample size
X= the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level.
For purposes of this study, the desired confidence level is 95 %, with a standard value of
1.96.
p= estimated proportion of respondents; this is assumed to be 0.50 as this would yield the
maximum sample size.
23
d= degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (standard value of 0.05)
Therefore:
s=
1.962 * 520 * 0.5 (1-0.5)
0.052(520-1) + 1.962 * 0.5(1-0.5)
=221
3.4. Data Collection
Data pertaining to this study was collected through administration of a structured
questionnaire. This questionnaire was largely close-ended and consisted of two sections;
the aim of the first section was to collect general information from the population under
study. The second section focused on the objectives of this study and was divided into
five parts, based on the five aspects that will be measured for the study: passion, career
motivation, career commitment, maturity/success and self-efficacy. This part of the
questionnaire was modelled on a 5- point Likert Scale, with responses categorized as 5
(strongly agree); 4 (agree); 3 (neutral); 2 (disagree) and 1 (strongly disagree).
Part I of Section B used statements adapted from the Passion Toward Work Scale
developed by Vallerand and Houlfort (2003). Part II used statements from the Motivation
At Work Scale (Gagné et al., 2010), while Part III, which dealt with career commitment,
used statements adapted from a study carried out by Blau (1985). Measures for career
maturity and success were adapted from studies by Dybward (2008), Zhou et al. (2012)
and Li et al. (2013). Measures for career self-efficacy were adapted from the SelfEfficacy scale developed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995).
3.5. Research Procedure
The research process involved the design and development of a structured questionnaire
whose questions were based on validated scales drawn from literature relevant to the
research variables. Administration of the questionnaires was done physically. In order to
ensure adequate collection of data, this administration was carried out in the Summer
24
Semester of 2014, through visitation of the MBA classes in session. Distribution and
collection of the questionnaires took place in the same period to prevent loss of data. In
order to ensure a good response rate, questionnaires were filled during the class sessions
upon approval from the presiding lecturers, where respondents were assured of
confidentiality and requested to give honest feedback.
3.6. Data Analysis Methods
Data analysis constitutes the procedure of transforming the data collected through the
questionnaires into information that is adequate enough to aid in accomplishing the
objectives of the study. Analysis began with cleaning the data, which involved checking
of questionnaires and editing in order to weed out errors. This was followed by coding to
enable simple entry and analysis. Data was then entered and tabulated. The data was
analysed through the use of descriptive and inferential statistics; descriptive statistics are
concerned with providing descriptive information about a set of data and include
frequencies, measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode), and measures of
spread (variance, standard deviation, interquartile range) and measures of dispersion
(skewness). Inferential statistics help establish the existence of relationships among the
variables under study in order to draw conclusions from them (Sekaran and Bougie,
2013). This study employed the use of correlations and linear regression under inferential
statistics. Particular attention was paid to the correlations between passion and the various
variables outlined in the specific objectives.
The statistical analyses were developed through the use of the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20 and were presented in the form of tables, graphs and
charts.
3.7. Chapter Summary
This chapter explained the methodology to be adopted towards accomplishing the
objective of this study, including the research design, population to be examined, the
representative sample, method of data collection as well as analysis. Chapter four focuses
on the results obtained from the statistical analysis of the data collected, presenting these
results in the form of tables and charts.
25
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
4.1. Introduction
This chapter focuses on the results and findings achieved from the critical analysis,
interpretation and presentation of the data collected in the course of the study. The
chapter explores the general characteristics of the population under study, followed by an
assessment of passion for work on career motivation, commitment, maturity and success,
and self-efficacy, as per the objectives of this study. The chapter concludes with analysis
of the variables under study, and a summary detailing the key results and findings of the
research.
The intention of the researcher in the course of this study was to sample 221 respondents.
However, 180 respondents were sampled, representing 81 percent of the initial sample
size. Of this 81 percent, one questionnaire was discarded owing to more than 25 percent
inconsistency of data. The response rate was therefore pegged at 99 percent. The
remaining 179 questionnaires were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) software to produce descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages), as well as
inferential statistics (correlations and regression analyses). The results generated were
illustrated in the form of tables and charts.
4.2. General Information
The population under study was the MBA students at USIU. This section details the
general demographic features of the MBA respondents, namely information regarding
their age and gender distributions, MBA concentrations, status of employment, sector of
employment, the level (or position) within their organization and the number of years
worked in their current position.
4.2.1. Gender Distribution
Analysis from the data revealed that majority of the respondents, 55.9%, were female,
while 44.1% were male. These results are presented in Figure 4.1.
26
Figure 4.1: Gender Distribution
4.2.2. Age Distribution
Table 4.1 shows the age distribution of the respondents sampled. 4.5 percent did not
indicate their age, while 72.1 per cent of the respondents were between 20 and 30 years of
age. Those between 31 and 40 years and over 51 years of age constituted 1.1 and 6
percent of the sample. Figure 4.2 illustrates these results in the form of a bar chart. The
skewness of the age data was also tested, returning a positive skew value of 1.183.
27
Table 4.1: Age Distribution and Skewness
Age
Frequency
NOT
Percent
Valid
Cumulative
Percent
Percent
8
4.5
4.5
4.5
20-30 YEARS
129
72.1
72.1
76.5
31-40 YEARS
39
21.8
21.8
98.3
41-50 YEARS
2
1.1
1.1
99.4
1
.6
.6
100.0
179
100.0
100.0
INDICATED
Valid
OVER 51
YEARS
Total
Skewness
Valid
179
N
Missing
0
Skewness
1.183
Std. Error of
.182
Skewness
28
72.1 %
21.8 %
4.5 %
1.1 %
0.6 %
Figure 4.2: Age Distribution
4.2.3. MBA Concentration
Eight areas of concentration are offered under the MBA degree at USIU: finance,
marketing, entrepreneurship, international business, strategic management, human
resource management (HRM), information and technology management, and global and
social sustainable entrepreneurship (GSSE). From analysis of the data collected, it was
evident that majority of the students (49.7 percent) are currently pursuing the strategic
management arm of the MBA degree. This was followed by those pursuing finance (15.6
percent), entrepreneurship (7.3 percent), international business (6.7 percent), HRM (4.5
percent), marketing (3.9 percent), information and technology management (1.7 percent),
and GSSE (1.6 percent). 1.1 percent of the respondents did not indicate their
concentration, while 8.9 percent indicated that they are pursuing a double concentration.
These results are illustrated in Figure 4.3.
29
MBA Concentration
0- Not Indicated
1- Finance
2- Marketing
3- Entrepreneurship
4- International Business
5- Strategic Management
6- Human Resource Management
7- Information & Technology Management
8- Global & Social Sustainable Entrepreneurship
10- Double Concentration
Figure 4.3: MBA Concentration
4.2.4. Employment Status
Among the respondents sampled, those employed accounted for 71.5 percent, selfemployed- 12.8 percent, full-time students- 14.0 percent, with 1.7 percent not indicating
their status of employment. This is illustrated in Figure 4.4.
30
Figure 4.4: Employment Status
4.2.5. Sector of Employment
As part of the study, the researcher sought to know the sector or industry variation of the
respondents who were employed or self-employed. The responses were grouped based on
the similarity between industries, with some remaining uncategorized due to variation
across sectors. Analysis revealed that the respondents are immersed in a wide variety of
industries, with the modal sector being banking and financial services. These statistics are
represented in Table 4.2.
31
Table 4.2: Sector/Industry of Employment
Sector/Industry of Employment
Frequency
Percent
Academia/Education/Research
9
5.0%
Administration
1
0.6%
Advertising
1
0.6%
Agriculture
3
1.7%
Banking/Financial Services
33
18.4%
Business/Entrepreneur
2
1.1%
Business Statistics
1
0.6%
Civil Service
1
0.6%
Civil Engineering
1
0.6%
Construction
1
0.6%
Construction & Interior Design
1
0.6%
Consultancy
3
1.7%
Development
1
0.6%
Distribution/Transport
2
1.1%
Energy/Oil
6
3.4%
Entertainment
1
0.6%
Food Manufacturing
2
1.1%
General Supplies
1
0.6%
Health/Healthcare
5
2.8%
Hospitality/Tourism
5
2.8%
ICT
10
5.6%
Information
1
0.6%
Insurance
5
2.8%
Insurance & consultancy
1
0.6%
IT/Marketing
1
0.6%
Legal
1
0.6%
Liquour industry
1
0.6%
Manufacturing
6
3.4%
Marketing
5
2.8%
Media
5
2.8%
NGO
7
3.9%
Photography/arts
1
0.6%
Private
1
0.6%
Procurement
2
1.1%
Public
2
1.1%
Real estate
4
2.2%
Research/Administration
1
0.6%
Retail
2
1.1%
Sales
1
0.6%
Service industry
4
2.2%
Social/development
1
0.6%
Technology
1
0.6%
Telecommunication
6
3.4%
32
4.2.6. Position/Level in Organization
Of the respondents sampled, majority (38 percent) held non-managerial positions. 12.3
percent indicated that they were line managers, 20.1 percent middle managers and 12.3
percent top managers. 3.4 percent of the respondents did not indicate their level in their
organization. These results are shown in Figure 4.5. Also shown in this figure is the
proportion of those termed as „missing‟. This refers to the respondents who indicated that
they are full-time students.
Figure 4.5: Position/Level in Organization
4.2.7. Number of Years Worked
In addition to their position within their respective organizations, respondents were also
surveyed regarding the number of years that they had spent working in their current
positions. Most respondents (54.5 percent) had worked for between 2 and 5.5 years, with
35.7 percent having worked for between 0 and 1.5 years. Only 1.9 percent of the
respondents had worked for at least 10 years, while 6.5 percent had worked for between 6
and 9.5 years. Figure 4.6 illustrates these findings.
33
Figure 4.6: Number of Years Spent in Current Position
4.3. Passion for Work and the Subjective Career
The objective of this study was to assess the impact of passion for work on the subjective
career; the study therefore examined these variables: passion for work (PW), career
motivation (CM), career commitment (CC), career maturity and success (CS) and career
self-efficacy (SE). The following sections detail the results from analysis of the variables.
4.3.1. Goodness of Data
Goodness of the data collected on the variables was assessed through reliability tests prior
to further analysis. Each measurement scale was subjected to these tests with the aim of
producing an alpha (α) coefficient of at least 0.6. Reliability was tested following reverse
scoring of some of the items. It is worth noting that respondents who indicated that they
are full-time students were not included in the analysis of variables as the focus of the
study was on those who are either employed or self-employed.
The passion for work scale returned a coefficient of 0.889 for 7 items. The excluded items
for this scale were PW8, PW9, PW10, PW11, PW12, PW13 and PW14. The career
34
motivation scale gave a coefficient of 0.910 following exclusion of CM 7, CM8, CM9,
CM10, CM11 and CM 12. The coefficient for the career commitment scale was 0.874 (3
items) following exclusion of items CC1, CC2, CC3, CC7 and CC8. The career maturity
and success scale, after exclusion of CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4 and CS5, returned a coefficient
of 0.899 (11 items). The coefficient for the self-efficacy scale was 0.886 for 8 items, after
exclusion of SE2 and SE3. These coefficients allowed the date for these scales to be
classified as having very good reliability based on Zikmund et al.‟s (2010) ranges (poor
reliability: α<0.6; fair reliability: 0.60 < α < 0.70; good reliability: 0.70 < α < 0.80; very
good reliability: 0.80 < α < 0.95). Further analysis of the variables was therefore
performed on these items. The results of the reliability testing are shown in Table 4.3.
35
Table 4.3: Reliability of Variable Measurement Scales
Scale
PW
CM
Item
Item-total
correlation
PW1
.646
PW2
PW3
PW4
PW5
PW6
.677
.705
.619
.755
.726
PW7
.663
CM1
.818
CM2
CM3
CM4
CM5
CM6
.778
.736
.775
.721
.670
Cronbach's Alpha (Composite)
.889
.910
.687
CC
CS
SE
CC4
CC5
CC6
.797
.808
.687
CS6
CS7
CS8
CS9
CS10
CS11
CS12
CS13
CS14
CS15
CS16
.660
.629
.694
.557
.595
.501
.619
.751
.620
.671
.661
SE1
.565
SE4
SE5
SE6
SE7
SE8
SE9
SE10
.520
.657
.663
.721
.735
.743
.692
36
.874
.886
.899
4.3.2. Characteristics of Variables
Following assessment of reliability, the variables were computed to yield measures for
each one that could then be subjected to statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were
obtained producing the results presented in Table 4.4. From the results, it is evident that
all data collected in relation to the variables was negatively skewed, where SE had the
highest degree of this skewness (- 0.926) and the remaining variables presenting values of
-0.430 (PW), -0.355 (CM), -0.071 (CC) and -0.346 (CS). In addition to this, the
respondents returned mean scores of 3.5817 (PW), 3.4524 (CM), 2.8593 (CC), 3.3831
(CS) and 4.1242 (SE) on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics of Variables
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Variance
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Skewness
Statistic
Std.
Error
PW
153
1.00
5.00
3.5817
.88672
.786
-.430
.196
CM
154
1.00
5.00
3.4524
.95081
.904
-.355
.195
CC
154
1.00
5.00
2.8593
1.19596
1.430
-.071
.195
CS
154
1.27
5.00
3.3831
.80403
.646
-.346
.195
SE
154
1.63
5.00
4.1242
.63182
.399
-.926
.195
Valid N (listwise)
153
4.3.3. Relationship between Passion for Work and the Subjective Career
The first objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between passion for
work and the subjective career. This was assessed through correlation and the results
produced exhibited in Table 4.5. This table shows the Pearson correlation matrix for the
variables under study. The correlations between PW and CM (0.825), CC (0.669) and CS
(0.667) return values of significance (p), where p= 0.000, at a significance level of 0.01,
showing that the relationships between them are significant to the extent that there is only
37
a 1 percent chance that these relationships do not truly exist. The correlation of PW to SE
produces a correlation coefficient of 0.177, where p= 0.028 at a level of 0.05. This means
that there is only a 5 percent chance that there is no relationship between PW and SE.
However, though positive, the lower r value of 0.177 depicts a relationship that is not as
strong as that of CM, CC and CS in relation to PW.
In addition to these were the correlations between the dimensions of the subjective career;
the correlation of CM to CC and CS was significant, with p= 0.000 and coefficients of
0.702 and 0.656 (respectively. However, correlation between CM and SE was at p= 0.335
with a coefficient of 0.078. Correlation between CC and CS was 0.587 at p=0.000,
showing a significant relationship between the two variables, while the coefficient
between CC and SE was 0.117 at p= 0.150. CS and SE had a correlation of 0.273 at p=
0.273.
Table 4.5: Correlation of PW to CM, CC, CS, and SE
PW
CM
CC
CS
SE
.825**
.669**
.667
.177**
.000
.000
.000
.028
153
153
153
153
153
.825**
1
.702**
.656**
.078
.000
.000
.335
1
Pearson Correlation
PW
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
CM
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
153
154
154
154
154
.669**
.702**
1
.587**
.117**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
.150
N
153
154
154
154
154
.667**
.656**
.587**
1**
.273**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
N
153
154
154
154
154
.177*
.078
.117
.273*
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.028
.335
.150
.001
N
153
154
154
154
Pearson Correlation
CC
Pearson Correlation
CS
Pearson Correlation
SE
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
38
.001
154
4.3.3.1. Impact of Passion for Work on Career Motivation
Table 4.6 shows the linear regression model for PW and CM. The R value of 0.825 with a
p value of 0.131 shows that there is a significant positive correlation between the two
variables. In addition to this is the R square value of 0.680 which attributes 68.0 percent
of CM to variation in PW. The model derived from this regression would be: y= 0.277 +
0.887x, translating to an increase in motivation by a factor of 0.887 for every increase in
passion with respect to work.
Table 4.6: Linear Regression Model for PW and CM
Model
R
1
.825a
R Square
Adjusted R Square
.680
Std. Error of the Estimate
.678
.54090
a. Predictors: (Constant), PW
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Standardized
Coefficients
Std. Error
t
Sig.
Beta
(Constant)
.277
.183
PW
.887
.049
95.0% Confidence
Interval for B
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
1.517
.131
-.084
.637
17.930
.000
.789
.985
1
.825
a. Dependent Variable: CM
4.3.3.2. Impact of Passion for Work on Career Commitment
Table 4.7 shows the linear regression model for PW and CC. The R value of 0.669 at a
significance of 0.207 shows that there is a significant correlation between the two
variables. In addition to this is the R square value of 0.448 which attributes 44.8 percent
of CC to variation in PW. The model derived from this regression would be: y= -0.383 +
0.905x, translating to an increase in commitment by a factor of 0.905 for every increase in
passion with respect to work.
39
Table 4.7: Linear Regression Model for PW and CC
Model
R
1
.669a
R Square
Adjusted R Square
.448
Std. Error of the Estimate
.444
.89447
a. Predictors: (Constant), PW
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
(Constant)
Standardized
Coefficients
Std. Error
t
Sig.
Beta
-.383
.302
.905
.082
95.0% Confidence
Interval for B
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
-1.268
.207
-.979
.214
11.067
.000
.744
1.067
1
PW
.669
a. Dependent Variable: CC
4.3.3.3. Impact of Passion for Work on Career Maturity and Success
Table 4.8 shows the linear regression model for PW and CS. The R value of 0.667 at a
significance of 0.000 shows that there is a significant correlation between the two
variables. In addition to this is the R square value of 0.445 which attributes 44.5 percent
of CS to variation in PW. The model derived from this regression would be: y= 1.214 +
0.604x, translating to an increase in maturity and success by a factor of 0.604 for every
increase in passion with respect to work.
40
Table 4.8: Linear Regression Model for PW and CS
Model
R
1
.667a
R Square
Adjusted R Square
.445
Std. Error of the Estimate
.441
.60075
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
(Constant)
Standardized
Coefficients
Std. Error
t
Sig.
Beta
1.214
.203
.604
.055
95.0% Confidence
Interval for B
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
5.986
.000
.813
1.614
10.993
.000
.496
.713
1
PW
.667
a. Dependent Variable: CS
4.3.3.4. Impact of Passion for Work on Career Self-Efficacy
Table 4.9 shows the linear regression model for PW and SE. The R value of 0.177 at a
significance of 0.000 shows that there is a significant correlation between the two
variables. In addition to this is the R square value of 0.031 which attributes 3.1 percent of
SE to variation in PW. The model derived from this regression would be: y= 3.667 +
0.126x, translating to an increase in self-efficacy by a factor of 0.126 for every increase in
passion with respect to work.
Table 4.9: Linear Regression Model for PW and SE
Model
1
R
.177a
R Square
Adjusted R Square
.031
Std. Error of the Estimate
.025
41
.62194
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized
Standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
B
(Constant)
Std. Error
t
Sig.
Interval for B
Beta
3.667
.210
.126
.057
95.0% Confidence
Lower
Upper
Bound
Bound
17.472
.000
3.252
4.082
2.216
.028
.014
.238
1
PW
.177
a. Dependent Variable: SE
4.4. Chapter Summary
This chapter detailed the results and findings of the study based on the three research
objectives: assessing the level of significance of passion for work; investigating how
passion for work impacts motivation, commitment, maturity, success and self-efficacy of
the working individual and; investigating the relationship between passion for work and
the subjective career, based on analysis of the data collected through descriptive and
inferential statistics. Chapter 5 presents the summary, discussion, conclusion and
recommendations drawn from these findings, assessing them relative to the research that
has already been carried out in the area of passion and career.
42
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the discussions, conclusions and recommendations drawn from
review of the findings exhibited in the preceding chapter. A summary of the objectives of
the research, including the methodology employed in the study, begins the chapter,
followed by interpretation of the results based on the research questions. The chapter
concludes with recommendations for further research in this area.
5.2. Summary
The general objective of this study was to assess the impact of passion for work on the
subjective career of the working individual, whether employed or self-employed. This
assessment was guided by these specific objectives: to investigate the relationship
between passion for work and the subjective career and to investigate how passion for
work impacts the individual elements of the subjective career.
In order to carry out the research, a descriptive design was adopted, where the population
consisted of the MBA students at USIU. A representative sample of this population was
drawn based on the population characteristics as provided by the Registrar‟s Office at the
university. An initial sample size of 221 was developed, with a total of 180 questionnaires
being distributed and collected for purposes of accumulating data. Analysis of this data
was then performed using SPSS Version 20 using both descriptive and inferential
techniques, and results of this analysis displayed through the use of tables, graphs and
charts.
The first specific objective of this study focused on the relationship between passion for
work and the subjective career. The findings revealed evidence of a significant
relationship between passion and the subjective career based on the values of correlation
returned between passion for work, career motivation, career maturity and success, and
self efficacy. However, the Pearson correlation for self-efficacy, 0.177, was produced
with a significance of 0.028 at the p= 0.05 level. This showed that the impact of passion
on self-efficacy was not as significant on self-efficacy as it was on the other elements. In
43
addition to these results were the inter-item correlations between the elements of the
subjective career, which, with the exception of correlation with self-efficacy, showed
significant interaction with each other at the 0.01 level. However, the significance of the
relationship between the dimensions and self-efficacy occurred at the 0.05 level.
The second objective of the study was in relation to the impact of passion for work on the
individual elements of the subjective career. Through the regression analyses, it was
evident that passion for work impacts career motivation, commitment, and maturity and
success significantly, while the impact on self-efficacy was affected minimally.
5.3. Discussion
This section interprets the results and findings of the research relative to the objectives
put forward, in order to effectively assess whether or not passion does impact the
subjective career of the working individual.
5.3.1. Relationship between Passion for Work and the Subjective Career
From analysis on the PW variable, at least 50 percent of the respondents expressed a
moderate leaning towards having some passion for their work; this was signified by
several statistics produced from the analysis. The mean response score was 3.5817, while
the distribution of the data was negative in nature, representing an inclination towards the
higher end of the 1 to 5 scale (skewness= -0.430). These results showed that respondents
held some level of agreement with the notion that passion for work is indeed significant
when it comes to their career. These findings were varied from those of Houlfort,
Koestner, Vallerand and Blanchard (2003 a, b), where 77 percent of their respondents
expressed a moderate level of passion towards their work, with only 23 percent not
experiencing any passion towards their work. This is a much larger percentage than that
produced from the findings of this particular study. Houlfort et al.‟s work also assessed
the type of passion experienced by their respondents, producing results that depicted 38
percent of the workers exhibiting a harmonious passion, while 39 percent exhibited an
obsessive passion. Although the passion for work scale was used for this study, assessing
the type of passion was not carried out as some of the items in the scale were excluded in
order to maintain the reliability of the data.
44
Introducing the subjective career in relation to passion for work yielded positive
correlations between all the dimensions (PW, CM, CC, CS and SE). However, these were
all at different levels of significance, with that of self-efficacy standing out. While
motivation, commitment and maturity returned coefficients of correlation at a level of
significance of 0.01, the level of significance for the correlation between the other
dimensions and self-efficacy occurred at a level of 0.05; this means that there would only
be a 5 percent chance that a relationship between self-efficacy and the other dimensions
would not exist, compared to a 1 percent chance between the other elements. The results
obtained suggested that collectively, the relationship between passion for work and career
motivation, commitment, success and maturity is a strong one, as depicted by the
proximity of the coefficients to the value of 1. However, they also suggested that selfefficacy is not necessarily impacted by the passion for work; that is, one does not have to
be passionate about what they do in order to perform at their optimum, as opposed to
being more motivated or committed as a result of being passionate about one‟s vocation.
Although the results did reveal a significant relationship between passion for work and
the subjective career, it is important to note that the extent of this relationship would not
only be highly dependent on the levels of interaction between the elements, but would
also be influenced by other factors such as the amount of time spent in that vocation and
the experiences encountered. The coefficients of correlation obtained, with the exception
of self-efficacy, revealed strong inter-relationships between career motivation,
commitment, maturity and success. However the interaction between self-efficacy and
these other elements was not as significant, nor as strong, effectively placing self-efficacy
as a stand-alone aspect of career.
5.3.2. Relationship between Passion and the Individual Elements of the Subjective
Career
This was the second objective of this study. As mentioned in the summary, the elements
of career motivation, commitment and maturity and success were all significantly and
positively correlated to passion at the level where p= 0.01. These relationships are
interpreted further as follows, based on the linear regression models obtained for each
bivariate relationship.
45
Linear regression between PW and CM produced the model y= 0.277 + 0.887x. These
results suggest that passion does impact career motivation to a significant extent, such
that every input in passion would result in an increase in motivation by a factor of 0.887.
These results are corroborated by studies carried out by Bridgstock (2005) and Burk and
Fiksenbaum (2009), where motivation was attributed largely to the presence of passion.
The linear regression model produced for PW and CC was y= -0.383 + 0.905x, where
every input of passion would increase commitment by a factor of 0.905. Crosswell and
Elliot‟s (2004) study on teachers attributed commitment to the respondents having a
passion for their teaching jobs. Although the respondents in this study had varying
professions, the results obtained suggest that regardless of the profession, some element
of passion contributes to the working individual remaining committed to their work.
Career maturity, and with it career success, was the third element examined in relation to
passion for work. The linear regression model was y= 1.214 + 0.604x. Thus, for every
unit input of passion, the individual‟s level of maturity (and therefore success) would
increase by a factor of 0.604. This is particularly important for those who are selfemployed, or who are entrepreneurs, as suggested by Cardon et al. (2009) and Baum and
Locke (2004), where those with passion were more likely to set more challenging goals
and make better decisions, leading to greater maturity and, eventually, success.
Self-efficacy was the one element of the subjective career whose results differed largely
with those of the other elements. . However, when regressed, the model produced was
y=3.667 + 0.126x. This suggests that being passionate about their work did not
necessarily impact the respondent‟s beliefs with regard to performance through different
situations and tasks. Put differently, an increase in self-efficacy by the factor of 0.126 due
to passion for work would only start making an impact after passion for work has
surpassed the y-intercept value of 3.667; with zero input of passion, the individual would
have a predicted score of 3.667 for self-efficacy.
5.4. Conclusions
The following conclusions have been drawn from this study:
46
5.4.1. There is a Relationship between Passion for Work and the Subjective Career
This study sought to establish the nature of the relationship between passion for work and
the subjective career relative to the MBA students at USIU. The findings showed that
respondents moderately believed that passion for work does impact their careers to some
extent, though this extent varies with what one is currently doing, and the time they have
spent doing it. It is also evident from the results that a relationship exists between passion
for work and the subjective career; however the extent of this relationship is not clear, and
is subject to the interplay of the factors that encompass the subjective career, as well as to
other factors that were not examined in this study.
5.4.2. Passion Impacts the Individual Elements of the Subjective Career to a Certain
Degree
The second objective of this study was to examine the extent of impact of passion on the
individual elements of the subjective career. The findings showed that passion
significantly impacted motivation, commitment, maturity and success positively, while
the impact on self-efficacy was negligible, based on the data analysed from the
respondents.
5.5. Recommendations
Recommendations for improvement and further research are detailed in the following
sections:
5.5.1. Recommendations for the Study
Recommendations for improvement of this study are highlighted as follows.
5.5.1.1. Relationship between Passion for Work and the Subjective Career
The assessment of this relationship can be improved by either validating the alreadyexisting measurement scales developed by various authors in the Kenyan context, or
developing new scales that will serve this context in an appropriate manner. The scales
adopted for this study had been subjected to validation and application in different
settings. However, this study was affected to some degree by removal of items in some of
47
these scales. Although this improved the reliability of results produced, it may also have
compromised them, to some extent, as it excluded some of the data obtained from the
respondents.
5.5.1.2. Impact of Passion for Work on Individual Elements of the Subjective Career
The impact of passion for work on each of the elements of the subjective career was
addressed through the use of regression models. Further recommendations for this
objective including assessing how the inter-play of the elements affects the impact, as
well as taking into account the presence of other factors that may impact these elements
as significantly as passion does.
5.5.2. Recommendations for Further Research
Recommendations for further research are detailed in the following sections.
5.5.2.1. Assessment of Career Competence and Self-Management
Elements of the subjective career that were not examined in this study include career
competence and career self-management. Future research can be directed towards
assessing the impact of passion for work on these arms of the subjective career in order to
establish the extent of the nature of the relationship between them.
5.5.2.2. Career Trends in Kenya
In doing this study, the researcher found it challenging to contextualize the findings to the
Kenyan context owing to minimal literature on career trends in the country. Future
research should look into examining what factors affect career progression today beyond
the presence (or absence) of employment opportunities.
5.5.2.3. Examination of Passion Relative to Other Factors and in Other Populations
This study focused on passion in relation to the subjective career. Further research can be
directed towards examining passion in relation to activities that individuals love, or even
in relation to other elements of career such as career change. Different populations should
also be examined in order to gauge the variations in passion for work or activities.
48
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: AUTHORIZATION
57
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE
The purpose of this research is to assess the extent to which passion for work influences
the following elements of one's subjective career: motivation, commitment, maturity and
self-efficacy. Please note that any information you give will be treated with
confidentiality and at no instance will it be used for any other purpose other than for this
project. Your assistance will be highly appreciated. Thank you for your cooperation.
SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION
Kindly give the appropriate response
1. GENDER
□ Male
□ Female
2. AGE
□ 20-30 years
□ 31-40 years
□ 41-50 years
□ Over 51
years
3. NATIONALITY
4. YEAR OF STUDY
5. MBA CONCENTRATION
□ Finance
□ Strategic
□ Information&
Management
Technology
□ Marketing
Management
□ Human Resource
□ Entrepreneurship
Management
□ Global and Social
Sustainable
□ International Business
Entrepreneurship
58
6. EMPLOYMENT STATUS
□ Employed
□ Self-Employed
□
Full-Time Student
7. SECTOR OF EMPLOYMENT
8. POSITION/LEVEL IN ORGANIZATION
□ Subordinate
□ Line Manager
□ Middle Manager
□ Top Manager
9. NUMBER OF YEARS SPENT IN CURRENT POSITION
□ Less than 2 years
□ 2-4 years
□ 4-6 years
□ 6-8 years
□ Over 10 years
SECTION B: PASSION AND THE SUBJECTIVE CAREER
The following statements represent perspectives associated with passion and elements of
the subjective career. Please indicate the extent to which you agree with each statement
by placing a tick on the score that best describes your opinion of the statement, where: 5=
Strongly Agree, 4= Agree, 3= Neutral, 2= Disagree and 1= Strongly Disagree.
I. PASSION FOR WORK
PW1
PW2
My work allows me to live a variety of experiences.
The new things that I discover within the confines of my work allow
me to appreciate it even more.
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
PW3
My line of work reflects the qualities I like about myself.
5
4
3
2
1
PW4
My work is in harmony with the other activities in my life.
5
4
3
2
1
PW5
My work is a passion that I still manage to control.
5
4
3
2
1
PW6
My work allows me to live memorable experiences.
5
4
3
2
1
PW7
I am completely taken with my work.
5
4
3
2
1
PW8
The urge is so strong. I can‟t help myself from doing my work.
5
4
3
2
1
1
5
4
3
2
1
PW10 I am emotionally dependent on my work.
5
4
3
2
1
PW11 I have a tough time controlling my need to do my work.
5
4
3
2
1
PW12 I have an almost obsessive feeling for my work.
5
4
3
2
1
PW13 There is conflict between what I do and other areas of my life
5
4
3
2
1
PW14 My mood depends on me being able to do my work.
5
4
3
2
1
PW9
I have difficulty imagining my life without my work.
II. CAREER MOTIVATION
CM1
I enjoy my work very much.
5
4
3
2
1
CM2
I have fun doing my job.
5
4
3
2
1
CM3
I relish the moments of pleasure that this job brings me.
5
4
3
2
1
CM4
I chose this job because it allows me to reach my life goals.
5
4
3
2
1
CM5
This job fulfills my career plans.
5
4
3
2
1
CM6
This job fits my personal values.
5
4
3
2
1
CM7
I have to be the best in my job; I have to be a 'winner'.
5
4
3
2
1
CM8
My work is my life and I don't want to fail.
5
4
3
2
1
CM9
My reputation depends on my work.
5
4
3
2
1
CM10 My job affords me a certain standard of living.
5
4
3
2
1
CM11 My job allows me to make a lot of money.
5
4
3
2
1
CM12 I do this job for the pay-cheque.
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
III. CAREER COMMITMENT
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
If I could get another job different from my current one and paying
the same amount, I would probably take it.
I definitely want a career for myself in my current vocation.
If I could do it all over again, I would not choose to work in my
current profession.
If I had all the money I needed without working, I would probably
still continue to work in my current profession
CC5
I like this vocation too well to give it up.
5
4
3
2
1
CC6
This is the ideal vocation for my life's work.
5
4
3
2
1
CC7
I am disappointed that I ever entered my current profession.
5
4
3
2
1
2
CC8
I spend a significant amount of personal time reading journals or
books related to my profession.
5
4
3
2
1
IV. CAREER MATURITY AND SUCCESS
CS1
I am actually quite a self-confident person.
5
4
3
2
1
CS2
I am a bit concerned that I have not chosen the career that fits me.
5
4
3
2
1
CS3
I find it hard to decide which career is the best for me.
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
CS4
One day I want to work with one thing, but the next day, I want to do
something completely different.
CS5
I am continuously engaged in challenging work.
5
4
3
2
1
CS6
I am enthusiastic and passionate about my work.
5
4
3
2
1
CS7
I can realize ideality in my work.
5
4
3
2
1
CS8
I like my job and I am happy during work.
5
4
3
2
1
CS9
I have achieved balance between my life and work.
5
4
3
2
1
CS10
I have time to enjoy my life in my career.
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
CS11
CS12
I can maintain good physical and mental health in spite of the
workload.
I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career.
I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my
CS13
overall career goals.
I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my
CS14
goals for income.
I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my
CS15
goals for the development of new skills.
CS16
My talents and potential capacities are fully utilized in my career.
V. CAREER SELF-EFFICACY
SE1
I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough.
If someone opposes me, I can find the means and ways to get what I
SE2
want.
SE3
It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.
5
4
3
2
1
SE4
I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.
5
4
3
2
1
3
Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen
SE5
situations.
SE6
I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.
I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my
SE7
coping abilities.
When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
SE8
solutions.
SE9
If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution.
5
4
3
2
1
SE10
I can usually handle whatever comes my way.
5
4
3
2
1
Thank you for taking time to complete the questionnaire.
4