International Journal of Basic Sciences & Applied Research. Vol., 4 (2), 127-132, 2015
Available online at http://www.isicenter.org
ISSN 2147-3749 ©2015
The Comparison of Team and Individual Male Athletes, Mental Toughness at
Different Levels of Skills
Samad Biglari1, Afsaneh Sanatkaran2*, Seyyed Mohialdin Bahari3, Mahshad Montazeri4
1
M.Sc in Sport Psychology, Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch, Iran
Associate, Department of Physical Education and Sport sciences, Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch, Iran
3
Associate, Department of Physical Education and Sport sciences, Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch, Iran
4
M.Sc in Sport Psychology, Islamic Azad University
2
*
Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was the comparison of team and individual male
athletes, mental toughness at different levels of skills. The statistical population
of present study was team athletes (basketball, handball, and futsal) and
individual athletes (karate, wrestling, and taekwondo) of Alborz province at
three levels of skill (skilled, semi-skilled, and novice). 180 subjects were selected
as statistical sample. The instrument for collecting data is included Golby and
Sheard, s the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) with three
subscales: reliability, stability, and control. The analysis of data was done by
descriptive statistics and 2 factors ANOVA (p≤0.05). The results of study
showed that mental toughness and reliability subscale in team sports is
significantly higher than the mental toughness and reliability subscale in
individual sports. Also, skilled athletes, reliability was significantly higher than
novice athletes, reliability and none of the other subscales had significant
relationship with other variables.
Keywords: Mental toughness, team sports, individual sports, different levels of skill.
Introduction
According to sports sciences, experts, there are many factors that affect optimal performance levels and an athlete,
s smooth execution. One of these factors is the individual, s mental abilities (Gonzalez, 2006). However there are many
mental factors that effect on athletes, performance but mental toughness be considered as one of most important factors.
As some of experts believe that at least 50% of the athlete, s mental success is due to mental toughness (Loehr, 1986).
Gucciardi (2008) defines that mental toughness is cope and withstand pressures and sports challenges. In fact, the
presence of this factor results in a psychology advantage because this factor enables the individuals to better stability,
concentration, and self-confidence than their opponent and have a good ability of control and coordination under
stressful conditions (Jones et al., 2002). It seems that mental toughness has an intellectual discipline because the person
response under pressure and is calm and energetic too. So people with mental toughness can create and reinforce a
positive energy in them at critical situations (Loehr, 1986). Mental toughness has three factors: reliability, stability, and
control.
Reliability factor means the ability of self-esteem and self-confidence especially under stressful conditions and
exposure with challenges such as sports competitions. Stability factor means having the courage and athlete, s ability
and his/her determination exposure with the needs of training and competition and his/her willingness to take
responsibility for training and competition goal setting. The nature of control factor means the individual, s ability in
control of conditions too (Jones et al., 2002). The people who believe that they have control over different events in
their lives in comparison of other they feel better sense about themselves and they can overcome the difficulties and
risks also they can better perform the cognitive tasks (Jones et al., 2002). Therefore, mental toughness helps athletes
that they are more focused and more determined than their opponent under pressure and difficult circumstances and also
they will show more self-confidence and control (Jones, 1995). The results of studies about the relationship between
mental toughness and type of sport on athletes of international, national, provincial, and academic competitions show
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that there is no significant difference between type of sport (team and individual sports, contact and non-contact sports)
and mental toughness in athletes (Nicholls et al., 2008). In this regard, Narimani and Ghaffari (2007) compared mental
toughness and aggression in martial arts and football players and non-athletes.
The results of their study showed that there was a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes in
mental skills in favor of athletes. Also there is a positive correlation between mental toughness variable with athletes,
age and their history of sport in martial arts and football (Narimani & Ghaffari, 2007). The results of Gordon (2012)
showed that there is no difference between team and individual athletes in the mental toughness. A study about the
relationship between mental toughness with skill level showed that there is a significant relationship between toughness
and athletes, elite level (Golby et al., 2007). The other studies have showed that elite people seek pressure situations and
challenges and they have higher mental toughness than semi-professional athletes and non-athletes (Golby et al., 2007;
Contrada et al., 1991; Gucciardi, 2011, 2012; Rodewalt & Aguostsdottir, 1984). However, all researches are not
confirmed this issue, such as Australian athletes, mental toughness was significantly higher than players in the
Australian national team (Coulter et al., 2010). Despite the clear important of mental toughness in athletes, the
researches in this area are done about the definition and description of mental skill (Loehr, 1986; Gucciardi et al., 2008;
Cabral & Crisfield, 1996; Clough et al., 2002; Fourie & Potgeiter, 2001) and there was a less concentration on
relationship between mental toughness and variables such as skill levels.
Also the results of these researches are in contradiction with each other (Golby et al., 2007; Contrada et al., 1991;
Rodewalt & Aguostsdottir, 1984; Crust & Azadi, 2010). Also, previous studies have not examined the interactive
effects of type of sport (individual and team) and skill levels (skilled, semi-skilled, and novice). On the other hand, the
information about mental toughness can be an important resource for coaches and athletes due to the more learning
about mental toughness as a most important psychological trait in the sporting success and competition results. This is
caused athletes, deeper understanding and their athletic abilities, systematic, practical, and continuous evaluation. Thus,
according to psychological evaluation, we can use from it as the main part of train planning process and athlete, s goalsetting. Then, we cannot overlook from the important role of this feature in sports talent and mental intervention
planning. This is doubly importance for the present study. According to the definitions and the results of existing
research (Jones et al., 2002; Golby et al., 2007; Contrada et al., 1991), mental toughness can better determine the
individual, s stability than his/her opponent in the concentration, self-confidence, decisiveness, and control of stressful
situations. Mental toughness role in sporting success is known for everybody but it is likely that different levels of skill
affect the mental toughness and it is be difference between novice, semi-skilled, and skilled athletes. Also it is likely
that type of sport (team and individual) or the interaction of both of these factors affect the mental toughness. So, the
researcher wants to know in this study that is there difference between team and individual male athletes, mental
toughness at different levels of skills or not?
Methodology
Method
The data in this study was collected by field method.
Participants
The statistical population of this study were male players in team (futsal, handball, and basketball) and individual
sports (karate, wrestling, and taekwondo) of Alborz province at three levels of skill (skilled, semi-skilled, and novice).
180 subjects were selected as statistical sample. 180 subjects were selected as statistical sample that numbers of
subjects were 30 people in every sport. The numbers of sample population were considered equal to the numbers of
statistical population due to the limited numbers of athletes.
Instruments and tasks
The instruments of this study were the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) and athletes, individual
characteristics questionnaire that was included the questions about athlete, s age, gender, level of education, history of
sport, type of sport, and marital status. Golby and Sheard (2010) the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)
was included 14 questions and three subscales: reliability, stability, and control. Cronbach, s alpha coefficients of
reliability, stability, and control subscale were reported respectively 0.80, 0.74, and 0.71 (Golby et al., 2007).
Procedure
The researchers referred to the place of trainings in athletes, clubs. They offered two questionnaires to the subjects
after they present the information about the purpose, the method of collecting o data, completion of questionnaire, the
time of completion and taking subjects, satisfaction. Then, they collected questionnaires after their completion.
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Data Analysis
The analysis of data was done by descriptive statistics and 2 Factor (2 type of sport × 3 skill levels) ANOVA
(p≤0.05).
Results
Mental Toughness
Mental toughness is shown at skill levels and type of sport (Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4). According to the figures there
is an interaction between type of sport (team and individual), skill levels (skilled, semi-skilled, and novice), mental
toughness and its subscales (reliability, stability, and control).
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Individual
Team
Novice
Semi-skilled
Skilled
Skill level
Reliability Subscale
Figure 1. Mental toughness at skill levels and type of sports.
24
22
Team
20
18
Novice
semi-skilled
Skilled
Skilled Level
Stability Subscale
Figure 2. The reliability subscale at different levels of skill and type of sport.
15
14.8
14.6
14.4
14.2
14
13.8
13.6
13.4
Team
Individual
Novice
Semi-skilled
Skilled
Skill Level
Figure 3. The stability subscale at different levels of skill and type of sport.
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16
Control Subscale
14
12
10
Team
Individ…
8
6
4
2
0
Novice
Semi-skilled
Skilled
Skill Level
Figure 4. The control subscale at different levels of skill and type of sport.
Table 1. The results of 2 factor (level and type of sport) ANOVA for mental toughness.
Variable
SS
Type of sport
Skill level
Type of sport and level
220.006
88.90
110.47
df
(error)
1
2
2
MS
220.006
44.45
55.23
df
(factor)
174
174
174
F
Sig.
3.96
0.802
0.996
0.048
0.450
0.371
The results of table 1 showed that there is a significant difference between team (M=51.05) and individual (M=48.84)
male athletes, mental toughness (F=3.96, P= 0.048) and there is no significant difference between skilled, semi-skilled,
and novice athletes, mental toughness (F=0.802, P=0.450). Also, there is no significant difference between individual
and team athletes, mental toughness at skilled, semi-skilled, and novice levels of sports (F=0.996, P=0.371).
Table 2. The results of 2 factor (level and type of sport) ANOVA in the reliability subscale.
Variable
Type of sport
Skill level
Type of sport and level
SS
81.33
93.033
124.21
df
(error)
1
2
2
MS
81.33
46.51
62.10
df
(factor)
174
174
174
F
Sig.
6.39
3.65
4.88
0.012
0.028
0.009
The results of table 2 showed that there is a significant difference between team (M=22.72) and individual (M=21.37)
male athletes in the reliability subscale (F=6.39, P= 0.012) and there is a significant difference between skilled, semiskilled, and novice athletes in the reliability subscale (F=03.65, P=0.028). Also there is a significant difference between
team and individual athletes, reliability at skilled, semi-skilled, and novice level (F=4.88, P=0.009).
Table 3. The results of Tukey test for pairwise comparison of means.
Levels
Individual – skilled
Individual- semi-skilled
Individual- novice
Team – skilled
Team – semi-skilled
Team- novice
Difference of means
2.6
3.5
0.73
-2.83
-2.40
-3.33
Sig.
0.059
0.900
0.332
0.029
0.101
0.005
The results of Tukey test showed a significant difference between athletes, reliability at skilled (M=23.06) and novice
(M=2.53) level (P≤0.05). But there is no significant difference between individual athletes , reliability at skilled and
semi-skilled level (P=0.059) and there is a significant difference between team athletes , reliability at skilled (M=23.43)
and novice (M=19.86) level (P≤0.05).
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Table 4. The results of 2 factor (level and type of sport) ANOVA in the stability subscale.
Variable
df
(error)
1
2
2
SS
Type of sport
Skill level
Type of sport and level
0.022
10.13
10.97
df
(factor)
174
174
174
MS
0.022
5.06
5.48
F
sig
0.003
0.656
0.711
0.975
0.520
0.493
The results of table 4 showed that there is no significant difference between team and individual male athletes in the
stability subscale (F=0.003, P= 0.975) and there is no significant difference between skilled, semi-skilled, and novice
athletes in the stability subscale (F=0.656, P=0.520). Also, there is no significant difference between individual and
team athletes, stability at skilled, semi-skilled, and novice levels of sports (F=0.711, P=0.493).
Table 5. The results of 2 factor (level and type of sport) ANOVA in the control subscale.
Variable
Type of sport
Skill level
Type of sport and level
SS
32.08
6.10
34.21
df
(error)
1
2
2
MS
32.08
3.05
17.10
df
(factor)
174
174
174
F
Sig.
2.36
0.225
1.25
0.126
0.799
0.286
The results of table (5) showed that there is no significant difference between team and individual male athletes in the
control subscale (F=2.36, P= 0.126) and there is no significant difference between skilled, semi-skilled, and novice
athletes in the control subscale (F=0.225, P=0.799). Also, there is no significant difference between individual and team
athletes, control at skilled, semi-skilled, and novice levels of sports (F=01.25, P=0.286)
Discussion and Conclusion
The purpose of this study was the comparison of team and individual male athletes, mental toughness at different
levels of skills. The results of study showed that that mental toughness and reliability subscale in team sports was
significantly higher than the mental toughness and reliability subscale in individual sports. These differences may be
because the nature of team sports causes conditions that team athletes are a highly activist and competitive. Team
athletes are very enthusiastic to have a chance for participant in games and competitions so they should be in
competition with their teammates moreover their opponents in other teams. These athletes should not surrender against
the psychological and physical pressures of competitions and they pursue their goals with a sense of superiority than
individual athletes. We can express that the reason of high reliability in team athletes is perhaps due to the conditions of
competitions in a team since the reliability subscale is related to the athletes, s ability to remain in a positive manner in
the face of challenges and stressful situations such as competitions (Jones et al., 2002).
The team athletes, management and resiliency are harder than individual athletes in the mental conditions. We can
imply the athletes, stress of a team within them during trainings, their selection and choice during competitions, and the
stress related to coordination between them for competitions with rival team from stressful conditions of team sports. In
other words, an athlete has more challenges for the management of his/her relationships and emotions in a team and
he/she needs more reliability due to the survival of in such a place. The findings of this study are consistent with
Narimani and Ghaffari (2007) findings that they stated mental toughness in team sports is higher than in individual
sports. But it is conflict with Nicholls et al (2008) and Gordon (2012) findings that their study showed there is no
significant relationship between mental toughness and type of sport.
Perhaps, lake of consistent of Nicholls, et al and Gordon, s (2012) study with this study is due to type of
questionnaire and participants, type of sports. For example in Nicholls, s study was used The Mental Toughness
Inventory (MTI) that it is included 67 items and 12 subscales. Because the this study is consistent with an internal study
(Narimani & Ghaffari, 2007) and is conflict with two external studies (Nicholls et al., 2008)), it is possible too these
conflicting results is due to the different culture between countries that it needs more researches in this regard.
According to this study, it was not observed a significant relationship between stability and control variable with skill
level and type of sport. The stability factor is related to athlete, s courage and ability in the face of needs of training and
competition and the nature of control is related to individual, s ability in control of conditions (Jones et al., 2002). So
we can conclude that these two factors in individual and team sports and at different levels of sports are not different
from each other in this study.
Probably athletes have a considerable extent of stability and control at every level of skills due to the competitive
nature of type of sports (basketball, handball, futsal, karate, wrestling, and taekwondo). Overall, the researchers,
athletes, coaches, and sport psychologists consider mental toughness as very important psychological factor that athlete
close to success and stability by it. When Athletes have mental toughness they practice and compete very hard and they
do not surrender under pressure situations. The differences between athletes, mental toughness may be clear through
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athletes, experiences and elite level and type of sports even individual and environmental factors may be share in these
differences too. The results of this study show a high level of mental toughness and reliability in skilled and team
athletes. It means that team athletes at skilled level have higher mental toughness and reliability than individual athletes
at novice level. But there is no significant difference between individual and team athletes, reliability at skilled level
(P=0.968). Also there is no significant difference between individual athletes at skilled level and team athletes at semiskilled level (P=0.803) in the reliability subscale and there is no significant difference between individual athletes at
skilled level and team athletes at novice level (P=1.000) in the reliability subscale. Furthermore, there is no relationship
between athletes, skill and type of sport in control and stability subscale. So the coaches and sport psychologists should
present appropriate strategies for increasing of athletes, control and stability regardless of athletes, elite level and type
of sports. The appropriate strategies for the increasing of these factors can examine in future researches.
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