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Towards Positive Body Image: Applying Developmental Research To Health Promotion By Niva Piran, Ph.D., C. Psych. Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development OISE/University of Toronto [email protected] Presented in Bern, 2015 Part I: Body Image and Embodiment Body image is defined as . The construct of Embodiment (Merleau-‐Ponty, 1962) can be described as “The experience of engagement of the body with the world” (for a greater elaboration, please see Piran & Teall, 2012) and is therefore a broader construct than body image. In a qualitative and quantitative research program to examine Embodiment as a psychological construct, Piran and Teall (2012) found that Embodiment has five dimensions:
1. Body Connection and Comfort (critical stance towards social disruptions) 2. Agency and Functionality 3. Desire (experience and expression) 4. Attuned Self Care (awareness and practice) 5. Inhabiting the Body as a Subjective Site (not as an object) There are situations where some girls or boys will have positive body image because they look like the ‘ideal image’, but they will not live comfortably in their bodies, and be continuously afraid that their bodies will change and betray them. Piran suggests that the goal of interventions in the area of body image should be to: Promote among children a positive connection to, and agency in, their bodies, as well as attuned and informed self care so that they live comfortably in healthy bodies. (Rather than focus on appearance, its evaluation, and a narrow range of acceptable weights). Part II: Social Experiences and Embodiment/Body Image Body (the bodies of individual citizens) and culture are very closely linked. Social critical theorists like Bartky (1988), Bordo (1993), Foucault (1979) and others view the body as “a surface onto which the central rules and hierarchies of culture are inscribed” Mary Douglas (1966). (see also Piran & Teall, 2012). The Developmental Theory of Embodiment (DTE) (Piran & Teall, 2012) examines the interaction between the social environment and the embodied experiences of individuals within this environment. It helps explain why some individuals experience embodied agency, functionality, and passion, and why others experience restriction, shame, self neglect and even self harm. The DTE examines not only adverse experiences, but also facilitative social factors. The DTE proposes that social experiences shape body experiences through three core pathways: a) experiences in the physical domain; b) experiences in the mental domain involving exposure to dominant expectations, stereotypes and social labels; and c) experiences related directly to social power and connection with others. The theory further contends that both protective and risk factors are organized along these three pathways, hence the relevance of the DTE to health promotion. PHYSICAL DOMAIN: Social experiences in this domain relate to one’s physical experiences in the social environment. The physical domain includes the following three categories (Piran & Teall, 2012) 1) Safety and respectful ownership of the body (vs. Lack of safety and Violations): It is
important to address the whole range of experiences that disrupt safety, including sexual
harassment and sexualization. It is also important for children not to be subjected to harsh
appearance standards. Prevention Interventions: sexual harassment policies in school; violencefree peer-norms; anti-rape programs on campuses; privacy (change room, menstruation). Deemphasize appearance.
2) Physical competence and freedom of movement in acting on the world (vs. competence in
acting on the body and restricted movement): Restrictions on physical agency (such as:
stopping engagement in joyful physical activities, wearing exposing and tight clothing, being able
to participate only if excelling in athletic performance) lower body esteem. In contrast,
engagement in joyful (non-appearance focused) physical activities is a protective factor.
Prevention Interventions: Facilitate joyful/passionate engagement in non-objectifying physical
activities in un-confining, non-sexualizing clothes and shoes.
3) Comfort with body needs and desires (vs. Restrictions to physical needs and desires):
During puberty, in particular, girls experience disruption in connection to appetite and sexuality,
and they learn to disregard internal cues. Girls and boy need to receive modeling and guidance
about self care at this important point. Prevention interventions: Teach/model respect for body
signals and encourage self-care in relation to these signals. Provide informed discussions of
appetite, nutrition, and well being; processes of development and growth during puberty; guidance
in staying healthy and active in a changing body; guidance in owning sexual desire.
MENTAL DOMAIN of Internalized Social Stereotypes (gender stereotypes, ethnic/racial stereotypes): Examples of ‘feminine’ stereotypes are: self as object, submissive (nice, not ‘too much’), engaging in ‘feminine activities’, ‘natural body as deficient’ (Piran & Teall, 2012). Notice also social labels, such as ‘bitch’ for women, ‘nerd’ for boys. Prevention interventions: Provide a social/educational environment that challenges social
scripts, labels; Enhance students’ critical perspectives on disruptive cultural
norms/structures/prejudices; Make critical perspective normative among peers (Becker et al.,
2008; Piran, 2001). Examples of such programs: media literacy programs (e.g., Wilksch Media
Smart program; NEDA GO GIRLS:; Behind Closed Doors Video), Anti-internalization of the
thinness schema (e.g., Becker, 2008; Stice et al., 2000), alternative media campaigns, critical
perspectives on social stereotypes (O’Dea, 1995). SOCIAL POWER: Social Power and Connection with Others (vs. Social Disempowerment and Relational
Disconnection) –Experiences of social powerlessness, both harassment and teasing
(gender/weight/race/ethnicity/sexual orientation/socioeconomic status), and social
rejection/alienation from membership in desired communities, relate to disrupted embodiment.
(Piran & Teall, 2012, Piran & Thompson, 2008). Prevention Interventions: Develop in students a
critical understanding of the connection between body-based prejudice and social justice;
establish policies about body based harassment and teasing; develop school wide norms that
counteract social prejudices (who is popular? Who is chosen to represent the school? Does the
curriculum represent the achievements of women, of members of ethnic minorities?).
Conclusions
It is important to intervene at the physical, mental, and social power domains, at all levels of the
social environment. The importance of changing laws, policies, or ideologies is that a very large
number of people are exposed to a smaller risk, leading to a strong effect on prevention. Geoffrey
Rose, a leader in public health wrote the following: “A large number of people exposed to a small
risk may generate many more cases than a small number exposed to high risk” (1992). Similarly,
it is important to change the whole school community, as Rose suggested (1992), “It makes little
sense to expect individuals to behave differently from their peers; it is more appropriate to seek a
general change in behavioral norms and in the circumstances which facilitate their adoption (See
also Piran, 1999, 2001, 2010).