POD —IDEA Center
Learning Notes
S e p t e m b e r
2 0 0 6
Michael Theall, Youngstown State University, Series Editor
IDEA Learning Objective #4:
“Developing specific skills, competencies, and
points of view needed by professionals in the
field most closely related to this course”
Nancy McClure, Fairmont State University, [email protected]
Background
A professional's skill, competence, and point of
view all affect his or her performance in the
workplace. When you choose professional service
you realize that you want a professional who has it
all--skill, competence, and the right point of view or
disposition. How do professionals acquire these
attributes?
According to Wenger (1), learning of this nature
involves participation in a community of practice, a
term that "…refers not just to local events or
engagement in certain activities with certain people,
but to a more encompassing process of being
active participants in the practices of social
communities and constructing identities in relation
to these communities" (p. 4). While Lave and
Wenger (2) coined the term "community of practice"
to provide a framework specific to their
observations during a study of various types of
apprenticeships, the concept is not new to
education. Its roots date back to the early work of
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist who tied
cognitive development to culture. Vygotsky set forth
the notion that learning is inherently social and is
embedded in a particular cultural setting (3). Since
then, researchers who study cognition have
advanced this idea in the theoretical framework
known as situated learning. They generally agree
that as time goes on, learners in a community of
practice become more able to participate in the
group's functions and use its tools. In effect,
learners become acculturated, making the norms,
behaviors, skills, beliefs, language, and attitudes of
their particular community their own (4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9). Perhaps Clancey (10) says it best: "Learning to
become a member of a community of professionals
is not accomplished by transferring the rules and
handing over the tools. Knowledge of the
professional is conceptual, embodied in ways of
seeing, roles, ways of interacting. And because
concepts are not words, learning cannot be
accomplished by describing or telling alone."
Fortunately, the task of determining the best ways
to help learners become fully functioning members
of a community of practice does not rest with the
teacher alone. Numerous studies provide direction.
In the expanded version of How People Learn,
Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (11) focus on
research on human learning and the learning
potential of all individuals. The research explains
the structure of knowledge and identifies eight
factors that affect the development of expertise and
competent performance. These are paraphrased as
follows.
• If knowledge is relevant, people can organize it
and retain it.
• Learners must relate their knowledge to new
tasks, making it usable knowledge – the kind
experts possess.
• Having knowledge that is relevant enables
learners to think in terms of problem solving,
making inferences, and drawing conclusions.
• Knowledge affects the learner's representation
of a problem, which can influence the ease with
which the learner can solve the problem.
• Experts have highly organized knowledge
structures related to problem representations
•
•
•
resulting in the ability to access and use
appropriate knowledge with ease.
Since different disciplines have different
organizing properties, learners must know both
the content and the organization of the subject.
The best learners and problem solvers
understand the ways in which they learn and
are capable of adjusting strategies to meet new
needs. They have “metacognitive” skills.
Like experts, people in everyday circumstances
and in specific contexts operate under social
norms and use sets of tools that allow them to
perform tasks they might not be able to perform
in other situations.
Based upon this research on learning, teaching,
and learning environments, Bransford et al. propose
that learning environments should be learner
centered, provide a knowledge-centered
environment that makes clear the content, the
reasons for learning the content, and the target
mastery. These environments should continuously
assess student learning (formatively) and embrace
a community-centered approach.
Helpful Hints
To construct a learning environment like the one
Bransford and colleagues have proposed, you can
follow Weimer's (12) suggestions. She describes a
learner-centered environment in terms of five
changes in practice that incorporate all of the
components proposed by Bransford et al. as well
as by the research on communities of practice. The
first four changes are summarized here and the fifth
change is discussed in the Assessment
The first change in practice requires a shift from a
perspective that the teacher is in charge of learning
to one that teachers and students share the power
of learning. When students have a say in their
learning, they are more motivated to stay involved
with a task (see IDEA Paper #41). For example,
having students both set their own high goals and
work to achieve them (see POD-IDEA Center Note
#15) encourages students to take charge of their
learning.
The second change in practice relates to content.
In the content-centered classroom, teachers
"cover" content, and students "acquire" it. In
contrast, teachers and students in a learnercentered classroom use content to construct
knowledge (3, 13, 14). As a result, students' prior
knowledge comes to the fore, students utilize
different forms of knowledge, and knowledge
construction becomes a social venture (15). When
students work to construct knowledge, they acquire
an interest in learning more by asking their own
questions and seeking answers (IDEA objective
12).
A third change in practice centers on the role of the
teacher. As mentioned previously, teachers and
students share power in a learner-centered
classroom. This translates into a redefinition of the
teacher's role from provider of information to
facilitator, one who helps students interact with
content in productive ways. Two of the best ways
for a teacher to help students use content
productively (i.e., develop the skills, competencies,
and dispositions of professionals in the field) are to
demonstrate the importance of the subject matter
and to relate the course material to real-life
situations (see POD-IDEA Center Notes #4 and
#11). These two strategies are strongly correlated
with achieving IDEA objective 4. Teachers often
use authentic problem tasks (16) and case studies
to accomplish this objective.
A fourth change in practice is a move towards
helping the student become a self-directed learner.
Students who know and are in control of their
cognitive resources, or are metacognitive, are
students who are "active, planful learners."
Teachers can assist students in becoming more
self-directed by displaying a personal interest in
them and their learning (see POD-IDEA Center
Note #1). Teachers who know students' strengths
and weaknesses can work with students on a more
personal level to help them utilize their strengths in
more productive ways and find ways to transform
weaknesses into strengths. In addition, teachers
can help students be more independent learners by
finding ways to help them answer their own
questions (see POD-IDEA Center Note #2). As
students learn to take charge of their learning and
ask their own questions, teachers have a better
understanding of who the student is as a learner
and can better direct his or her search for answers.
To summarize, students develop the skills,
competencies, and points of view needed by
professionals by becoming active participants in a
learner-centered environment. The teachers and
students in that environment form a community of
practice where they learn from one another through
project- or work-related interpersonal
communications, interactions with the environment,
and utilization of the tools representative of the
group's work. As time goes on, active involvement
in the community of practice enhances content
learning and helps participants to move from novice
toward expert status.
Assessment Issues
The final change in practice suggested by Weimer
(12) is to incorporate a variety of types of
assessments and to involve students in self
assessment. This change evolves from the revised
view of the purpose of evaluation. Whereas
evaluation used to be a way to produce grades, the
new purpose both generates grades and promotes
learning. Based upon this new description of
evaluation, traditional assessments (e.g., tests,
quizzes, etc., or any instrument on which students
choose answers) should be replaced or partnered
with alternative assessment techniques such as
short-answer questions, essays, performance
assessments, demonstrations, portfolios, or any
form in which students create responses (17, also
see IDEA Papers #16 and #17). When students
have the chance to construct responses to a set of
specific criteria, the teacher has a greater
opportunity not only to see what students are
learning, but also to provide criteria-related
feedback. This type of feedback promotes deeper
learning, particularly when students have the
opportunity to reassess and revise their work (see
IDEA Papers #39 and #42).
The strategies you use to assess students'
acquisition of the skills, competencies, and points
of view reflect your judgment as a practicing
professional. You are the most qualified to know
what the expectations are for your profession.
Whether you rely on accreditation standards or
some other guidelines for your profession, you
know the criteria that are important. These criteria
will guide your selection of assessment strategies.
Once you have determined the specific criteria for
skills, competencies, and points of view, you will
consider which assessment strategies provide the
best picture of your students' attainment of them
within your community of practice. (See Walvoord
and Anderson (18) to learn more about linking your
assessment/grading to learning outcomes.)
For example, in teacher education, you want to
make sure that your students can plan and teach
age-appropriate lessons, manage busy classrooms
on a daily basis, and relate well to both children
and adults. Engineering students must go beyond
mathematical calculations to design workable
solutions or products. Aspiring musicians must
master music theory, but must also be able to
create and perform new works. Future philosophers
must know Aristotle, but must also exhibit the
habits of thought of the discipline and develop
personal philosophies. Ultimately, engaging and
assessing your students in the performance of
authentic tasks within specific communities of
practice helps them construct identities in relation
to these communities, and supports their
professional growth.
References and Resources
(1)
Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of practice:
Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
(2) Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated
learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
(3) Vygotsky, L. S. (1993). The collected works of
L. S. Vygotsky: Vol.2 (J. Knox & C. Stevens,
Trans.) New York: Plenum.
(4) Cognition and Technology Group at
Vanderbilt. (1990). Anchored instruction and
its relations to situated cognition. Educational
Researcher, 19(6), 2-10.
(5) Cognition and Technology Group at
Vanderbilt. (1993). Anchored instruction and
situated learning revisited. Educational
Technology, 33(3), 52-70.
(6) Derry, S. J. (1992). Beyond symbolic
processing: Expanding horizons for
educational psychology. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 84, 413-419.
(7) Garrison, J. (1995). Deweyan pragmatism and
the epistemology of contemporary social
constructivism. American Educational
Research Journal, 32, 716-741.
(8) Greeno, J. G., Collins, A. M., & Resnick, L. B.
(1996). Cognition and learning. In D. Berliner
& R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational
psychology (pp. 15-46). New York: McMillan.
(9) Smart, J. C., & Feldman, K. A. (1998).
Accentuation effects of dissimilar academic
departments: An application and exploration
of Holland's theory. Research in Higher
Education, 39 (4), 385-418.
(10) Clancey,W. J. (1995). A tutorial on situated
learning. [Electronic version]. In Self, J. (Eds.)
Proceedings of the International Conference
on Computers and Education (Taiwan)
Charlottesville, VA: AACE. Retrieved
September 20, 2006, from
http://cogprints.org/323/00/139.htm
(11) Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (Eds.).
(2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
experience, and school. Washington: National
Academy Press.
Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered
teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. Boston:
Heath.
Piaget, J. (1997). The moral judgment of the
child. New York: Free Press.
Leinhardt, G. (1992). What research on
learning tells us about teaching. Educational
Leadership, 49, 20-25.
Hung, D. (2002). Situated cognition and
problem-based learning: implications for
learning and instruction with technology.
Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 13,
393-425.
North Central Regional Educational
Laboratory. (1997). Alternative assessment. In
Critical Issue: Ensuring equity with alternative
assessment. Retrieved September 20, 2006,
from
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/method
s/assment/as8lk30.htm
Walvoord, B. E., & Anderson, V. J. (1998).
Effective grading: A tool for learning and
assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Related POD-IDEA Center Notes
IDEA Item #1 "Displayed a personal interest in
students and their learning," Virginia S. Lee
IDEA Item #2 "Found ways to help students answer
their own questions," Nancy McClure
IDEA Item #4 "Demonstrated the importance and
significance of the subject matter," Nancy McClure
IDEA Item #11 "Related course material to real life
situations," Michael Theall
IDEA Item #15 "Inspired students to set and
achieve goals which really challenged them," Todd
Zakrajsek
Additional Resources
IDEA Paper No. 16: Improving Multiple-Choice
Tests, Clegg and Cashin
IDEA Paper No. 17: Improving Essay Tests, Cashin
IDEA Paper No. 39: Establishing Rapport: Personal
Interaction and Learning, Fleming
IDEA Paper No. 41: Student Goal Orientation,
Motivation, and Learning, Svinicki
IDEA Paper No. 42: Integrated Course Design, Fink
©2006 The IDEA Center
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