Continuing Education & Training Ahmed Sallam MD, FRCS and Susan Lightman PhD, FRCP, FRCOphth Therapeutics in practice Disorders of the sclera and episclera nflammation of the sclera is an uncommon disease but it has serious consequences if it is mismanaged. Episcleritis is also a relatively uncommon disorder, which is not sight-threatening. This article will detail the main types of scleritis and episcleritis, describing the most common symptoms and signs, and treatment strategies. I Inflammatory conditions of the sclera Episcleritis Episcleritis is an acute, self-limiting, benign inflammation of the loose connective tissue lying superficial to the sclera (episclera). Most cases are idiopathic. The pathophysiology of episcleritis remains unclear, but up to 30% of cases may be related to an underlying systemic disease, such as a collagen vascular disease (rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, polyarteritis nodosa, human leukocyte antigen B27–associated syndromes), rosacea, thyroid disease and gout. Enter answers online at www.otcet.co.uk CONFUSED ABOUT CET REQUIREMENTS? See www.cetoptics.com/ cetusers/faqs/ IMPORTANT INFORMATION Under the new Vantage rules, all OT CET points awarded will be uploaded to its website by us. All participants must confirm these results on www.cetoptics.com so that they can move their points from the “Pending Points record” into their “Final CET points record”. Full instructions on how to do this are available on their website. 2 standard CET points Figure 1 Diffuse episcleritis. Note dilated blood vessels with preservation of the normal radial pattern of the episcleral vessels 1 CET point Ocular manifestations/classification Episcleritis is typically a transient, sometimes recurrent disease of adults, usually 20 to 50 years of age. It is rarely seen in children. The main presentation is an abrupt onset of ocular redness in one or both eyes which may be associated with minimal discomfort. No pain is usually encountered. The disease mostly occurs in the exposed part of the sclera. Slight tenderness may be present at the site of inflammation. Episcleritis is recognisable in the anterior episclera as a diffuse process (Figure 1) or less commonly as a nodular form (Figure 2) where a white inflammatory nodule is present within the inflamed area. In this condition, there is usually no corneal affection or anterior chamber reaction and vision is usually unaffected. Differential diagnosis Scleritis is a more serious condition. It is defined as inflammation of the underlying sclera and may also involve the overlying episclera. Both conditions typically have classic sectoral redness, while the rest of the eye remains relatively unaffected. The clinical differentiation of episcleritis and scleritis involves a detailed history and a careful ocular examination to determine which layers of the wall of the eye are involved by inflammation. Differentiation is important at presentation as management, prognosis, and complications are very different for these two diseases and long-term studies have shown that very few patients progress from developing one to the other. Figure 2 Nodular episcleritis. Note a white inflammatory nodule is present within the inflamed area and the rest of the episclera is uninvolved Diagnosis and ancillary testing As 30% of the patients may have an associated systemic disease which may have not yet been identified, a careful review of system’s history taking is appropriate. Laboratory testing is rarely indicated in patients with episcleritis except in cases with multiple recurrences, or if there is suggestive history of collagen vascular disease. Sponsored by a SPECIALISTS IN EYECARE Module 8 Part 7 Therapeutics in clinical practice About the authors Pathology The histopathology of episcleritis is of chronic non-granulomatous inflammation with oedema limited to the episcleral tissue, only rarely is the inflammation of a granulomatous nature. Treatment Episcleritis is a self-limiting disease which generally clears by itself. Most patients only require reassurance. However, patients Professor Susan Lightman is Head of Department, Professor of Clinical Ophthalmology and Consultant Ophthalmologist at Moorfields Eye Hospital and the Institute of Ophthalmology, London. Ahmed Sallam is a Clinical Fellow at Moorfields Eye Hospital, working with Professor Lightman. He was previously Assistant Lecturer in Ophthalmology at Ain-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt. 29 | July 1 | 2005 OT a Sponsored by Continuing Education & Training who are experiencing discomfort, may benefit from topical lubricants or mild topical steroids (e.g. Fluorometholone 0.1% to 0.25%). It is important to remember that, although effective, topical steroids should not be used on a continuing basis as they may induce potentially sight-threatening complications such as cataract and glaucoma. More severe or persistent cases, particularly of nodular episcleritis, may require oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to quell the inflammation. Scleritis Scleritis is typically a chronic and severe painful inflammatory process centered in the sclera, which may involve the cornea, adjacent episclera, and underlying uvea. The incidence of systemic disease in patients with scleritis is reported in about 50% of cases. A large number of connective-tissue disorders are associated with scleral disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Wegener’s granulomatosis (a systemic necrotising vasculitis affecting the respiratory system and other organs) and polyarteritis nodosa (a systemic necrotising vasculitis, which characteristically affects medium to small sized vessels). Other associated systemic diseases include inflammatory bowel disease, and gout. Infectious cases of scleritis are reported but are uncommon, particularly in the absence of infectious keratitis, history of accidental or surgical trauma to the eye, or recurrent herpes simplex infection. The most common infective causes are syphilis, herpes simplex and zoster, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Acanthamoeba can also be implicated, particularly in contact lens wearer. Ocular manifestations Scleritis occurs in all age groups but is most common in middle aged and elderly individuals, usually females. The onset of scleritis is usually gradual, extending over several days. Unilateral or bilateral inflammation can occur. The characteristic feature of scleritis is a severe dull boring pain, which is often referred to as being in the temple and jaw. This is usually exacerbated by eye movement, and is worse at night, often waking the patient in the early hours. Some patients with scleritis, however, have little or no pain because of a partial effect from the use of NSAIDs drugs. The patient with anterior scleritis usually notices redness and tenderness of the globe. There may be photophobia and lacrimation. Patients with posterior scleritis may present with reduced vision, with or without pain. Patients may have an underlying systemic disorder but not all do and many remain healthy. Scleritis occurs more commonly anterior to the equator, because of the more abundant anterior vascular supply. The 30 | July 1 | 2005 OT circulation overlying the sclera includes three vascular layers: 1) the conjunctival plexus, the most superficial plexus of fine vessels, which is movable over the underlying structures; 2) the superficial episcleral plexus, which consists of radially arranged vessels lying at the level of the Tenon’s capsule and 3) the deep episcleral plexus, also known as the scleral plexus, which lies deep to Tenon’s capsule and directly over the sclera. The sclera itself is avascular. Scleritis is classified as either posterior or anterior. Posterior scleritis is characterised by scleral inflammation, often with overlying uveitis confined to the posterior portions of the globe, while anterior scleritis can be either necrotising or non-necrotising. Non-necrotising anterior scleritis is further classified as either nodular or diffuse. Most patients remain in the same clinical category throughout the course of their disease. Signs of scleritis depend on the location of the scleritis and its severity. The hallmark signs of scleral inflammation are the development of scleral oedema and dilatation or closure of the deep episcleral vascular plexus. Anterior scleritis is the most common form of scleral inflammation. Maximum dilatation and congestion occur in the deep episcleral vascular plexus, with some congestion in the superficial episcleral plexus and the conjunctival plexus (Figure 3). It can be localised to a patch of the sclera or may involve the entire anterior sclera. The globe is usually tender to touch. A more localised area of scleral oedema characterises nodular anterior scleritis such that distinct nodules result. They may be single or multiple and can become quite prominent and tender to palpation (Figure 4). Necrotising anterior scleritis is the most severe and destructive form of scleritis, sometimes leading to loss of the eye from multiple complications, severe pain, or perforation of the globe. There is usually severe pain and extreme scleral tenderness. The scleral involvement is characterised by severe vasculitis and closure of the episcleral vascular bed which is seen as white avascular areas with infarction and necrosis of the involved sclera (Figure 5). Scleromalacia perforans is a very rare form of necrotising anterior scleritis, which typically occurs in a patient with long-standing rheumatoid arthritis. The eye is typically painless and lacks the acute clinical signs of necrotising scleritis. The sclera is parchment white, avascular, and thin. There may be exposure of the choroid and staphyloma formation, especially if the intraocular pressure is elevated. There may be sequestra of infarcted sclera surrounded by areas of thinning scleral tissue (Figure 6). Spontaneous perforation is rare, although these eyes may rupture with minor trauma. Posterior scleritis is inflammation of the SPECIALISTS IN EYECARE Figure 3 Diffuse anterior scleritis. Note the vascular engorgement has a dark violaceous colour, with loss of the normal radial pattern of the episcleral vessels (pupil is dilated) Figure 4 Nodular anterior scleritis. Note large superior nodule and the rest of the sclera is minimally involved Figure 5 Necrotising anterior scleritis. Note large area where the sclera is ulcerated and the overlying conjunctiva and episclera are missing Figure 6 Scleromalacia perforans. Note the superior aspect of the sclera is white, avascular, and thin, revealing the underlying choroid (blue appearance) sclera behind the insertion of the recti muscles. This occurs in association with anterior scleritis, or may be isolated. When it occurs in isolation, the eye may look a Sponsored by Continuing Education & Training SPECIALISTS IN EYECARE CET online ONLINE INSTRUCTIONS If you are GOC or Irish board registered, you can enter your answers on-line at www.otcet.co.uk. Enter your GOC/Irish board number, surname and password to log onto the system. If you have never used a password before on this web site, please enter your GOC number and surname and leave the password box entry blank, and then click on the "Log In" button. A password is required to keep personal information private. Figure 8 Figure 7 B-scan ultrasound demonstrating posterior scleritis. Note localised thickened area, indicating area of posterior scleral swelling Posterior scleritis. Note optic nerve oedema and peripapillary cotton wool spots white, and ultrasound remains the key to diagnosing the associated thickening of the posterior coats of the eye (Figure 7). The posterior segment may appear normal, or there can be a variety of signs, such as choroidal detachment, serous retinal detachment, macular oedema, optic nerve swelling (Figure 8), retinal folds (Figure 9) and subretinal mass. Select from the appropriate prefix: 01- or 02- for optometrist D- for dispensing optician Irish- for Irish board registration You will then arrive at the following screen unless you have received notification to phone OT CET: Differential diagnosis Patients with anterior scleritis present with a painful red eye, which must be distinguished from other inflammatory conditions such episcleritis, conjunctivitis, keratitis or iritis. Both diffuse and nodular episcleritis must be differentiated from scleritis. The patient with episcleritis never complains of severe radiating pain. The eye has a distinct red hue with preservation of the normal radial pattern of the episcleral vessels and the sclera is never oedematous. In scleritis, the patient has severe pain and the vascular engorgement has a violaceous blue colour, with loss of the normal radial pattern of the episcleral vessels. On slit lamp examination, due to the scleral oedema, the light beam is displaced forward. Examination in natural daylight can be extremely useful, allowing the detection of these subtle colour differences, which are often not appreciable using a slit-lamp. With topical application of phenylephrine, the eye will appear white in the case of episcleritis, but not with scleritis as the drug mainly affects the conjunctival and superficial episcleral vessels, while the deep vessels involved in scleritis are hardly affected. Although conjunctivitis is one of the common causes of acute red eye, significant ocular pain or tenderness is very uncommon. Unlike scleritis, there is usually conjunctival discharge as well as a papillary or follicular response of the tarsal conjunctiva. Acute anterior uveitis may simulate scleritis in its presentation with intense, pain, photophobia, and reduced vision. The presence of anterior uveitis in about 40% of scleritis cases adds more difficulty to the diagnosis. Differentiating points 4 Figure 9 5 Posterior scleritis. Note retinal folds present in the posterior pole 2 include the localisation of the vascular engorgement mainly around limbus (ciliary injection) as well as a significant anterior chamber reaction (aqueous cells, flare and possibly hypopyon) in anterior uveitis cases. The diagnosis of corneal ulcer is usually suspected with a history of ocular trauma or contact lens wear. The presence of a corneal infiltrate with an overlying epithelial defect, which takes up fluorescein dye, confirms the diagnosis. Acute closed angle glaucoma is usually associated with a more acute presentation than scleritis as well as a hazy cornea and a semi-dilated pupil. The diagnosis is comparatively straightforward once the intraocular pressure is measured. Since posterior scleritis can present with proptosis, lid swelling, or limitation of ocular movements, one must think about inflammatory pseudotumor or thyroid ophthalmopathy in the differential diagnosis. With regards to subretinal masses, it is mandatory to exclude choroidal melanoma and choroidal metastases. Fluorescein angiography combined with B-scan ultrasonography should help in the correct diagnosis. Sometimes posterior scleritis can present as a serous detachment of the choroid, ciliary body or retina. In these cases, it must be differentiated from uveal effusion syndrome, Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease, central serous retinopathy or sympathetic ophthalmitis when there has been a history of intraocular surgery or penetrating trauma. 3 1 1 Credit – This is for “Pay-As-You-Learn” articles only. This article does NOT require any credit, but you can purchase £60 of credit for our “Pay-As-You-Learn” series by calling 01252-816266 with debit card details). 2 Take Exams - Select the examination you want to enter from those available. It is important that you choose the right exam and do not enter your answers into any other available examinations running at the same time as you will not be able to go back to try again. Any errors made by participants cannot be recalled. Enter your answers, and an optional email address if you want email notification of your results and press the ‘send answers’ button. The next screen will show your percentage and any CET points gained. 3 Grade Book - This area will keep track of your previous exam results. It is strongly advised that you keep an independent paper record of all your CET scores from all sources including OT as you will have to use this information to claim your CET points at the year end. 4 Amend Details - This will alter the address where posted correspondence from OT CET will be sent. If you choose to do a paper entry at some time, this will be the address our marked reply sheet goes to. Your email address entered into the website will not be passed onto third parties and will only be used for the purpose of OT CET. 5 Important Notices - Watch this area for CET announcements for example any planned website maintenance outages. If you require further assistance, call 01252-816266 31 | July 1 | 2005 OT a Sponsored by Continuing Education & Training Diagnosis and ancillary testing Evaluation of adjacent structures should always be performed, as scleritis can be associated with a myriad of sight threatening ocular complications. Peripheral ulcerative keratitis may be seen in cases of necrotising scleritis (Figure 10) associated with systemic vasculitis or infective aetiology, and may lead to corneal perforation. Central corneal perforation is more likely to be due to dry eyes associated with rheumatoid arthritis. All types of scleritis can be associated with uveitis, which may be mild or severe. Anterior uveitis occurs in up to 40% of eyes with scleritis and is more common with severe scleritis, most often seen in association with necrotising disease. Glaucoma is a well known complication of scleritis and may either be due to open angle or angle closure mechanisms. Open angle glaucoma may be secondary to trabeculitis and raised episcleral venous pressure. Angle closure mechanisms may develop with massive serous retinal detachment and anterior displacement of the iris lens diaphragm, causing the anterior chamber to become shallow and close the angle or development of iris bombé secondary to posterior synechiae. As with any patient, a steroid response may occur. The clue is that the intraocular pressure was normal prior to the initiation of steroid therapy, usually topically but occasionally systemically, and became elevated on treatment. Cataract formation has been reported at an incidence of about 15% in eyes with scleritis. It usually develops some time after the onset of scleritis and is related to both the scleritis and long-term corticosteroid therapy. Posterior segment complications in cases of posterior scleritis include serous retinal detachment, choroidal folds and optic nerve swelling. Permanent visual loss occurs in up to 30% of patients with posterior scleritis, mainly due to the development of optic atrophy or irreversible macular changes. Since patients with certain types of scleritis, particularly the necrotising type, have an increased rate of extra ocular morbidity or mortality, its presence should be recognised as a manifestation of a potentially serious systemic disease. The work-up should, therefore, include a careful history, a detailed clinical examination and a thorough review of systems, best completed in conjunction with an experienced physician or rheumatologist. Laboratory tests should always be guided by the history and physical examination. Commonly used tests include: complete blood picture, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, renal function as well as blood tests for autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid factor, anti-nuclear antibodies and anticytoplasmic antibodies. A chest X-ray is usually needed mainly to exclude tuberculosis, sarcoidosis and Wegener’s granulomatosis. Ultrasonography may be required in some patients with scleritis to confirm the diagnosis of posterior scleritis. The following ultrasonographic changes can all be seen in posterior scleritis: scleral and choroidal thickening, scleral nodules, fluid in Tenon’s capsule, optic disc swelling, distended optic nerve sheath, and retinal detachment. In cases of suspected infectious scleritis, conjunctival scrapings for smears and cultures should be obtained. If these are negative at 48 hours and the scleritis continues to progress, scleral or corneoscleral biopsy may be required for diagnosis. Pathology The presence of T cells and macrophages in deep episcleral biopsies from patients with non-necrotising scleritis suggests that T cells are the effector cell in scleritis, and that the disease is more compatible with a T cell mediated (autoimmune) disorder rather than an immune complex reaction as previously thought. Neutrophils and granulomatous inflammation are also seen in enucleated eyes with necrotising disease. Treatment Management of patients with scleritis is challenging. Treatment almost always SPECIALISTS IN EYECARE Figure 10 Scleritis with cornea involvement as seen in Wegener’s granulomatosis requires systemic medication, as well as co-management with a medical specialist in the appropriate field to manage any underlying systemic pathology. Proper diagnosis and appropriate immunosuppression may prove to be life saving for those patients with disorders such as Wegener’s granulomatosis. Urgent referral to the ophthalmologist is mandatory, particularly with the necrotising type of scleritis or scleritis in contact lens wearers as it may be infective. For non-necrotising scleritis particularly the diffuse type, systemic NSAIDs may be effective and the cyclo-xygenase inhibitors (Cox inhibitors) such as flurbiprofen or ibuprofen are by far the most commonly used class of drugs. The new Cox-2 inhibitors selectively inhibit the cycloxygenase isoenzyme induced at the sites of inflammation without blocking the other isoenzyme present physiologically. Anecdotal experience with these agents suggests that they are equally effective as the non-selective Cox inhibitors. The lack of gastrointestinal side effects is of great benefit to patients, but they do have significant cardiovascular risks and some have been withdrawn. Severe nodular scleritis and necrotising disease require more aggressive antiinflammatory therapy. Treatment is usually commenced with oral corticosteroids starting with a high dose of 1mg/kg/day, Start a revolution in dry feeling eyes FORGET DRYNESS REMEMBER SYSTANE. Unique protection for immediate comfort and long lasting relief 32 | July 1 | 2005 OT a Sponsored by Continuing Education & Training SPECIALISTS IN EYECARE which usually equates to 60-80mg/day in adults. As the scleritis comes under control, pain diminishes rapidly, together with objective improvement in the signs of scleral inflammation such as tenderness, injection and scleral nodules which may take months to resolve. In scleral necrosis, blood flow improves in the episcleral plexus and the area of necrosis stops increasing in size. The induction phase of therapy requires between two to eight weeks, depending on the severity of scleritis and the clinical response to treatment. The next step is to begin to decrease the dosage of corticosteroids and to consider appropriate maintenance therapy to consolidate the improvement in inflammation achieved with induction therapy and to minimise steroid related complications. Patients usually need a minimum of three to four months’ treatment before consideration is given to withdrawing therapy. Adjunctive systemic immunosuppressive therapy is indicated in patients who have severe scleritis, which is not controlled with the use of high-dose oral or intravenous corticosteroids or for inflammation, which relapses at lower doses of prednisolone. A large number of drugs have been shown to be effective in the treatment of scleritis and these include immunomodulators (e.g. cyclosporine), anticytokines (e.g. infliximab), antimetabolites (e.g. methotrexate), or cytotoxic agents (e.g. cyclophosphamide). All patients receiving systemic immunosuppressive therapy for scleritis should be warned about the potential side effects of the medications used. Systemic NSAIDs may be associated with gastritis, renal failure and bleeding as well as worsening of pre-existing bronchial asthma and the possibility of drug interactions, particularly with anticoagulants. Systemic steroids have serious side effects such as hypertension, gastritis, diabetes, psychosis, weight gain, aseptic necrosis of the hip and osteoporosis in long-term treatment. Patients who are more susceptible to the side effects of corticosteroids include the elderly, diabetics, and patients with history of gastrointestinal disease, tuberculosis or bleeding disorders. Postmenopausal females are particularly at high risk of developing steroid-induced osteoporosis. Strategies for decreasing corticosteroids side effects include using the lowest possible dose for the shortest duration and adopting alternate day dosing, during maintenance therapy if possible. In addition, patients should be encouraged to exercise regularly, decrease salt and fat intake and consider calcium supplements and hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women to prevent osteoporosis. Patients on long-term steroid therapy are now given drugs such as didronel or fosamax to reduce the steroid induced bone loss. Second line immunosuppressive use may be complicated with renal dysfunction (cyclosporine), hepatitis (methotrexate), bone marrow suppression, and an increased risk of developing malignancy (cyclophosphamide). Patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy are at increased risk of infection, especially pulmonary infection. All patients, therefore, should be encouraged to stop smoking, avoid others with infections and remain up to date with their immunisations. Cases of infectious scleritis are very resistant to treatment and up to 60% of the eyes with infectious keratoscleritis may end up with complete loss of vision or removal of the eye, largely due to poor penetration of antibiotics into the nearly avascular sclera. Infectious scleritis caused by direct spread of infectious keratitis has a worse prognosis than isolated nodular infectious scleritis. Numerous management options have been described including topical fortified antibiotics, subconjunctival antibiotics, cryotherapy, lamellar or penetrating corneoscleral graft, and subpalpebral irrigation to allow for continuous delivery of highly concentrated antibiotics. Indications for surgery in either Q. When will my results show on the Vantage CET website (www.cetoptics.com)? A. If you obtain CET points for this article, these will be uploaded 10 days after July 27, 2005 (the closing date). You need to confirm these points on www.cetoptics.com and move them from their ‘Pending Points’ record to your ‘Final Points’ record before 2006 under the GOC/Vantage rules. infectious or autoimmune scleritis are relatively infrequent. They include biopsy for suspected infectious scleritis, as well as repair of globe perforation, and repair of uveal prolapse with impending perforation in necrotising scleritis. Grafts can be made of fascia lata, periosteum, split-thickness dermis, or autologous or homologous sclera. In cases of autoimmune scleritis, which requires surgery for impending perforation, this should only be undertaken once adequate medical immunosuppression is achieved. However, emergency surgery for perforation is required occasionally, even if optimal immunosuppression could not be achieved. Patients may also develop cataract or glaucoma from trabecular meshwork damage which requires surgical treatment after the inflammation has settled. Non-inflammatory conditions of the sclera Epibulbar choriostomas A hamartoma is a congenital tumour resulting from abnormal tissue residing at its normal site, as in the case of naevi and haemangiomas. A choriostoma is a congenital lesion which results from normal tissue being placed in an abnormal location during embryogenesis. The most common episcleral choriostoma is a dermoid. Others include dermolipomas, osseous choriostomas and complex choriostomas. Limbal dermoids Limbal dermoids are benign, generally sporadic, congenital tumors which contain choristomatous tissue. The exact pathogenesis is unknown, but it may result from sequestration of the pluripotential cells (stem cells found in the bone marrow which have the ability to differentiate into any type of blood cell) during embryonic development of the surrounding ocular structures. They may contain a variety of histologically aberrant tissues, including epidermal appendages, connective tissue, skin, fat, sweat gland, lacrimal gland, muscle, teeth, cartilage, bone, vascular structures and neurologic tissue, including brain tissue. The lesion may be cystic or solid and they usually have no malignant potential. Clinical presentation The dermoid appears as a well circumscribed, porcelain white, rounded to oval lesion, which occurs most often at the inferotemporal limbus with some encroachment on the cornea. Fine hairs may protrude from its surface. Corneal astigmatism caused by a dermoid can lead to anisometropic amblyopia. An estimated 30% of patients with limbal dermoids have associated systemic abnormalities, which include preauricular appendages and 33 | July 1 | 2005 OT a Sponsored by Continuing Education & Training auricular fistulae (Goldenhar’s syndrome). Other abnormalities include microsomia, microtia (a small, abnormally shaped or absent external ear) and vertebral anomalies. Management Surgical treatment should be instituted only when the risk of subsequent scar formation or surgical complications are outweighed by the likelihood of improving the patient’s vision or cosmetic appearance. A superficial sclerokeratectomy is the procedure of choice for removal of the dermoid. Attempts at complete removal are unnecessary as the lesion may extend into the deeper structures of the eye and the risk of perforation increases if attempts are made to remove it completely. Nanophthalmos A small, functional eye with normal internal organisation and proportions characterises nanophthalmos. The pathogenesis of this condition is unknown, and both autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inherited patterns are recognised. Clinical presentation Patients usually have a high degree of hyperopia (+7 - +15 D), a thickened sclera and crowded anterior segment structures which may be associated with angle closure glaucoma. Choroidal effusions are a serious complication. Management Management is mainly directed towards correction of hyperopia. Medical treatment and peripheral laser iridotomy may be effective and control associated glaucoma. Anterior segment surgery may be complicated by uveal effusion or haemorrhage. Microphthalmos Microphthalmos is a small disorganised eye. There is often an associated cystic outpouching of the posteroinferior sclera. The condition has been associated with failure of the fetal fissure to close properly and colobomatous defects of the uvea and optic nerve are often present. The pathogenesis of this condition is unknown, and different inherited patterns are recognised. Multiple associations have been made with microphthalmos such as maternal infections or exposure to radiation and toxins as well as different chromosomal trisomies (typically trisomy 13). Clinical presentation Associated ocular abnormalities include leukomas, retina dysplasia, uveal colobomas, persistent fetal vasculature, and ptosis. Systemic associations are numerous including mental retardation and dwarfism. Management Management is mainly directed towards correction of associated conditions if possible. Genetic counselling should also be considered. A cosmetic shell may be indicated in patients with blind microphthalmic eyes. Osteogenesis imperfecta Osteogenesis imperfecta is a dominantly inherited condition resulting from reduced amounts of normal Type I collagen found in bones, organ capsules, fascia, cornea, sclera, tendons and dermis. The disease is characterised mainly by bone fragility and blue sclera due to generalised scleral thinning, with increased visibility of underlying uvea. Clinical presentation Patients usually present with bone fractures SPECIALISTS IN EYECARE from minor trauma in childhood, kyphoscliosis, joint extensibility and sometimes deafness. Management There is no effective treatment for this condition. Cyclic administration of intravenous pamidronate may reduce the increased bone mineral density. Treatment is mainly reserved for severe cases presenting with marked osteopenia and repeated fractures. Conclusion By taking a careful history and examining the eye, episcleritis and scleritis can be distinguished. Whereas episcleritis is usually self-limiting, scleritis can be extremely painful and when necrotising in type is an ophthalmic emergency as the integrity of the eye is at risk. Scleritis may be the first feature of an underlying potentially lethal disease and it is, therefore, very important that it is detected, investigated and treated correctly. Further reading • McCluskey P (2001) Scleritis: Fundamentals of clinical ophthalmology, BMJ Books. • Basic and Clinical Science Course 2004-2005: External Disease and Cornea Section 8, American Academy of Ophthalmology. • Okhravi N, Odufuwa B, McCluskey P, Lightman S: Scleritis. Survey of Ophthalmology. In press. • Albini T, Rao N, Smith R: The diagnosis and management of anterior scleritis. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2005 Spring; 45(2):191-204. MCQs Module 8 Part 7 of Therapeutics in clinical practice – Disorders of the sclera and episclera Please note: There is only ONE correct answer 1. Which one of the following statements regarding episcleritis is incorrect? a. It is usually self-limiting b. If not promptly treated, it often progresses to scleritis c. Periodic recurrences may occur d. Patients usually have a good ocular prognosis 2. Which one of the following is NOT a feature of episcleritis? a. Ocular redness b. Ocular discomfort c. Episcleral nodule d. Anterior chamber cells and flare 3. Which one of the following would not be considered in the treatment plan for episcleritis? 34 | July 1 | 2005 OT a. Topical lubricants b. Topical antibiotics c. Topical steroids d. Systemic NSAIDs 4. Which one of the following statements is correct regarding scleritis? a. Most of the cases are idiopathic b. The condition is self-limiting and generally clears by itself c. Laboratory testing is rarely indicated d. Glaucoma is a known complication 5. Which one of the following is not a feature distinguishing scleritis from episcleritis? a. Ocular hyperaemia b. Deep boring ocular pain c. Presence of scleral oedema d. Lack of blanching of the vascular congestion with topical phenylephrine drops 6. Which one of the following diseases is NOT associated with scleritis? a. Rheumatoid arthritis b. Wegener’s granulomatosis c. Inflammatory bowel disease d. Diabetes 7. Which one of the following is correct regarding scleromalacia perforans scleritis? a. Scleromalacia perforans is seldom associated with systemic disease b. Sharp pain is characteristic c. The sclera is usually markedly inflamed and tender d. The condition may be complicated by staphyloma formation Continued over a Sponsored by Continuing Education & Training SPECIALISTS IN EYECARE MCQs (cont) Module 8 Part 7 of Therapeutics in clinical practice – Disorders of the sclera and episclera Please note: There is only ONE correct answer 8. Which one of the following is incorrect regarding posterior scleritis? a. Posterior scleritis always occurs in association with anterior scleritis b. The eye may sometimes look white c. Thickening of the posterior coat of the eye is diagnostic with ultrasonography d. The condition may present with proptosis or limitation of ocular movements 9. Which one of the following is incorrect about necrotising anterior scleritis? a. Infection is the most common underlying aetiology b. It is usually associated with severe pain and extreme scleral tenderness c. White avascular patches are seen in the sclera d. Ocular perforation may result if treatment is not intensive and prompt 10. Which one of the following statements is incorrect regarding the management of scleritis? a. Most cases require systemic treatment b. Scleritis should be regarded as a manifestation of a potentially serious systemic disease c. In necrotising scleritis, treatment is usually commenced with oral NSAIDs d. Tuberculosis and peptic ulcer disease should be considered before starting systemic steroids 11. Which one of the following statements regarding limbal dermoids is correct? a. Limbal dermoids can be considered hamartomas b. They usually present in adulthood life c. Surgical removal carries a risk of ocular perforation d. They are not associated with systemic abnormalities 12. Which one of the following statements regarding nanophthalmos is correct? a. It is characterised by a small eye with abnormal internal organisation and proportions b. It is typically associated with colobomatous defects of the uvea and the optic nerve c. Patients usually have degenerative myopia d. Cataract surgery may be complicated by suprachoroidal haemorrhage An answer return form is included in this issue. It should be completed and returned to: CET initiatives (c-135), OT, Victoria House, 178-180 Fleet Road, Fleet, Hampshire, GU51 4DA by July 27, 2005. Under no circumstances will forms received after this date be marked – the answers to the module will have been published in our July 29, 2005 issue. 35 | July 1 | 2005 OT
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