3 English Teaching, Vol. 70, No. 1, Spring 2015 DOI: 10.15858/engtea.70.1.201503.3 Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program: The Smart Decision? Barry Lawrence (Duksung Women’s University) Lawrence, Barry. (2015). Learner receptiveness towards mobile technology in a college English program: The smart decision? English Teaching, 70(1), 3-28. This study examines learner receptiveness towards using smartphones to enhance EFL learning at a Korean university in various manners and contexts, exploring predictors of learner attitude towards mobile devices. A survey of 159 L2 learners was conducted within a college English program. Results indicated that nearly half of the participants demonstrated positivity towards integration, while others were ambivalent, with only a small proportion actively against integration. In the classroom, attitude was most favorable towards using smartphones as mini-computers with Wi-Fi capabilities to obtain information in collaborative projects. Outside class, interaction with classmates and teachers via email, voicemail, and video clip was favored. Multiple regression analysis indicated that belief in the language learning potential of smartphones was a significant predictor of attitude across usage contexts, as was inherent device motivation. Motivation to develop L2 digital literacy was a significant predictor outside the classroom. Further, learners most receptive to smartphones were consistently so inside and outside the classroom. Key Words: MALL, mobile learning, m-learning, L2 learning motivation, digital literacy, CALL, smartphone, attitude, smartphone, receptiveness 1. INTRODUCTION Interest in Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) has increased among educators and researchers (Todd & Tepsuriwong, 2008; Ushioda, 2013; van de Bogart, 2011) driven by reduced costs, improved capabilities, and increasing ownership (Stockwell, 2013). Certain distinguishing features of mobile learning, such as autonomy, choice, personalization, and portability offer great potential (Sharples, 2006). One mobile device currently of particular relevance in Korea is the smartphone, which is in essence a portable 4 Barry Lawrence mini-computer with Wi-Fi. Smartphone penetration among 18-24 year olds has reached 97.7% (Google, 2013), and many universities now recommend mobile technology in learning (Park, Nam, & Cha, 2012). Korea also possesses the world’s fourth highest wireless broadband penetration (OECD, 2014). Prensky famously coined the phrase ‘digital natives,’ suggesting modern cohorts are native speakers “of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet” (2001, p. 1). While perhaps an overgeneralization (Bennett, Maton, & Kervin, 2008), Korea’s high smartphone ownership rates alongside well-developed, supportive infrastructure suggests comfort with digital mediums. Nevertheless, attempts to effectively enhance language learning through mobile technology must consider the wishes of those driving the interest in this technology. So what motivates learners to engage with technology in their language learning? One factor of key interest is the learner’s motivation to learn the language itself (Stockwell, 2013). Learner motivation, a complex and abstract construct, was defined by Dörnyei and Otto (1998) as “ the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates and amplifies, terminates and evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritised, operationalized and (successfully or unsuccessfully) acted out” (p. 65). The growing relevance of equating L2 motivation with technology use is exemplified by the influential model of motivation, the L2 Motivational Self System, which accommodates advances in educational technology, such as Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) (Dörnyei, 2009). Additionally, T. Y. Kim (2012) demonstrated this model to be the best available measure of L2 learning motivation in a Korean context. Another key motivation-related issue is the question of why a learner chooses to engage with a given technology. To this end, Stockwell (2013) proposes two somewhat dichotomous points of departure in engaging with new technology: a belief that said technology will facilitate language learning, and an inherent desire to engage with technology, leading indirectly to language learning required to support this engagement. Ultimately, however, motivation is still not considered a key area in MALL research (Ushioda, 2013), and these dichotomous points of departure are yet to be empirically queried in MALL. Learners often report receptiveness towards mobile learning (m-learning) (Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007) and MALL (Khrisat & Mahmoud, 2013; van de Bogart, 2011). However, this requires further study in a Korean tertiary EFL context. There is a significant population of learners enrolled in compulsory English programs who may be less receptive to mobile technology in language learning because of a qualitatively and quantitatively different motivational profile than participants reported in prior findings. Often studies of technology acceptance behavior that report high learner receptiveness to L2 learning technology involve samples majoring in either English language learning or technology (Kim, Altmann, & Ilon, 2012; McMahon & Pospisil, 2005; Pettit & Kukulska- Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 5 Hulme, 2007; van de Bogart, 2011). However, many learners in college English programs have no overt interest in either language learning or technology. Theories of L2 motivation would argue that learning undertaken through choice—driven by internal motivating factors—leads to higher levels of more sustained engagement than learning undertaken for external factors (Ushioda, 2013). This argument is key to Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2002), an influential theory of motivation considered successful in describing L2 learning (Noels, 2009; Ushioda, 1996). It can logically be assumed that the high degree of receptiveness to MALL observed to date in studies is at least partially supported by intrinsic motivation. Receptiveness towards smartphone integration in EFL classes among learners enrolled in mandatory college English courses, characterized by a greater degree of extrinsic L2 learning motivation and without any clear technological disposition, may be lower, however. Numerous studies show that intrinsic motivation is more important than extrinsic motivation when learning English in the Korean context (Pae, 2007; Yang, 2009, 2011), and Park et al. (2012) report a learner’s major to be a predictor of attitude towards mobile technology. In short, it appears that receptiveness to smartphones on college English courses is yet to be fully understood and requires further investigation. A related issue in need of clarification is whether smartphone technology should be considered a core component of EFL syllabi or a matter of personal choice. One stance is that usage may be best governed by individual choice and thus intrinsic motivation (Ushioda, 2013), given that the strengths of MALL include autonomy, choice, personalization, and flexibility (Sharples, Taylor, & Vavoula, 2005). In support of this stance, an issue raised recently is that of the protection of private space. Reports suggest some learners see smartphone use as most relevant in domains not typically associated with learning, such as while commuting, thus resisting their implementation in learning (Jung, 2012; Stockwell, 2008). In contrast with these findings, other studies report favorable results when mobile technology is used in the classroom and under close supervision (Appel & Mullen, 2002). Despite these contradictory findings, direct comparison receptiveness towards usage of smartphones inside and outside of the class has not yet been made. Receptiveness to smartphone technology in language learning contexts is not yet fully understood. To inform educators considering the manner and context of integration in tertiary EFL learning, I explored attitude towards integrating smartphones in L2 learning among 160 female students at a women’s university in Seoul, Korea (hereafter referred to as University A) enrolled in a compulsory, for credit, EFL course. Specifically, this paper aims to investigate receptiveness patterns inside versus outside of the classroom, potential sampling bias in prior studies, degree of receptiveness toward integration, preferred contexts of use, and factors predictive of attitude towards smartphones. 6 Barry Lawrence 2. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW Studies describing usage of mobile technology among learning generally, and specifically among language learners, appear somewhat limited in Korea. In one study, Jung (2012) surveyed learners on perceptions and current usage of the smartphone as a learning tool in Korea. This study queried 79 college learners majoring in English language and literature. Adopting a mixed methods design, data collection consisted of a questionnaire and a fixed-question interview. Results showed that online dictionaries and free vocabulary learning applications were particularly popular. There may also be a sampling bias inherent in the design, as it could be argued that a sample of English language and literature majors may have presented with greater intrinsic L2 language learning motivation than subjects in the current study, who study English through necessity rather than choice. Furthermore, the research design through lack of inferential analysis limits external reliability and thus generalization. 2.1. Smartphones and Learner Preferences Understanding learner preferences is vital from a motivational perspective. Though mobile technology will undoubtedly have an increasing role, it will likely vary greatly in manner and context of usage (Sharples, 2006) To that end, van de Bogart (2011) surveyed 200 freshmen EFL learners of English in Thailand on receptiveness and preferences concerning the integration of smartphones. This study adopted a mixed design encompassing descriptive, quantitative analysis and qualitative, open-form, written responses. Results indicated that learners were in favor of incorporating mobile technology (137 in favor, 52 against, 11 gave no response). Open-form data capturing preferred methods of future integration was factored into four prominent functional categories: communicating with teachers via video conferencing, email, voice clips, or video call; using software programs that would make learning English easier; learning from home by downloading e-learning lessons; and searching for information more effectively by using the smartphone like a computer with Wi-Fi. Findings seem consistent with themes prominent in MALL: interaction, autonomy, flexibility, and portability. One advantage of this study was the mixed design adopted, which allowed open-form responses rather than imposing limited categories. This yielded detailed data across a wider range of potential functions while maintaining reasonable sample size. However, one improvement would be to specify the rank order and relative popularity between the broad category responses, as these factors were not made clear. Additionally, analysis stops short of the inferential analysis that would support educators wishing to generalize across differing tertiary contexts and beyond. Given the plethora of variables impacting any educational context, Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 7 pedagogical findings require validation across educational contexts (Ur, 1996). It would be of benefit to assess receptiveness to the above four functional categories among Korean tertiary learners. 2.2. Predicting Attitude Towards Smartphones Of particular interest in this study is the issue of which factors influence learner motivation to engage with language learning technology. Recent publications (Stockwell, 2013; Ushioda, 2013) cite two broad entry points. First, a motivated language learner may explore and then adopt technology based on belief that it better facilitates language learning. This notion is hereafter described as L2 learning utility. Conversely, others are motivated by innate interest in technology itself, potentially leading indirectly to an interest in language learning—for example, through desire to interact with users from other cultures using social media websites. This inherent device motivation is applicable to smartphones, which often provide learners with relaxation, interaction, and enjoyment (Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007). Inherent Device motivation alone may not support sustained, highly engaged learning in a tech-savvy population like Korea, however. Stockwell (2013) argues that new technology would need to incite great excitement to surpass popular devices. Consequently, the L2 learning utility of a given technology appears a more durable and effective motivator for L2 learning. Studies that empirically validate and investigate these dichotomous points of departure in technology acceptance behavior among second language learners are lacking. Generally, studies indicate a high level of initial interest among learners when introducing mobile technology. McMahon and Pospisil (2005) investigated 18 undergraduate digital media majors on their receptiveness to wireless laptops, collecting data through fortnightly weblogs, surveys, and interviews. Findings indicated learners were receptive to and in favor of mobile devices, with immediacy, interconnectedness, and multitasking seen as key strengths, and 66.7% of participants strongly agreeing that the devices assisted in learning. This is analogous with L2 learning utility as a predictor of receptiveness. Furthermore, it is reasonable to theorize that device motivation may also have contributed to the generally positive findings, particularly among learners with a leaning towards technology, such as the digital media students surveyed. Given the small sample size, use of a different mobile device, limitations presented by descriptive analysis, and focus on non-language related learning, caution must be applied in interpreting these findings as they relate to the current study. A somewhat analogous account of device motivation is made by Sharples (2006), in which a focus group at Kaleidoscope 2006, an international conference on mobile learning, posited numerous factors underlying implicit motivation to use a mobile device as a language learning aid: control over goals, ownership, fun, communication, learning-in- 8 Barry Lawrence context, and continuity between contexts. These constructs remain to be validated in empirical studies, however; thus, there is need for further investigation, testing, and validation of both L2 learning utility and device motivation as predictors of MALL. Park et al. (2012) investigated factors underlying intention to use mobile learning in 300 subjects across a range of majors in an e-learning environment at a Korean university. Adopting a general structural model, survey results showed attitude was the most important predictor of technology acceptance behavior, followed by a student’s major. Furthermore, major was a significant predictor of attitude, with Park et al. (p. 603) stating “major relevance may be considered an intrinsic motivational factor to affect attitude and perceived usefulness,” and that “students with a major related to mobile devices such as computer science and information management systems have a greater desire to use more mobile devices and adopt m-learning” (p. 596). These findings support the present study’s assertion that learners may be less receptive to mobile technology in contexts where they are neither language nor technology oriented. However, while Park et al.’s study identified major as a motivator, it did not specify which majors were most receptive. An additional issue is that generalizing the results to the educational context in the current study is questionable. Park et al. focused on m-learning, rather than MALL, and it is specific to an e-learning environment. Follow-up study specific to language learning in a ‘bricks and mortar’ classroom environment is required. Jung’s (2011) study of Korean learners of English in an e-learning context reported results supportive of usage characterized by choice and flexibility. Findings showed that participants placed great stock in the freedom to use technology to interact in manners both planned and unsynchronized, thus supporting the importance of immediacy and flexibility. This suggests that the strengths of the smartphone may lie in usage outside of the class, under personal volition. On the other hand, implementing smartphones during in-class activities is more consistent with integrating usage of smartphone technology as a core syllabus requirement through, for instance, the greater support and supervision available. This context of use also garners empirical support. Appel and Mullen (2002) monitored student usage of the Electronic Tandem Resources (ETR) website, a tandem language exchange environment, over a period of three years across learners of English, Spanish, German, and Catalan. Data was collected on 246 learners through in-class surveys, face to face interviews, and email questionnaires alongside task portfolios. In doing so, the authors compared usage in a class setting as part of a structured course with usage between individual learners independent of course. Findings indicated that learner motivation decreased over time outside of a structured course. Close guidance was required to support goal setting and generation of new content. Appel and Mullen conclude that use of language technology is recommended in a closely supervised and supportive framework in a classroom setting to maintain motivation. The comparison of contexts inside and outside Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 9 the classroom is a useful distinction relevant to the perspective of the current study, given the portability of smartphones. On the other hand, the ETR is narrower in scope than the smartphone considered as a whole, and results must be evaluated with care. In short, empirical findings seem to support usage in class in a manner consistent with a syllabus. They also support usage outside class in ways that align with personal autonomy and choice. However, a direct comparison of learner receptiveness between these two usage contexts is yet to be made with smartphones. Another factor that may weigh on receptiveness to smartphone usage in second language learning is digital literacy—the ability to use online resources, navigate the internet, and engage in computer-mediated communication using digital media (Meurant, 2008). Alongside recent advances in digital technology, this construct is garnering increasing attention (Jones & Hafner, 2012). Concurrently, digital media is providing an increasingly pertinent context for L2 learning (Thorne & Black, 2007). Meurant (2009) attributes this to three interrelated factors: advances in technology, growth of English as a global language, and the increasingly greater proportion of non-native speakers using English as a lingua franca. From a motivational perspective, L2 digital literacy represents a potential motivational tool in second language learning. Ushioda (2011) suggests cyberspace represents a “highly interactive world of the current net generation that we need to connect with and tap into as a motivational resource for language learning and language use” (p. 207). Put another way, learner interest in the digital world may support L2 language learning motivation. Similarly, can learner interest in digital literacy support receptiveness to smartphone technology? After all, many tertiary environments cannot provide access to adequate conventional computer mediated learning. If, as Stockwell (2013) suggests, belief in a device’s ability to facilitate L2 language learning does lead to highly engaged and sustained language learning, then perhaps belief in a devices’ ability to support L2 digital literacy could lead to improvements in L2 digital literacy. This could have implications for L2 digital literacy education in, for example, classrooms where smartphones are the only form of technology available to learners. Indeed, smartphones may even hold a particular advantage over conventional computers in the language classroom. Desktops are typically found in computer labs, wherein they are arranged in rows, facing the front, in a teacher-focused layout. The portability and size of mobile technology, conversely, allows learners to arrange themselves facing each other in groups in a manner more conducive to interaction and thus is considerably more student focused (Meurant, 2010). Despite undoubted potential, a search of the literature indicates that the current study may be one of the first to address learner perceptions of smartphones as a platform for L2 digital literacy in Korean tertiary EFL education. This study aims to further understanding of receptiveness towards integrating 10 Barry Lawrence smartphones on a college English program in Korea and aid educators considering integrating smartphones. Supplementing a predominantly qualitative body of literature with inferential analysis, findings should increase external reliability, thus supporting generalizations across tertiary EFL contexts. This study will build on findings in general learning and e-learning environments by applying a more narrow focus to second language learning in a physical classroom. More specifically, learner perceptions of optimal use of smartphones, underlying predictors of receptiveness, and potential sampling bias arising through prior studies recruiting participants with second language learning or technology orientations are investigated. The learning utility and device motivation dichotomy is queried and quantitatively validated, and receptiveness to smartphones inside and outside the classroom is compared. The following research questions will therefore be addressed: 1. To what extent do language learners exhibit a positive attitude toward integrating smartphones further into a college English program? 2. How do participants envisage using smartphones to support language learning? 3. Which factors predict attitude towards smartphones as language learning tools? 3. METHODS 3.1. Participants and Course At University A there are currently 1296 students enrolled in the compulsory freshmen English course, with 50 of these constituting English Language and Literature majors. Given the wide range of majors undertaken by freshman at most universities, the majority of learners are unlikely to be specifically language or technology oriented. The college English course consisted of three proficiency levels: beginner, intermediate, and upper intermediate (n = 92, 58, and 10 respectively of this sample) based on performance in the Korean Scholastic Aptitude Test (KSAT), usually taken the year prior to enrolment at university. Learners received three hours of lessons weekly, split between a Korean teacher of English (two hours) and a native English-speaking teacher (one hour). A total of 159 subjects participated in the survey. All were female students of a similar age (M = 20.5) at a women’s university in Korea enrolled in a compulsory, for credit college English course. The majority were Korean (n = 156), with one Uzbekistani, one North Korean defector, and one Chinese student also participating. With the exception of the Uzbekistani and Chinese learner, all were native speakers of Korean. Convenience sampling measures were employed as participants were surveyed as members of intact classes ranging from 13 to 20 students. Data from a language background questionnaire Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 11 indicated most students had studied English for nine or more years in an EFL context, with only five having lived in a country where English was the first language. The North Korean defector had received no EFL instruction prior to September 2013. Only a small number of participants (n = 10) were English majors or otherwise enrolled in other English-related courses (n = 8). Participants studied a range of other majors, for example: digital media (n = 15), statistics (n = 17), textile design (n = 16), fashion design (n = 15), Chinese (n = 9), English language and literature (n = 10), family and social welfare (n = 12), political science and diplomacy (n = 14), psychology (n = 13), and food and nutrition (n = 20). Classes in the college English program typically consisted of students of one major. Importantly, there was no official policy on mobile technology usage in the college English program, either inside or outside of the class. The unofficial policy adopted by all the EFL instructors who taught the 159 participants was that in-class usage was permitted to the extent that it was on-task. Usage of smartphones for off-task behavior was prohibited. Usage outside of the class was not mediated. In no instances was smartphone technology considered a core element of the lessons, nor was support or training in usage of mobile technology provided to either instructors or learners. 3.2. Instrument and Measures To empirically answer the three research questions posed by the current study, attitude towards adopting smartphone technology was considered a key outcome measure. Receptiveness in technology acceptance studies is often operationalized through the construct of behavioral intention—“the person’s subjective probability that he or she will perform the behavior in question” (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003, p. 288) a construct instumental in Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior. However, this indicator is contingent on choice to engage in a given behavior—a luxury that may not be afforded to learners if the manner of implementation frames mobile technology as a core element of syllabus requirements. Attitude towards a given technology, defined as the individual’s feelings (positive or negative) towards the use of technologies (Ajzen, 1991) and not contingent on existence of choice, is adopted as a means to operationalize receptiveness to adopting smartphones. Thus, a survey was developed to assess attitude towards integrating smartphone technology using five-point Likert scale items (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree), summating individual scale items to obtain indices. The independent (predictor) variables were: L2 learning motivation (L2M), inherent device motivation (IDM), L2 learning utility (LU), and L2 digital literacy learning motivation (DLM). The dependent (criterion) variables were attitude towards smartphones inside the classroom (ATin) and attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom (ATout). Individual scale items were based strictly on prior studies. Initial versions of the 12 Barry Lawrence questionnaire were rigorously piloted, prior to distribution of the final survey, and scale design followed conventions to reduce reporter bias and maintain validity. Table 1 summarizes the variables used: descriptions, theoretical basis, Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients, number of items per index, and examples. The mean Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the survey was .76, which, considering the brevity of scales and breadth of constructs, is adequate for group-based comparison (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). TABLE 1 Independent and Dependant Variables Variable Description L2 motivation (L2M) This variable is a measure of learners’ general motivation to learn English. Scale items were pre-validated in an east Asian context (Taguchi, Magid, & Papi, 2009): e.g. “I am working hard at learning English” (4 items, α = .79). Inherent device This is a broad category measure of the implicit draw of smartphone motivation (IDM) technology (Stockwell, 2013; Ushioda, 2013). Scale items were adapted from Sharples et al. (2006): e.g. “learning with my smartphone is boring” (4 items, α =.74). Second language learning This predictor is associated with belief that smartphones enhance utility (LU) learning. It is considered a motivator to engage with language learning technology (Stockwell, 2013; Ushioda, 2013): e.g. “Using smartphones to learn English can improve my overall English proficiency” (4 items, α = .77). L2 digital literacy This is a broad construct associated with learners’ motivation to develop motivation (DLM) skills in computer-mediated second language communication (Meurant, 2009). Individual scale items address different sub-skills: e.g. “The ability to produce and post materials and content written in English online is an important skill in today’s world” (4 items, α =.70). Attitude towards This output measure represents learner attitude towards adopting smartphones inside the smartphones inside the class. Scale items are adapted from functional classroom (ATin) categories identified by van de Bogart (2011) and Todd and Tepsuriwong (2008): e.g. “It would be good to access the internet on my smartphone to find information in group projects in class” (5 items, α = . 78). Attitude towards This output measure captures learner attitude to adopting smartphones in smartphones outside the English learning outside of the classroom. Individual scale items were classroom (ATout) based on functions identified by learners (van de Bogart, 2011): e.g. “It would be good to communicate with other students and the teacher via email, voice clips and video calls” (5 items, α = .75). The questionnaire was presented alongside a language background questionnaire to participants in October 2013, after six weeks of a 16-week semester. With confidentiality assured, participants anonymously completed questionnaires outside of class and left them in an administrative office in the English department for collection. Questionnaire results were coded and entered into SPSS for statistical analysis. This quantitative study adopted a correlational design assessing the relationship between Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 13 numerous interrelated research questions. Research questions one and two queried attitude towards smartphone integration and preferred methods of usage respectively, and were addressed via frequency-based descriptive analysis. Subsequently, simultaneous multiple regression was applied to investigate the predictors of attitude towards smartphones in the classroom and attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom when inherent device motivation, L2 learning utility, L2 digital literacy motivation, and L2 learning motivation by the learners were submitted for analysis to find the most appropriate regression models. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Attitude Towards Smartphones in EFL Table 2 describes participant attitudes toward incorporating smartphones in English learning. Figures indicate slightly less than half of the participants had a positive attitude towards using the smartphone to learn English outside of the classroom, with a similar proportion largely ambivalent. This suggests somewhat lower levels of receptiveness than those reported by previous studies involving English or technology majors as sample populations (Jung, 2012; Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007; van de Bogart, 2011). Further, figures are consistent with Park et al. (2012), who found major to be a key indicator of attitude, albeit in a contrasting educational context (m-learning within a wholly e-learning environment). This supports the argument that sampling bias may be inherent in prior studies focused on language or techology majors, at least when the debate is framed within Korean tertiary education, and in relation to college English programs in particular. TABLE 2 Summary of Attitude Towards Using Smartphones in English Learning Outside the Classroom Inside the Classroom Responses N % N % Strongly disagree 1 0.6 6 3.8 Disagree 26 16.3 22 13.8 Neither agree nor disagree 58 36.3 59 36.9 Agree 61 38.1 60 37.5 Strongly agree 14 8.8 13 8.1 A similar pattern emerged concerning in-class learning, with slightly less than half of participants presenting a positive attitude towards use of mobile technology and a slightly smaller proportion remaining indifferent. While only a small number of participants were actively opposed to using smartphones in the course, this once more indicates lower levels of receptiveness than those found among learners with a language or technology 14 Barry Lawrence orientation in prior studies. This further raises the possibility of a qualitatively and quantitatively different motivational profile concerning the use of mobile technology to engage with language learning than prior studies. More generally, these findings highlight a lack of knowledge concerning receptiveness to smartphones as language learning aids in college English programs that requires further study. Interestingly, attitude towards integration was of a relatively uniform level of positivity both inside and outside class. As the strengths of MALL, and thus smartphones, are thought to include mobility, autonomy, personalization, and choice, researchers might expect a preference for usage outside class under individual volition. The results did not reflect this, however, and attempts to explain these findings require a focus on predictors of Attitude (see Section 4.4.). 4.2. Usage and Learner Preferences 4.2.1. Outside the classroom Figure 1 shows student attitudes toward possible smartphone implementations in EFL outside class. Findings indicated that participant attitudes were generally positive across the four functional categories provided. Learners demonstrated the highest level of receptiveness towards communicating with students and teacher using email, voice clip, and videocalls. This is consistent with Jung (2011) and Lai and Gu (2011) who found synchronous and asynchronous interaction and relationship building, respectively, the most salient indicators of sustained use of technology. This highlights the importance of both immediacy and flexibility in MALL. FIGURE 1 Student Receptiveness Towards Smartphone Usage Outside the Classroom Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 15 Learners reported only marginally lower receptiveness to the other functional categories. This is despite participants’ likely possessing access to conventional computer technology outside class. One possible explanation may be that learners envision language learning taking place ‘on the go.’ This interpretation is somewhat inconsistent with Stockwell (2010), in which some learners found environments such as public transport during commutes to be less than conducive to learning. Rather, it suggests an increasing acceptance of smartphones as educational devices and/or advances in technology, supporting more effective usage (Stockwell, 2013). 4.2.2. Inside the classroom Figure 2 shows student attitudes toward smartphone implementations for English learning in class. Findings indicated that attitude was positive across three of the four categories addressed. Accessing the Internet in collaborative projects was the most popular function inside the classroom by a wide margin, with 94% of respondents being receptive. The second most popular function, grammar and vocabulary quizzes, garnered only 54% positivity. One possible reason for this margin is that learners associate web-surfing with relaxation and recreation, unlike functions such as recording and playing back speech for analysis, for example, which may seem less enjoyable. This is somewhat consistent with reports of resistance among learners against invasion of the private space that smartphones represent (Stockwell, 2008). It is clear that, like all new learning paradigms, the educator has a role in skilfully demonstrating the potential of such activities to motivate learners in their language studies. FIGURE 2 Student Receptiveness Towards Smartphone Usage Inside the Classroom The positive attitude reported towards using smartphones as mini-computers with Wi-Fi 16 Barry Lawrence to gather information in collaborative projects in class appears specifically relevant in institutional environments with no other access to computer technology. Results indicate that learners may view smartphones as a window into the World Wide Web. If this is the case, not only may smartphone technology provide many motivational possibilities supportive of sustained usage, but also a potential vehicle for L2 digital literacy (see section 4.3.). 4.3. Predictors of Attitude Towards Smartphones Complete data was available for 159 students. Descriptive data is presented in Table 3. TABLE 3 Measure L2M IDM DLM LU ATin ATout Descriptive Statistics for Predictors and Output Measures M SD Skew 12.44 2.46 .368 14.22 2.61 -.369 16.12 2.35 -.268 14.21 2.58 -.228 17.64 3.29 -.351 17.45 3.25 -.339 Kurtosis .492 .465 -.427 -.110 .309 .576 The data was compiled for all variables and checked for outliers, and none were found. Additionally, the skewness and kurtosis values indicate that normality of data is a reasonable assumption. Bivariate correlations between the predictor variables are presented in Table 4. TABLE 4 Measure L2M IDM DLM LU ATin ATout Bivariate Correlations for Predictors and Output Measures L2M IDM DLM LU .021 .192* .079 .127 .186* .238** .447** .386** .451** .247** .123 .408** .427** .489** ATin .491** * p < .05, ** p < .01 Many of the predictor variables were correlated. However, coefficients here do not account for the variation caused by other predictors, limiting their interpretative power. Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 17 4.3.1. Outside the classroom A simultaneous multiple regression analysis was conducted to investigate the extent to which input measures predicted attitude towards integrating smartphones into English language learning outside of the classroom. The predictors were: L2 learning motivation, inherent device motivation, L2 digital literacy learning motivation, L2 learning utility, and attitude towards smartphones in the classroom. The output criterion was attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom. The results are presented in Table 5. Four of the five predictors account for 46% of the variance in attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom, F(9, 149) = 16.13, p < .001, R² = .46. The confidence intervals for these predictors did not include zero, further confirming that these variables are statistically significant predictors of attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom. The effect size for this analysis (f² = .85) was found to exceed Cohen’s (1988) convention for a large effect (f² = .35), indicating that that those with higher levels of belief in L2 learning utility, greater L2 digital literacy motivation, greater degree of inherent device motivation, and a more positive attitude towards adopting smartphones in class, tended to have a more positive attitude towards adopting smartphone technology to learn English outside of the classroom. TABLE 5 Variable L2M IDM DLM LU ATin Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting ATout B SE B ß .067 .079 .051 .288 .085 .231** .283 .086 .204** .304 .087 .242** .296 .067 .299** CI 1.080, .233 .121, .455 .113, .453 .132, .477 .164, .427 *p < .05, ** p < .01 TABLE 6 Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors With ATout Correlation Between Each Predictor Correlation Between Each Predictor and Predictors and ATout ATout Controlling for all Other Predictors IDM .51** .28** LU .54** .28** DLM .37** .26** L2M .14 .06 ATin .53** .34** *p < .05, **p < .01 With the exception of L2 learning motivation, all bivariate correlations between 18 Barry Lawrence motivation-related predictors and attitude to integrating smartphones into English language learning outside class were positive. Table 6 presents indices that illustrate the relative strength of individual predictors. As shown in Table 6, inherent device motivation, L2 learning utility, L2 digital literacy learning motivation and attitude towards smartphones in the classroom had significant (p < .001) zero order correlations with attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom. Furthermore, only the same four predictors had significant (p < .01) partial effects in the full model. 4.3.2. Inside the classroom Subsequently, a simultaneous multiple regression analysis was conducted to investigate the extent to which input measures predicted attitude to integrating smartphones into English language learning in class. The predictors were: L2 learning motivation, inherent device motivation, L2 digital literacy motivation, L2 learning utility, and attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom. The output criterion was attitude towards smartphones in the classroom. The results of the simultaneous regression analysis are presented in Table 7. The predictors L2 learning utility, inherent device motivation, and attitude towards the smartphone outside of the class were significant. The three predictor model was able to account for 37% of the variance in students’ attitudes towards adopting smartphones in studying English inside the classroom, F(9, 149) = 9.90, p < .001, R² = .37. The confidence intervals for these predictors did not include zero, further confirming that these variables are statistically significant predictors of attitude towards smartphones inside the classroom. The effect size for this analysis (f² = .59) exceeded Cohen’s (1988) convention for a large effect (f² = 0.35), indicating that that those with higher belief in L2 learning utility, greater degree of inherent device motivation, and a more positive attitude towards adopting smartphones outside class tended to have more positive attitude towards smartphone technology to learn English in the classroom. TABLE 7 Variable L2M IDM DLM LU ATout Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting ATin B SE B ß .024 .091 .018 .201 .099 .159* -.155 .101 -.110 .256 .102 .201* .387 .087 .382** CI -.155, .203 .005, .396 -.355, .045 .055, .457 .215, .559 *p < .05, **p < .01 Table 8 presents indices that illustrate the relative strength of individual predictors. All Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 19 bivariate correlations between motivation towards technology-related predictors and ATin were positive. As shown in the table, L2 learning utility, inherent device motivation, and attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom had significant zero order correlations with attitude towards smartphones in the classroom. Further, only L2 learning utility (p < .05), inherent device motivation (p < .05), and attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom (p < .01) had significant partial effects in the full model. TABLE 8 IDM LU L2M DLM ATout Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors with ATin Correlation Between Each Correlation Between Each Predictors Predictor and ATin Controlling Predictor and ATin for all Other Predictors .42* .16* .45* .20* .06 .02 .13 -.13 .53** .34** *p < .05, **p < .01 Simultaneous multiple linear regression analysis sheds light on underlying motivational factors, accounting for 46% of variance outside the class and 37% inside—both significant amounts. Interestingly, a prominent predictor of attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom was attitude towards usage in the class, and vice versa. In other words, those receptive to smartphone technology in one domain were also likely to be so in the other. These findings are not entirely consistent with the notion that smartphones may be better left to a learner’s own volition. The premise that the strengths of MALL center on personal choice and autonomy (Ushioda, 2013) is somewhat at odds with the degree of receptiveness shown to smartphone integration in the classroom, relatively speaking. This is encouraging for educators, as it implies greater freedom and flexibility in context and manner of implementation, particularly given the greater degree of supervision and support available in the classroom. Results also provided insight into L2 language learning utility and inherent device motivation as dichotomous starting points for adoption of smartphone technology. Second language learning utility was a significant predictor both inside and outside class. The greater effect size observed outside class is, in this case, consistent with key features of MALL, such as mobility, choice, and autonomy in mobile learning being optimized in different domains beyond the confines of the class. Similarly, inherent device motivation significantly predicted attitude towards using smartphones both in the classroom and outside, and it was again a more prominent predictor outside the classroom. It is likely that learners imagined usage of smartphones in the classroom to be subject to greater 20 Barry Lawrence supervision, thus reducing perceptions of leisure and recreation associated with inherent device motivation. However, it is feasible that learners with lower belief in L2 learning utility could still initially engage with smartphones through inherent device motivation— ideally long enough to support increased L2 learning utility, L2 learning motivation, or for more optimal L2 learning to take place. Moreover, that L2 learning utility explains a greater proportion of variance in receptiveness to using smartphone technology than inherent device motivation both in and outside of the classroom is encouraging. Remember that Stockwell (2013) argues that motivation to engage with technology based on L2 learning utility is preferable to that based primarily on inherent device motivation (Stockwell, 2013) for reasons of higher engagement and greater sustainability. Thus, these findings indicate learner receptiveness towards smartphone integration among learners in this college English program is supportive of long-term second language learning. Second language digital literacy motivation was not a significant predictor of attitude towards smartphones in the classroom. This may be surprising given that smartphones represented the only available computer technology required to address L2 digital literacy learning in the course. However, syllabi did not explicitly focus on L2 digital literacy in the college English program in question. Accordingly, respondents perhaps did not recognize the relevance of these skills in the classroom. L2 digital literacy motivation did significantly predict attitude towards smartphones outside of the classroom, however. This suggests learners in the college English course may see the smartphone as a potential platform for supporting L2 digital literacy outside the class, and within the realm of autonomous choice. This is interesting given reports of both hardware issues with smartphones, such as small screen size (Chinnery, 2006), and preference for conventional computer technology (Stockwell, 2010). Again, the smartphone’s portability and mobility may explain these results. In a city such as Seoul, with long commutes, pragmatic learners may recognize potential to address L2 digital literacy through smartphones ‘on the go,’ when conventional computer technology is unavailable. There may be increasing recognition among learners of the importance of this skill-set to complement growing academic interest. No significant relationship between motivation to engage with smartphones and L2 learning motivation was detected. Although results indicated participants with higher L2 learning motivation also had more positive attitudes towards smartphones both inside the class and outside, these correlations were not significant. Contrastingly, L2 learning utility was a significant predictor of both. Perhaps unsurprisingly, results suggest that desire to learn English alone does not promote desire to integrate smartphones into English studies. Rather, findings emphasize belief in the educational potential of smartphones to be key. This study provides support for this stance in a Korean tertiary context. Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 21 5. CONCLUSION In Korea, advances in smartphone technology alongside rapidly increasing market penetration drive current interest in smartphones as language learning aids, creating need for this study. With the role of motivation in mobile assisted language learning not yet fully understood, there is a need to investigate learner attitude towards smartphones acceptance in tertiary EFL education. This need is heightened by under-representation of learners in mandatory college English programs, who may present with less intrinsic motivation to engage in EFL learning and associated technology. Findings show that some learners were somewhat receptive to further integration, with almost half of those surveyed displaying a positive attitude towards smartphones both inside and outside the classroom. As the strengths of mobile learning—portability, mobility, autonomy and choice—are widely considered to be better utilized outside the classroom, results may indicate pragmatism among learners, something over nothing, as no other computer technology was available. On the other hand, a sizable proportion of learners were ambivalent towards use of smartphone technology, with a smaller proportion against it. This suggests that there may be selection bias inherent in prior studies based on samples consisting of English and technology-oriented majors, which generally report a greater degree of receptiveness than the current study. Further, it highlights the need for greater understanding of receptiveness towards smartphones across a range of educational contexts prior to implementation. The study identified a number of predictors of a positive attitude towards use outside of class. The strongest was a positive attitude towards use of smartphones inside the classroom, and vice-versa, indicating that learners who were positive about smartphones as effective language learning tools felt so both in and out of the classroom. Importantly, this study empirically supported the premise that belief in L2 learning utility is a prominent indicator of attitude towards smartphones in MALL. Another important finding was that, although inherent device motivation significantly predicted attitude towards smartphone technology in second language learning both inside and outside the classroom, the effect size was smaller than L2 learning utility in both cases. This is encouraging as L2 learning utility is argued to support more sustained and highly engaged language learning. Relatedly, the role of device motivation as a predictor was smaller inside the classroom than outside. This was possibly due to learner perceptions that supervised in-class usage ran counter to notions of recreation and relaxation underpinning device motivation. Interestingly, L2 digital literacy learning motivation was a significant predictor of attitude towards usage outside the classroom, indicating willingness to engage in L2 digital literacy-related activities ‘on the go.’ L2 digital literacy learning motivation did not significantly predict attitude towards usage in class, however, possibly since L2 digital literacy was not a core course requirement, rendering it less relevant under 22 Barry Lawrence supervision. This study also described relative attitude towards usage across various functions. Participants displayed the greatest degree of receptiveness to communicating with students and teacher using email, voice clip, and videocalls outside the classroom. The most popular function inside class was using smartphones as mini-computers with WiFi to gather information in collaborative projects. 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Given the increasing spotlight on mobile-assisted language learning and L2 digital literacy, this study has practical applications for educators considering adopting smartphones in language courses. Almost half of participants demonstrated a positive attitude towards smartphones despite most participants presenting with no overt language or technology orientation, and thus presumably less intrinsic motivation. This may be somewhat encouraging for educators delivering college English programs in Korea. It hints at the potential for a positive reception upon appropriate integration. Furthermore, attitude was uniformly positive inside and outside the classroom. This suggests scope for flexibility in manner and context of usage in accordance with individual course requirements and educator beliefs, indicating that smartphones may have a role in language learning as a core element of the syllabus or under a learner’s own volition. Crucially, L2 learning utility played a more pivotal role than inherent device motivation in learner receptiveness. This supports the notion that learner interaction with smartphones can be engaged and sustained, supporting higher quality language learning. L2 digital literacy learning motivation predicted attitude towards integration in L2 learning outside the classroom, potentially suggesting a role for smartphone technology in developing this skill set. Findings indicate the potential for greater emphasis on L2 digital literacy in tertiary English education in Korea, perhaps through increased prominence in college English programs or as a standalone course. Future research addressing smartphone use in college English programs would benefit from more qualitative analysis. Specifically, the addition of one-to-one interviews during data collection would allow a finer lens to be applied to learner preferences, further facilitating the decisions of educators considering integration. Overall, however, findings suggest potential for smartphone integration across various functions inside and outside the classroom in college English programs, if learners’ wishes are taken into account. Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 23 REFERENCES Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211. Appel, C., & Mullen, T. (2002). A new tool for teachers and researchers involved in e-mail tandem language learning. ReCALL, 14(2), 195-208. Bennett, S., Maton, K., & Kervin, L. (2008). The ‘digital natives’ debate: A critical review of the evidence. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(5), 775-786. Chinnery, G. M. (2006). Emerging technologies. Going to the mall: Mobile assisted language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10(1), 9-16. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Dörnyei, Z., & Otto, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, 4, 43-69. Google. (2013). Our mobile planet: Korea. Understanding the mobile consumer. Retrieved on June 7, 2014, from the World Wide Web: http://services.google.com/fh/files/ misc/omp-2013-kr-en.pdf. Jones, R. H., & Hafner, C. A. (2012). Understanding digital literacies: A practical introduction. New York: Routledge. Jung, I. (2011). The dimensions of e-learning quality: From the learner’s perspective. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59(4), 445-464. Jung, S. (2012). A study on the college students’ use and perception of smartphones for English learning. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 15(3), 165-185. Khrisat, A. A., & Mahmoud, S. S. (2013). Integrating mobile phones into the EFL foundation year classroom in King Abdulaziz University/KSA: Effects on achievement in general English and students’ attitudes. English Language Teaching, 6(8), 162-174. Kim, J., Altmann, J., & Ilon, L. (2012). Using smartphone apps for learning in a major Korean university. Seoul: Seoul National University, Technology Management, Economics, and Policy Program (TEMEP). Kim, T.-Y. (2012). The L2 motivational self system of Korean EFL students: Cross-grade survey analysis. English Teaching, 67(1), 29-56. Lai, C., & Gu, M. (2011). Self-regulated out-of-class language learning with technology. 24 Barry Lawrence Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(4), 317-335. McMahon, M., & Pospisil, R. (2005). Laptops for a digital lifestyle: Millennial students and wireless mobile technologies. In H. Goss (Ed.), Proceedings of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (pp. 421431). Brisbane, Australia: ASCILITE. Meurant, R. C. (2008). The key importance of L2 digital literacy to Korean EFL pedagogy: College students use L2 English to make campus video guides with their cell phone videocams, and to view and respond to their videos on an L2 English language social networking site. International Journal of Hybrid Information Technology, 1(1), 65-72. Meurant, R. C. (2009, November). The significance of second language digital literacy: Why English-language digital literacy skills should be fostered in Korea. Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Computer Sciences and Convergence Information Technology, Seoul, Korea. Meurant, R. C. (2010). iPad tablet computing to foster Korean EFL digital literacy. International Journal of u- and e-Service, Science and Technology, 3(4), 49-62. Noels, K. (2009). The internalisation of language learning into the self and social identity. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 295-313). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. OECD. (2014). Fixed and wireless broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants. OECD Broadband Portal. Retrieved on July 26, 2013 from the World Wide Web http://www.oecd.org/sti/broadband/oecdbroadbandportal.htm. Pae, T.-I. (2007). Why do they want to learn English? A self-determination theory perspective. English Teaching, 62(2), 177-191. Park, S. Y., Nam, M. W., & Cha, S. B. (2012). University students’ behavioral intention to use mobile learning: Evaluating the technology acceptance model. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(4), 592-605. Pettit, J., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2007). Going with the grain: Mobile devices in practice. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 23(1), 17-33. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants part 1. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Sharples, M. (Ed.). (2006). Big issues in mobile learning: Report of a workshop by the Kaleidoscope network of excellence mobile learning initiative Nottingham: Learning Sciences Research Institute. Sharples, M., Taylor, J., & Vavoula, G. (2005). Towards a theory of mobile learning. Proceedings of mLearn 2005, 1(1), 1-9. Stockwell, G. (2008). Investigating learner preparedness for and usage patterns of mobile learning. ReCALL, 20(3), 253-270. Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 25 Stockwell, G. (2010). Using mobile phones for vocabulary activities: Examining the effect of the platform. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 95-110. Stockwell, G. (2013). Technology and motivation in English-language teaching and learning. In E. Ushioda (Ed.), International perspectives on motivation: Language learning and professional challenges (pp. 156-175). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The L2 motivational self system among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian learners of English: A comparative study. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 66-97). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Thorne, S. L., & Black, R. W. (2007). Language and literacy development in computermediated contexts and communities. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 27, 133-160. Todd, R. W., & Tepsuriwong, S. (2008). Mobile mazes: Investigating a mobile phone game for language learning. CALL-EJ Online, 10(1). Retrieved on August 17, 2012, from the World Wide Web: http://callzha.blogspot.kr/2010/12/mobile-mazesinvestigating-mobile-phone.html. Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice of theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ushioda, E. (1996). Learner autonomy 5: The role of motivation. Dublin, Ireland: Authentik. Ushioda, E. (2011). Language learning motivation, self and identity: Current theoretical perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(3), 199-210. Ushioda, E. (2013). Motivation matters in mobile language learning: A brief commentary. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 1-5. Van de Bogart, W. G. (2011, January). Behavioral aspects of Thai students toward cell phone adoption in the classroom. Paper presented at the International e-Learning Conference (IEC 2011), Muang Thong Thani, Thailand. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425-478. Yang, E. (2009). Korean EFL learners’ reading motivation and their L2 reading behavior. English Language & Literature Teaching, 15(4), 217-235. Yang, E. (2011). Korean college students’ English learning motivation and listening proficiency. English Language & Literature Teaching, 17(2), 93-114. 26 Barry Lawrence APPENDIX A Learner Questionnaire Class _________ (Example “2-12”) Major______________ (Example “Math”) I am doing some research about using smartphones to learn English. I would very much appreciate your help and your opinions. If you agree to participate, please answer the questions honestly. Your answers and identity will remain confidential. Please leave the completed questionnaires in the Language Lab. Please note that questions relating to smartphone use to learn English in this initial survey are quite general, and cover both the possibility using smartphones in your lessons and for self-study. Part A: Instructions Please put a circle in the corresponding box to indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement. In the example below, the person indicated that they strongly agree. Statement I enjoy watching movies in English Strongly Agree O Agree Neither Agree Disagree nor Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree Disagree nor Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree Disagree nor Disagree Strongly Disagree Using English Online Statement 1. Being able to locate and access resources and content written in English on line is an important skill in today’s world. 2. The ability to produce and post materials and content written in English online would be useful to me. 3. I have no interest in the ability to communicate internationally via English using email. 4. Being able to communicate in English with non-Koreans using videoconferencing/videocalls is a skill I don’t care about developing. Learning English in General Statement 1. I am working hard at learning English. 2. Compared to my classmates, I think I make very little effort studying English. 3. I think I am doing my best to learn English. 4. I am prepared to expend a lot of energy in learning English. Learner Receptiveness Towards Mobile Technology in a College English Program 27 The Smartphone Statement 1. Learning with my smartphone is boring. 2. My smartphone makes learning more convenient. 3. The instant access to information provided by my smartphone is important in my studying. 4. Having a small, portable mini-computer with me at all times doesn’t really support my learning. 5. I am interested in using my smartphone to help learn English inside the classroom. Strongly Agree English & Smartphones outside of the Classroom Strongly Statement Agree 1. It would be good to communicate with other students and the teacher via email, voice clips, and video calls. 2. Downloading e-Learning lessons on my smartphone to learn English at home would be useful. 3. Receiving and submit homework via smartphone is not something I would find helpful. 4. Accessing the internet at different times and locations outside of the classroom to find language information or class materials is something I would not like to do. 5. I am interested in using my smartphone to help learn English outside of the classroom. Agree Neither Agree Disagree nor Disagree Strongly Disagree Agree Neither Agree Disagree nor Disagree Strongly Disagree Agree Neither Agree Disagree nor Disagree Strongly Disagree Smartphones and Learning English Statement 1. If I use smartphones to learn English, my vocabulary will not improve. 2. Using a smartphone to studying English can result in an improvement in my grammar knowledge. 3. Using smartphone technology, I will be able to improve my English pronunciation. 4. Using smartphones to learn English can improve my overall English proficiency. Strongly Agree 28 Barry Lawrence Applicable levels: Tertiary Barry Lawrence College of Liberal Arts Duksung Women’s University 33, Samyang-ro 144-gil, Dobong-gu Seoul 132-714, Korea Phone: 02-901-8548 Cell: 010-3299-1978 Email: [email protected] Received in December 1, 2014 Reviewed in January 15, 2015 Revised version received in February 15, 2015
© Copyright 2024