1. art and entertainment
2. books and literature

GST 121 COURSE COMPACT
Programme:
General Studies
Course Code:
GST 121
Course Title:
Communication in English 2
Unit:
2
Lecturers:
Dr. Mrs M.O. Olasehinde, Mrs O.A. Akanmode, Mrs A.T. Alaiyemola
Session:
2014/2015
Semester:
Omega
Time:
Mondays 10a.m.-12noon
Venue:
Multipurpose Hall
Brief Overview of the Course
Communication in English 2 is another integral part of the English component of the General Studies
Programme of the University. While Communication in English 1 concentrates on the receptive skills,
the component in this semester aims at developing the expressive skills of students.
The course focuses primarily on the elements of English sentence, paragraph structure, paragraph
development, the process of written communication and the mechanics of writing. Also included is an
introduction to public speaking, technical writing, aspects of literature and African literary tradition.
Course Objectives:
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
i.
Identify elements / parts of the simple sentence.
ii.
Know types, structure and functions of sentences and clauses.
iii.
Know the essential features of good essays and develop
their writing skills.
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iv.
Know how to write various types of reports (memoranda, progress, technical etc.)
v.
Develop and / or improve oral expressive skills e.g. in
poetry rendition and speech delivery.
vi.
Identify the genres of literature and their components, understand the
specifics of African literary tradition and write their own literary pieces.
Method of Lecture Delivery / Teaching Aids
These include: Instructions, Interactive Sessions, Group Works and Projects. Multimedia-assisted
power-point presentation will be used when available as the need arises.
COURSE OUTLINE
MODULE A:
ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR AND USAGE
WEEK 1:
Elements of the English Sentence and Concord
WEEK 2:
Clauses, types and functions of sentences
WEEK 3:
The paragraph: its structure and development
MODULE B:
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
WEEK 4:
Continuous writing (Essays, Articles, letters)
WEEK 5:
The stages in writing and the mechanics of writing
WEEK 6:
Technical writing (Proposals, Reports, Memos etc.)
MODULE C:
ORAL COMMUNICATION
WEEK 7:
The sound system of English
WEEK 8:
Communication situations and Speech delivery
MODULE D:
ASPECTS OF LITERATURE
WEEK 9:
Relevance of literature, Genres of Literature and Literary
Appreciation/Criticism
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WEEK 10:
Aspects of African Literature
WEEK 11:
Writing your own literary piece
WEEK 12:
Revision
STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMME / METHOD OF GRADING
Continuous assessment
30%
Examination
70%
GROUND RULES
Students are to be seated at least 5 minutes to the time of lecture. Lecture door closes 5 minutes after
the commencement of lecture. Students are to attend lectures with relevant materials and texts. No
form of misconduct would be permitted in class. Side talks, rude language, improper dressing, eating,
drinking etc. will not be tolerated.
TOPICS FOR ASSIGNMENT/STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
i.
Group project activities (topics to be decided) will test speaking and writing skills.
ii.
Other assignments and class activities which test comprehension/understanding of certain
topics (particularly essay writing) will be given as decided by the lecturers.
iii. Practical sessions by individuals/groups will test various aspects the course.
ALIGNMENT WITH LANDMARK UNIVERSITY VISION
As part of the vision of Landmark University in raising a new generation of leaders in Nigeria and
beyond, this course is intended to produce competent communicators, especially where language
skills are of utmost importance. This course is especially designed to equip students with advanced
skills in speaking and writing, especially essay writing.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES / INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE
There is an ever increasing need for highly qualified personnel with corporate skills oral and written
communication. The products of this course are expected to satisfy the needs for placement in the
academia, the mass media, the corporate world and indeed all other fields where a high degree of
proficiency in English language skills and Communication are required.
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Recommended Texts
Adegbija, Efurosibina, (ed) (2004) Language, Communication and Study Skills. Ilorin: Department of
Languages and Communication. DominionPublishing.
Adetugbo, Abiodun (1997) Communication in English and Study Skills. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.
Akere, Funso. (1990) English Across Disciplines. Lagos: PumarksNig Ltd.
Alabi, V.A. and Babatunde, S.T. (eds) (2005) Basic Communication Skills for Students of Science and
Humanities. Ilorin: Department of English, University of Ilorin.
Alabi, V.A., Babatunde, S.T. and Adekola, F. A. (eds) (2013). The use of English in Higher Education.
Ilorin: General Studies Division, University of Ilorin.
Longe, V.U.and Ofuani, O.A (1996, 2008) English Language and Communication. Benin City: Nigerian
Educational Research Association.
Ogbilogu, Charles (2004) Problem Areas in English Grammar and Usage. Lagos: Sam Iroanus
Publications
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LECTURE NOTES
MODULE A:
ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR AND USAGE
Introduction
A simple sentence is often defined in terms of the clause structure or elementsthat make up the
sentence. Sentence elements or parts are made up of groups of words or phrases. These groups are
possible due to grammatical and meaning relationships that words have with one another.
A phrase is a meaningful group of words without a finite verb. It usually has a headword and its
modifiers. Phrases combine to form clauses. If a noun forexample occurs with another word which
describes it or adds to its meaning, it is called a noun phrase, e.g.

a university / the beautiful university
Notice that a noun phrase has ‘a head’ (a noun) and a modifier (an article, or a determiner- many, a
few etc). Notice also that a noun may be modified by more than one modifier e.g.the beautiful
university.
Elements (parts) of the sentence
A sentence has two basic parts:
i.
The subject, i.e. something being talked about, or the performer of the action of the verb.
The subject is made up of the noun or noun phrase.
ii.
The predicate, i.e. the part of the sentence that gives information about the subject, or
tells us what the noun does. The predicate is made up of the verb (the action word) often
followed by an object (a noun phrase) or a complement.
Examples:
i.
The beautiful university offers degree courses.
ii.
A few universities provide excellent learning resources.
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Notice the positions occupied by the word classes.
i.
The beautiful university (a noun phrase/NP) offers (verb/VP) degree courses (object /
complement).
ii.
A few universities(a noun phrase) provide (verb) excellent learning resources (noun
phrase).
Note: In sentences (i) and (ii) the NP performs the action and is therefore thesubject (S); the verb (V)
is the action performed by the subject; the object(O) is the receiver of the action performed by the
subject. So the two sentences can be analysed as SVO (or SPC), i.e.The beautiful university (S) offers
(V) degree courses (O).
A noun phrasecan have a modifier in front of the headword, e.g.a few universities (pre-modifier) or at
the back of the headword, e.g. universities nowadays … (post-modifier). From the examples above
you can see that a noun phrase can occur in the predicative position either as an object, or
complement of a preposition (e.g. at the university etc.).
The verb phrase comprises all verb forms that can occur between the NP and the complement (or
object). The main/lexical verb (the action word) is obligatory in the verb phrase. The other forms
which are optional are called auxiliary verbs (is, has, does etc.) because each of them performs a
‘helping’ function, i.e. helps the main verb convey some certain conditions which the main verb alone
may not express adequately.
Auxiliary verbs are of two types: (i) Primary Auxiliaries (HAVE) - have, has, had ;( BE) -am, is, are, was,
were, being, been ;( DO)- do, does, did). (ii) ModalAuxiliaries (may, can, will, must, might etc.).
Auxiliary verbs usually occur in front of the main verbs.
Examples:
(i)
The university will provide excellent learning resources.(will provide/VP)
(ii)
A few universities are building standard infrastructure. (are building/VP)
(iii)
The beautiful university has been given the right to offer Engineering courses. (has been
given/VP)
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Note that any of the primary auxiliary verbs can perform the function of the
main verb e.g.-The university is great. (is/main verb)
- A few universities have a highly qualified faculty.(have/main verb)
The complementof the verb may be an NP or an adjective (e.g. The University is great). In a simple
sentence, the predicate or the verb phrase may be followed an adverb or an adverbial phrase. Hence,
the structure of a simple sentence may be SPA or SVA, where “A” stands for adverbial or adverbial
Phrase e.g. The University (S) performs (P) excellently (A). Many universities prefer to be noticed from
a distance (a prepositional phrase [PP] Adverbial).
Conclusion
The elements of the simple sentence are therefore the various parts of the sentence occupied by the
word classes. The word classes often function in groups or phrases. The noun class forms the nominal
group; the verb class- verbal group; adjective class- adjectival group: adverb class- adverbial group.
CLAUSES
AClause is a group of words containing both subject and predicate. There are two major types of
clauses.
Main/Principal/Independent clause- This string of words is complete and can stand on its own as a
meaningful utterance.
Subordinate/Dependent clause- This string of words cannot stand on its own as a meaningful
utterance.
e.g. i. Noun clause-how he will succeed, what he said etc.
ii. Adjectival clause- which he bought, which Babangida built etc.
iii. Adverbial clause- wherever he went, while her mother slept etc.
SENTENCES
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Types (according to function)
i.
Declarative sentence- Makes a simple statement e.g.(a). I didn’t pass my first semester
examination.(b). We love children.
ii.
Imperative sentence- Gives a command/ an order e.g.(a). Leave my office immediately.(b).
Declare your asset now.
iii.
Interrogative sentence- Asks a question e.g.(a). How did you know my name?(b). What
happened to you?
iv.
Exclamatory sentence- Exclaims e.g.(a). What a day! (b) Congratulations on your success!
Types (according to structure)
i.
A simple sentence: One clause (a main/ independent cl.) e.g.
Our family runs a drug store.
ii.
A compound sentence- One main cl.+ 1 main cl. (a combination of two simple sentences,
i.e. two clauses of equal grammatical status) e.g.
Our family runs a store but does not
intend to set up a clinic.
iii.
A complex Sentence: one main cl+ I subordinate cl e.g. Our family runs a drug store
because of our love for those with health challenges.
iv.
A multiple Sentence: One main cl./Two main cls + one or more subordinate cl e.g. Our
family runs a drug store but does not intend to set up a clinic because of the cost of setting
up one. (2 main cls +1 sub. cl)
CONCORD
Concord refers to the agreement between grammatical units in sentences. It includes subject-verb
agreement whereby singular subjects take on singular verbs, while plural subjects take on plural form
of verbs. A subject must agree in number with the verb. Consider these examples:
He loves swimming. / We love swimming.
There is also subject-complement concord. Consider these examples:
She injured herself I both eyes. / He bought himself an umbrella.
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THE PARAGRAPH
It’s Structure and Development
A paragraph is usually made up of a group of sentences that form a unit. It may have a topic sentence
and combine with other paragraphs through linking processes. The series of sentences in a paragraph
form a unit and deals with only one aspect of the topic. The sentence that summarises the main
concern of a particular paragraph iscalled the topic sentence. The topic sentence may come anywhere
in the paragraph beginning, middle or end. The other sentences in the paragraph are supporting
sentences. A paragraph may not have a topic sentence but may simply develop the theme of the
entire writing.The development of each topic sentence into paragraphs can take different forms. It
can take the form of illustration, comparison and so on.
Because a paragraph treats a particular segment of the essay, it is often called a text within a text and
paragraphs are linked with oneanother by means of linking devices such as:

First, Second ( or Secondly) Third ( or thirdly), Finally or In conclusion

In contrast with …. Compared to the above …. In addition etc.

Furthermore, however, similarly. Nevertheless etc.
MODULE B: THE PROCESS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication refers to all forms of communication in the written mode. It involves all sorts
of continuous writing like letters, essays,reports, memoranda etc. However in this module, we shall
focus primarily on essays letter writing and mechanics of writing.
ESSAYS
Essays that are generally written by university undergraduates include narrative, descriptive,
argumentative and expository.
A narrative writing enables you to share your experience or thoughts with others. It may be in form of
creative writing, or a narration of a factual event, or an article.
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A Descriptive essay gives you an opportunity to describe a particular procedure or process about how
things work or is done. Good description give vivid account of what you feel, see or perceive, so that
the reader may “see” them too.
An Argumentativeessay presents a balanced and consistent argument about a topic often considered
as controversial. So your essay will be required to present anobjective judgment in support or
rejection of the proposition in question based on some facts or evidence. Your argument must be
logical and unbiased and should be able to persuade or convince the readers.
In an Expository essay, you present facts as they are, offering explanation about a system or a
process. Your essay should be able to answer some basic questions about some social or scientific
phenomenon. Here you analyse and evaluate, compare and contrast facts, opinions or ideas on the
subject you are dealing with.
Writing an Essay
The actual process of writing an essay involves the following:

Understanding the subject

Choosing a topic area: then narrowing the topic to a specific focus

Asking questions

Gathering materials

Determining the length of composition

Drawing out the outline. The outline gives you a sense of direction.
The structure of an Essay
A composition usually comprises three broad parts: the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
The Introductionhighlights what your composition or essay is all about. It gives a general background
to your subject and what your reader should expect.
The Body is the content of your argument. You present your points in details with supporting facts or
evidences. Points here are presented in paragraphs and coherently weaved together.
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The Conclusion summarizes the body of the essay depending on the nature of the essay. The
conclusion can summarize points of the essay or end with the most important point without a formal
conclusion.
Essentials features of Good writing
For an effective writing, we recommend the following features:

clarity

simplicity

coherence

good grammar
LETTERS
Letters as a form of correspondence could be formal, informal or semiformal. Care must be taken to
ensure that the right features are used.
MEMORANDA
The memorandum is the chief vehicle for writing internal communication in business and government
establishments. The basic qualities here include: simplicity,clarity,promptness, adaptation, and careful
organization.
TECHNICAL WRITING
(i)Writing a Proposal
A proposal is a written document which presents facts and information about how to execute a
particular project. There are various types of proposals e.g. business proposal or academic proposal.
Features/Components of a Proposal
[a] A clear title, e.g. Reducing the risk of Obesity among Undergraduate girls
[b] An introduction: usually a background
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[c] State, define and explain the problem you plan to investigate and possibly solve. Where there are
problems enumerate, e.g. problems associated with obesity in girls
[d] Objectives of the research i.e. what you aim at achieving.
[e] Proposed Approach/Methodology. This will include instruments to use;e.g.questionnaires,
interviews or tests; data analysis procedures etc.
[f] Action Standard/Hypothesis, i.e.what you envisage the result of the study will achieve
[g] Time frame. How long will the study last? Proposals usually have clearly defined duration.
[h] Costing or budgeting. This is the breakdown of all expenses to be incurred.
A business proposal will include a fee to be paid to the researcher.
[i] Appendices. A good proposal should attach copies of questionnaires, interview guide or other
documents that will be of interest to the commissioning agent [in case of business proposals].
A good proposal leaves no one in doubts of its purpose and goal. Most academic proposals are written
before a major research project where the writer briefly explains the focus and scope of the study and
research objectives.
(ii) Writing a Report
A report contains information or feedback on activities such as meetings, interviews, investigation
research, transactions etc. A report is believed to be an authentic/reliable account of activities or
experiences. An effective business report aids management decisions.
Classification and Contents of Reports
Types: (a.) Regular/Routine Reports, (b.) Occasional Reports
Components: i. Headingii. Terms of reference [objectives/motivation of the report]
iii. Procedure/identification of reportiv. Findingsv. Recommendations
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vi. Appendices

Terms of Reference:-Why the report, i.e.Motivation, scope or background e.g. This report
examines the general causes of the fall on performance of Hebron water during the 4 th quarter
of 2005.

Objectives:-What the report /research aims at achieving.

Procedure [Methodology]:-How the research is to be conducted e.g.
Scrutinizing documents [staff report] / Interviewing staff/ Visiting boards/
Personal observation/ Examinations/ Interviews /Questionnaires /Visiting markets etc.

Findings:- Detailed information is arranged in descending order of importance.

Conclusion:- Make a summary of your experience.

Recommendation:-What action should your report generate?
Presentation:-It could be presented using tabular form, statistics, graphics, charts (bar,pie) etc
Short Informal Report
Sometimes related orally- this is when information of lower status/less complex is required e.g.
between the secretary and head of department.
MECHANISM OF WRITING
Punctuation Marks
Punctuation in English is a carrier of meaning. It is a way of signalling an intention or attitude. It may
also indicate that something has been completed or is to follow. A poor handling of punctuation
marks in a sentence is likely to render expressions vague or ruin the intended meaning completely.
Look at the following examples:
i.
I hate fanatics: like you, I find them irritating.
ii.
I hate fanatics like you; I find them irritating.
There are many punctuation marks in English. We shall consider some of them with their uses.
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Punctuation marks
Functions
The Full stop (.)
Ends a sentence; mark off initials; ends an abbreviation e.g.
A.I.Eka; B.A.; Feb. etc.
The Comma (,)
Itemise; mark off appositives; mark off coordinate adjectives;
mark off incomplete sense groups (e.g. subordinate clauses);
separate quotations and generally indicate pauses. (Examples)
The Question mark (?)
Ends a question; indicates uncertain information
The exclamation (!)
Shows emotion, surprise, emphasis or command, end an
exclamatory sentence
The Semi-colon (;)
Separates independent clauses (though not often used
nowadays)
The colon (:)
Introduces a list; sometimes to separate main clauses instead of
the conjoin “and”
Quotation Marks (“…”)
Indicate a quotation, title or borrowed items
The Apostrophe (‘)
Indicates possession; contracted forms e.g. Mike’s car, doesn’t
Indicates plurals of letters/ numbers (A’s Ts)
The Hyphen (-)
Divide words not regarded as units e.g. anti-war, join compound
adjectives e.g. self-contained man
-
Note the following specialized punctuation marks;
-
Asterisks (*) for special attention
-
Caret (^ ) – to show that something is mistakenly omitted
-
Ellipses (…)
-
Parenthesis (or bracket) (…) for additional information
-
Dash (-) – for additional information: for appositives. Lists and explanations e.g. He came with
Indicate that something is deliberately left
only three items – a ruler, pen and a writing paper. Here’s introducing the winnerGoodluckEbele Jonathan.
-
Brace({ })-to show that information enclosed in them should be taken together
-
Capitalization
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Capital letters are important conventional writing mechanic. Note that every sentence begins
with a capital letter; hence a capital letter begins at the end of a full-stop, a question mark and
an exclamation mark. The pronoun “I” occurring in an isolated position is usually written in
capital. The following also often begin with capital letters.
(i)
Proper nouns (ii) Proper Adjectives(iii) Abbreviations (iv) Personal Titles (v)
Titles of
Literary and Artistic work
MODULE C: ORAL COMMUNICATION ORAL COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
Communication has always been and still is an important aspect of daily living. It involves the giving
of understandable information as well as receiving and understanding the message involved to the
point that the receiver is able to respond by appropriate action or inaction.
There are basically three methods of communication employed in the world today i.e. (a) oral
communication (b) written communication (c) visual communication. A recent development is the
introduction of electronic means of communication. However each electronic means is either for sight
or sound or both. Also there are informal methods of communication which include grapevine,
canteen lunch, secretary`s ears, etc.
Spoken language consist of sounds produced with the aid of our speech organs i.e. the tongue, teeth,
lips, palate, air passage in the nose, mouth and voice box. There, sounds are put together to produce
meaningful utterances like words etc. These distinct sounds are referred to as phonemes. Each
language has its own system of combining sounds which is distinct from other languages and each
chain must convey some meaning to both speaker and listener. For the purposes of this discussion,
we shall be using the standard British English Pronunciation, otherwise known as Received
Pronunciation or BBC English, as our model.
In our consideration of Oral communication in English in this write-up, we shall briefly examine the
following:
1. The sound system of English
2. Stress in English
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3. Communication Situations
4. Speech Delivery
(1)
THE SOUND SYSTEM OF ENGLISH
The English sound system has four major components i.e.
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Stress
- Intonation
The consonantal system
Here is a list of the consonants in English, and examples:
/p/ pass /pa:s//b/ buy /bai//t/ tile /tail//d/ do /du:/
/k/ car /ka://g/ gum /g˄m//m/ miss /mis//n/ now /nau/
/s/ sing /siŋ//l/ left /left//r/ rest /rest/
/f/ face /feis/
/v/ valt /volt//Ɵ/ thigh /Ɵ ai//ð/these /ðiz//s/ see /si:/
/z/ zoo /zu://ʒ/pleasure/pleʒә//ʧ/ church /ʧɜ:rʧ//dʒ/ judge /ʤ˄ʤ/
/h/ home /houm/
Voiced and voiceless consonants
In English Language, there is a distinction between the production of consonants sounds as witnessed
by the amount of air released from the oral cavity when such sounds are made. There are a number of
sounds in English Language that have these distinctions, and inability to make distinction results into
distortion of sounds and meaning for example, /v/ and /f/ e.g. fever/fi:vә/ becomes /fifa/
love /l˄v/ becomes /l˄f/
Consonant clusters
English language allows a distinction of consonants in contradiction to other languages with which the
English has come into contact, and this poses a problem to the learner of English as a second
language. For the native speaker, this distinction does not in any way impede his performance
wherever he comes across them. Such cluster include:school, driver, clay, cleft, stove.
The distinction occurs in either of the following places:
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1. Initial: e.g. screw
2. Final: e.g. strength
This usually results in mis-pronunciation of such words by second language learners who tend to
insert a vowel between them for actual performance.
e.g. for native speakers of Yoruba; /direba/ for driver/sitofu/ for stove
The vowel system
There are twelve main vowels and eight diphthongs in English. When you look at the phonetic
character of vowels, you would notice that some have colons at the end. These colons signify that the
particular vowel is long. In producing long words, the tongue is held in the same position for a length
of time.
Here are the main vowel sounds in English and examples:
/i:/ deed /di:d//i/ give /giv//e/ dead /ded//ae/ lad /laed/
/a:/ laugh /la:f//ͻ/ odd /ͻd/ /u/pull /pul//u:/pool/pu:l/
/˄/ love/l˄v//ɜ:/ bird / bɜ:d//ә/ China /tjainә/
Here are the eight diphthongs:
/ei/ eight /eit//gәu/ goes /gәuz//ai/ five /faiv/au/ loud /laud/
/ͻi/ boy /bͻi//eә/ rare /rƐә//iә/ fear /fiә//uә/ poor /puә/
(2)
STRESS IN ENGLISH
In the consideration of stressed and unstressed syllables, it is good to realize that the use of stress is a
characteristic feature of English Language. The stressed syllables are the ones produced with great
force or energy as the air is ejected from the lungs with more effort. This makes the syllable seem
louder than the others. English is full of ‘loud’ syllables like that:
Import/’impᴐ:t/ import /im’pᴐ:t/Convert/’knvә:t/ convert/kn’ vә :t/
Convict/’knvikt/convict/kn’vikt/Conduct/’kndkt/ conduct/kn’dkt/
In the first group, the words are noun with the stress on the first syllable, but they become verbs in
the second column because of the change of the position of stressed pattern.
It is important to know that stress is fixed; it is an inherent part of the pronunciation of the words. The
solution is to look up the pronunciation of a particular word in a pronouncing dictionary e.g. Daniel
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Jones’ dictionary. A good tipoff is to remember that words in the class of nouns, verb, adverbs,
adjectives are usually stressed.
The student would do well to realize that the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in
speech produces the rhythm. A good speaker controls the rhythm of his speech by determining words
to stress and which to unstressed or by picking out certain words and giving them special emphasis.
Appropriate intonation and prominence patterns:
Intonation is the variation of the level of the voice during speech. It is often referred to as pitch. At
times, it is high and at times low. A speaker who does not change his pitch is boring. Just as change of
stress is capable of uttering meaning, so the meaning of a sentence can change by a change of pitch.
Most Nigerian languages are tone languages i.e. different tones are used to distinguish words which
are alike in every respect e.g. Yoruba ‘Oko’ can have three meanings depending on the way it is
pronounced. But this is not so in English. No words are distinguished merely by their intonation. In
English, intonation is something added to utterance to give it special additional meaning. However,
since they are not used at random, students need to intimate themselves with the various patterns to
avoid miscommunication.
There are two major tones:
(1)Falling intonation:
This is used mainly in:
(a) Statements e.g.(i)I saw him yesterday.(ii)It is a big surprise.
(b)“Wh” questions e.g
(i)
What is your name?(ii)Where are you going?
(c)Commands e.g.
(i)
Shut up!(ii)Turn around!
(2)Rising intonation:
This is used mainly in yes/No questions:
(i)
Will you come tomorrow?(ii)Can you dance?
Consider the following for both rising and falling intonation and note the difference in meaning:
(i)
Yes (question statement”)(ii)No(iii)Probably (iv)Oh (question oh”)
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(3)
COMMUNICATION SITUATIONS
We have discussed generally about speeches but it is good for you to note that there are various
communication situations which you may find yourself involved in now and in the future. You need to
familiarize yourself with them and be adequately prepared to know how to go about your
presentations in this situation. Some of them are highly below.
Meetings
The success of a meeting depends primarily on two people i.e. the chairman and the secretary. The
chairman in consultation with the secretary sets the date, venue and agenda, ensuring that members
are duly notified. The chairman directs the meeting ensuring that the agenda is followed after its
adoption by members. When an item on the agenda is presented, it should be discussed and analysed
before a solution is agreed upon. At the end of the meeting, the chairman should summarize the
things discussed.
Conferences and Seminars
The conference chairman is very important like the chairman of a meeting. He needs to know all the
topics to be presented and the names of the presenter of each paper. His introductory speech should
be short and he has the duty to warn the speaker once his time is up. He should also organize the
question and answer session that is to follow.
Interviews
Interviewers need to make the interviewee to be relaxed so that intelligent discussions can take place.
The interviewee on the other hand must take care of his appearance, ensuring that he is neat but not
flamboyant. He needs to carry himself with dignity and answer his questions clearly and confidently.
Symposia
The work of the moderator at a symposium is similar to that of the chairman of a conference. He
introduces the topic, speakers and adds bits and pieces of information now and then. He prevents a
speaker from monopolizing all the time and prevents the discussion from losing its original focus. At
the end of the day, he summarizes. The speakers will present their speeches as discussed in the
section on speech delivery.
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Debates
A debate follows a tighter time schedule than a symposium since each speaker must speak for the
same length of time. At the end of the speech made by each speaker, the moderator summarizes.
Learning the art of debating is a useful skill in the perfection of oral presentations.
The Broadcast Medium
Broadcasting is an arm of the mass media involving the dissemination of information by radio,
television, video and films. Sounds are of paramount importance to the radio because it is the only
link between the presenter and his listeners. The television, video and films go a step further by
combining sight with sound.
(4) SPEECH DELIVERY
The primacy of speech over writing as a more common means of communication is uncontroversial.
Ninety-five percent of all business communication is spoken.
Speeches can be classified into two categories.
1. Short presentations
2. Long presentations
SHORT PRESENTATIONS
Short presentations are the speeches made which are of short duration. They include:
(1) The announcement (2) Speech of introduction (3) After dinner speech
(4) Speech of presentation (5) Speech of acceptance (6) Speech of welcome
In making an announcement, the speaker still needs to plan his speech although he is speaking for
only a short while. He needs to begin with words that will attract the attention of the listeners: e.g.
“Good news!” or “We have come to the most important aspect of this occasion….!”
In the speech of introduction the speaker must remember that he is not the main speaker so he
should not take too much of the audience’s time. He is to prepare the audience for the main speaker.
To do this effectively, he needs to have sufficient information about the speaker.
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The after-dinner speech is also expected to be short and light hearted. You need to give guests
pleasant memories of the occasion and thank them for their presence. You can acknowledge presence
of diplomats who have come to grace the occasion.
The speech of presentation is made when distinguished personalities have been singled out for
awards, in recognition of their contributions to the society. In this situation, you need to let the
audience know why people have been singled out for recognition.
The speech of acceptance is given after receiving an award. The speaker must be modest while talking
about his contributions since egocentrism has a tendency to put off the audience. There is a need to
also thank the audience, the community and the people who have found him worthy of being
honoured.
The speech of welcome is also brief, but it must be warm so as to give the audience a sense of
belonging. This will make the audience to be happy that they have come to attend the occasion.
The target in making these short speeches is to leave a lasting impression on the minds of the
listeners such that they will want to hear you speak again.
LONG PRESENTATIONS
This refers to the main speeches given at special occasions where the speaker could be the guest
speaker or the chairman. These occasions include prize-giving day, matriculation, convocation, and
fund raising ceremonies etc. These speeches are longer and they need to be thoroughly prepared
many days or weeks before the presentation is due.
STEPS IN DEVELOPING FORMAL ORAL COMPOSITIONS
Preparation
Long before the day of delivery, the presenter must take adequate presentation by conducting a
thorough research on the topic. You must know your subject thoroughly by doing extensive and
exhaustive home work. Your audience expects a knowledgeable speaker, so do not disappoint them.
Data collection and selection
For a successful presentation, you need to do adequate research by gathering data well ahead of time
from the library, internet, by observations, administering, questions and conducting interviews, if
need be. After gathering the data, you now select the most relevant to your need. Next is the
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outlining stage, which is crucial in oral presentations. It is at this stage that you now organize the
relevant material collected, so that you can have an orderly pattern of development of your ideas.
Delivery Techniques
Having adequately prepared, the next thing is the delivery proper. There are four major delivery
techniques. They are impromptu, reading, memorizing, and extemporaneous.
The impromptu speech is very common and it is given without planning or preparation. If there is
opportunity, the impromptu speaker should quickly retire to a corner, think fast and quickly put his
thoughts together. He should be faithful to his audience by telling them in a charming way that his
speech is impromptu.
For the memorized speech, the disadvantages are so great that unless absolutely necessary, as is the
case with actors saying their lines, it should be avoided. The memorized speech runs the hazard of
being forgotten or the speaker becoming confused. There is needed to be moderately slow and
meaningful.
The reading technique is justified when important pronouncements are to be made and for main
speeches at formal occasions e.g. budget speeches, minutes of meetings reports, Vice Chancellor’s
speeches at matriculationand convocation ceremonies etc. Remember that there is a tendency for
this type of speech to be boring, so deliberately maintain eye contact with your audience and vary
your gestures and tone.
The extemporaneous speech is the one prepared and sometimes practiced and written in advance.
Usually, only the outline or brief notes are written. It has been observed that the best delivered talks
are extemporaneous and this is why it is very popular. All the good qualities in other techniques are
also present here. The speaker has prepared carefully, rehearsed his presentation and is alert for
opportunity for interjection of newly identified material.
Speak with confidence, convictions and authority. Moderate your voice, volume, tone, pronunciation
and speed as the need arises maintain eye contact, particular with those in the front rows. Make
adjustments as needed and leave time for questions and answers. Remember that a good way of
sustaining the interest of listeners is to use visual aids like charts, pictures, graphs, drawings, diagrams
etc.
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MODULE D: ASPECTS OF LITERATURE
What is literature?
Literature has been defined by some as “anything written” or anything printed. Literature to some still
is “an imaginative writing”. Literature is defined as a permanent expression of emotions, thoughts
and attitudes towards life. Mathew Arnold, a great English writer has defined literature as the
“criticism of life”. Literature is thus a mirror of nature, a repository of culture, a mirror of life in its
entirety. Literature probes life, interprets life, consoles and has the ability to help the individual make
sense out of the hassles of life. Literature as we can see is as large as life itself. This is no exaggeration;
whatever exists in life exists in literature. Anything that can be imagined is found in literature for it
encompasses the best that had been thought and said in the world. And since literature comments on
life, the door is wide opened for more commentary hence one can say that literature is a conclusion
where nothing is concluded.
Genres of Literature
The term genre is a French word meaning type. Literature is usually classified into three genres, i.e.
Poetry, Drama, and Prose. Poetry is a piece of writing which is tightly constructedand shorter than the
other two genres. Drama entails the actions and speeches of characters on a stage. On the other hand
Prose is a long narrative piece.
POETRY
Forms of Poetry
Epic – a long narrative poem that tells about adventures and exploits of hero[s], often expresses the
ideals of a culture or race, e.g.Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
Lyric – a song poem, often accompanied by a musical instrument. It expresses the poet’s feelings or
thoughts.
Elegy – a poem that mourns the dead; often expresses sorrow or the poet’s mediation on death.
Dirge – funeralsong expressing grief or mourning.
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Ode – a poem that celebrates nature, person[s] or object, e.g. Keats’s Ode to a Nightingale.
Pastoral – a poem about hinterland, shepherd and rustic life.
Ballad – a poem that expresses the heroic past of a community, about the culture and events of a
rural community. It is sometimes sung.
Sonnet – a fourteen- line poem, divided into 8 [octave] and 6 [sestet]
Epigram – a short crispy poem that displays a lot of wits.
Elements of Poetry
Diction – choice of words in a poem or any work of art.
Tone – the poet’s attitude expressed in the words of the poem showing seriousness, optimism,
sarcasm, humour or pessimism.
Symbolism – the use of symbols to represent an idea, experience, event or a value.
Mood – a poet’s emotion or state of mind as expressed by the words of the poem, showing sadness,
joy, nostalgia etc.
Rhyme – correspondence of sound in the words or syllables in a piece of verse achieved by consonant
sounds, usually occurring in 2 lines [couplet]; 3 lines [sestet], 4 lines [quatrain].
Imagery – the use of images or descriptions that create a mental picture.
Rhythm – the sound system of a poem, i.e. the beat, tempo or time.
Figurative language– use of simile, metaphor, personification, anthropomorphism, synecdoche,
metonymy,
allusion,
symbolism,
verbal
irony,
overstatement,
understatement,
paradox,
oxymoron,euphemism, hyperboles, etc.
DRAMA- Performed on stage, involves dialogue and action, may involve mime [acting without
speaking], may be an operatic [in song form], usually divided into acts and scenes, and may involve
soliloquy [voicing a character’s thoughts].
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Forms of Drama
Tragedy– a play that ends in tragedy, especially with the death of tragic hero. It may begin well but
usually marred by some destined ill-lucks and mishaps.
Comedy – a play with happy ending usually with marriages, fortunes and comical events.
Some forms of comedy are:
[a] Satire – ridicules the society or people and often pokes fun with the way the society and its people
are run
[b] Farce – a comedy that provokes laughter and humour on situations rather than characters.
[c] Burlesque – a comedy that treats serious subject in a trivial manner in order to render certain
value ludicrous.
Tragic Comedy – combines the elements of tragedy and comedy, involving serious and happy mood;
often ends happily.
Elements of drama
Plot–This is the story line. The plot is usually structured with acts and scenes.
Theme-The plot has been called the body of a play and the theme has been called its soul. The theme
is the primary concern of the writer of the play.
Dialogue-Dialogue provides the substance of a play. Each word uttered by the character furthers the
business of the play; contributes to its effect as a whole.
Stagecraft-The stage creates its effects in spite of, and in part because of, definite physical limitations.
Setting and action tend to be suggestive rather than panoramic or colossal.
Theatre Space-Theatre can also be discussed in terms of the type of space in which it is produced.
Stages and auditoriums have had distinctive forms in every era and in different cultures. The theatre
today tends to be flexible and eclectic in design.
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Lighting Design-Lighting design, a more ephemeral art, has two functions: to illuminate the stage and
the performers and to create mood and control the focus of the spectators.
Costume Design-A costume is whatever is worn on the performer’s body. Costume designers are
concerned primarily with clothing and accessories, but are also often responsible for wigs, masks and
makeup.
Mask-A special element of costume is the mask. Although rarely used in contemporary Western
theatre,masks were essential in Greek and Roman drama and are still important in African drama.
Makeup-Makeup may also function as a mask, especially in Oriental theatre, where faces may be
painted with elaborate colours and images that exaggerate and distort facial features.
Technical Production-The technical aspects of production may be divided into preproduction and run
of production. Preproduction technical work is supervised by the technical director in conjunction
with the designers.
Sound and Sound Effects-Sound, if required is now generally recorded during the preproduction
period. From earliest times, most theatrical performance were accompanied by music that, until
recently was produced by live musicians especially in African oral performance.
PROSE
Prose is usually written in straight forward everyday language, divided into chapters and best
appreciated when read.It is often written as fiction with fictional characters performing roles in wellordered story line. Prose is often used as an inclusive term for all discourse, spoken or written, which
is not patterned into the lines and rhythms either of metric verse or of free verse short story.
Types of Prose
Non- fiction – based on real life story, notfictional. They include:
Biography – a story of someone’s life, written by another person.
Autobiography – a story of a person’s life written by himself/herself.
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Articles about real events; news reports, research papers, travel guides, diaries.
Fiction: Any literary narrative which is created in the author’s mind. It may be a novel/novella/short
story. It is a story that is credible, based on the creative imagination of the writer; often showing
possible events of real life and how society functions. The difference between the types of fiction is
basically the length. They include:
Fable – a short narrative conveying moral instructions often accompanied by animal or non-human
characters e.g. Orwell’s Animal Farm.
Epistolary Novel – a novel written in the forms of letters e.g. Mariama Baa’s So long a letter.
Novella (Novelette): a prose fiction story of medium length (generally 50-125)
Novel: an extended piece of prose fiction (generally 125+ pages) which usually has many characters
and develops complex plot
Elements of prose/fiction
Theme - the central idea or subject matter of the work of art.
Setting – the location of the story, reflecting time, space or period.
Characterization- a character is a person (sometimes a group of people, an animal or a physical force)
invented by an author who has impact on the outcome of the story. The character must be convincing
and lifelike.Types of characters include: Protagonist. Antagonist, and Foil.
Plot – the story line – the organization of the event often following the principle of cause and effect
Allegory – A story in which people, things and actions represent an idea or generalization about life;
allegories often have a strong moral lesson e.g. Animal Farm by George Orwell.
Conflict- this is the struggle that results in the interplay of two opposing forces or parties in a plot,
providing the elements of interest and suspense.
Comic relief – comic elements in a tragic work to relieve tension
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Flashback – a scene in a play or novel that depicts events that had happened earlier.
Catharsis - is the emotional/spiritual purge which the audience derives at the point of the resolution
of the conflict in a tragic play.
Prologue – an introductory speech preceding a play.
Epilogue – a final remark by an actor at the end of the play
Dramatic Irony – the words or acts of a character which is in contrast to his supposed character or the
meaning which his character represents. It is often unperceived by the character but the audience
understands..
Mood- a feeling a piece of literature evokesin the reader; happy, sad, peaceful etc.
Tone-this is theauthor’s attitude towards his/her subject matter. The tone might be solemn, formal,
playful or serious; it is created through word choices and sentence structure
Stream of consciousness-astyle of writing in which the thoughts and feelings of the writer are
recorded as they occur.
Verisimilitude- an illusion of reality created in a fictional work.
Unity of Action-The plot has unity if it is a single, complete, and ordered action in which none of the
parts is unnecessary. The parts are so closely connected that without one of the parts, the work would
be disjointed.
Rising Action-Begins when the conflict between the protagonist and antagonist is set in motion and
ends with the climax
Climax-theturning point or the moments of highest intensity in the work when either the protagonist
or antagonist must succeed
Falling Action (Denouement) -The action which works out the decision made in the climax the story
unravels
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Resolution-The portion of the play or story where the problem is solved, providing closure
Suspense- an anxious uncertainty about what is going to happen to characters with whom the reader
has established bonds of sympathy
Surprise- surprise occurs when the events that occur in literary work violate the expectations we have
formed. The interplay between suspense and surprise is a prime source of the power plot.
Intrigue-a scheme set up by a character which depends for its success on the ignorance of the
person(s) against whom it is directed
Flashback-A scenein a play or novel which depicts events that had happened earlier.The writer
interrupts the chronological sequence of a story to relate an incident which occurred prior to the
beginning of the story.
Foreshadowing- use of hints or clues to indicate events that will occur later in the story. The use of
this technique both creates suspense and prepares the reader for what is to come.
Point of view- the outlook from which the events in a work are told. The methods of narration
are:Omniscient Narrator, Limited Omniscient Narrator,First Person Narrator, and Objective Narrator
(Detached Observer)
Setting- The time and place in which the action of a literary work occurs
Local Colour- The use of details which are characteristic of a certain region or section of the country
Motif- a term for an often- repeated character, incident, idea, or image in literature which is used to
convey themes
Ambiguity- the deliberate use of a word or expression to convey two or more diverse attitudes or
feelings
Conflict- The struggle that results in the interplay of two opposing forces or parties in a plot which
provide elements of interest and suspense.The conflict can be threefold:1. Conflict between
Individuals 2. Between character and circumstances intervening between him and a goal she/he has
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set for her/himself, and 3. Conflict of opposing tendencies within a single individual’s mind.There are
five basic types of conflicts: Person vs. person, Person vs. Society, Person vs. Self, Personvs. Nature,
Person vs. Fate.
Chapter- A major division of a novel
Parable- A short descriptive story which illustrates aparticular belief or moral.
AFRICAN LITERATURE
“African Literature” refers to oral and written literatures produced on the African continent. Africa has
along literally tradition, although very little of this literature was written down until the 20 th century.
In the absence of widespread literacy, African literature was primarily oral and passed from one
generation to another through memorization and recitation. Most of Africa’s written literature is on
the European colonization of the continent from the 16th century to the mid – 20thcentury and English
is the most widely used language, followed by French and Portuguese. Works written in African
languages and traditional oral texts were not usually acknowledged until the late 20th century, but
today they are receiving increased attention.
Predominant Themes of African Literature
[a] Pre- colonial African Literature explores mainly the issue of cultural revival – most writers reacted
against Africa’s cultural alienation. This is mostly captured in negritude literature which was
spearheaded by Aime Cesaire, Leopold Senghor, FerdinardOyono, MongoBeti etc. Negritude extols
African values and calls on Africans to return to their cultural roots. It stands for black expression,
anti-colonial consciousness and black identity. In Nigeria these themes are captured by the works of
Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka.
[b] Post-colonial African Literature explores contemporary social issues such as gender and economic
exploitations, ethnic violence and wars, religious intolerance, corruption and development issues. The
works of Ngugi, Iyayi, AyiKweiArma among others highlight these themes. Songs in a Time of War
[1985] by Ken Saro-Wiwa; The Fate of Vultures and Other Poems [1990] by TanureOjaide(both
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Nigerians) and The Graveyard also has Teeth [1980] by Sierra Leonean SylCheney-Coker all explore
socio-political concerns.
An Overview of African/Nigerian Literature
Poetry
The first collection of African poetry in English translation is An Anthology of West African Verse
[1957] edited and compiled by Nigerian OlumbeBassir. It includes a large number of Francophone
poems in English translation; Anglophone literature developed much later. And whereas Frenchspeaking writers in Africa celebrate African culture and blackness in the negritude movement, Englishspeaking writers and intellectuals in Africa were not alloptimistic about it. However early Anglophone
poems resembled negritude verse in their examination of the effects of European colonialism on
Africa.
One of the first African poets to publish in English is Lenrie Peters of the Gambia, whose poems
examine discontinuities between past and present in Africa. Nigerian Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka
has published several volumes of poetry, including Idanre and other Poems [1967]. Christopher
Okigbo is another Nigerian whose collection of poems is published as Labyrinths, with Path of Thunder
[1971]. Ghana’s Kofi AnyidohopublishedA Harvest of our Dreams [1984].
Francophone African poetry became known internationally with the publication of Anthology of the
New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French language, [1948] in Paris, edited by Leopold Sedar
Senghor of Senegal. Leopold’s compatriot, David Diop’s anthology Hammer Blows was published in
[1973].
East African writers began producing significant poetry in the 1960s. Okotp’Bitek of Uganda
published,among other volumes,Song of Lawino[1966], while the poetryof Okello Oculi of Kenya is
included in the anthology titledWords of My Groaning [1976].
In South Africa, apartheid stimulated important protest verse with much of it written in exile.
Prominent among the black South African poets are Dennis Brutus who published Letters to Martha in
1968; MazisiKuneme, authored Zulu Poems [1970]; and Oswald Mtshail authoredSounds of a Cowhide
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Drum [1971]. Later works include Dennis Brutus’s Stubborn Hope [1978], SiphoSepamla’sThe Soweto I
Love [1977], and Frank Chipasula’s Whispers in the Wings [1991]. Women on the Francophone literally
scene include So Long a Letter [1981] by the Senegalese writer Mariama Baa and The Beggar’s Strike
[1981] by Aminata Sow Fall also of Senegal.
Prose
Fiction developed later in the eastern and southern sections of English-speaking Africa than in the
western part.Kenya’s NgugiWaThiong’O lamented the loss of land to colonizers in Weep Not Child
[1964]. With her novel The Promised Land [1966], Grace Ogot, also from Kenya became the first
woman from English-speaking East Africa to be published. Two other Kenya female works are
RebekaNjau’sRipples in the Pool [1975], and Lydia Nguya, The First Seed [1975]. Others are Ismael
Mbise’s Blood on Our Land [1974] and J.N Mwauras Sky is the Limit [1974].
Discussions of racial conflict predictably dominate English-language fiction by black South Africans.
Among the earliest works are Tell Freedom [1954] by Peter Abrahams, Down Second Avenue (1959) by
Es’kiaMphahlele, and A Walk in the Night (1962) by Alex La Guma. Later works include Miriam
Tlali’sMuriel at Metropolitan (1975),MonganeSerote’sTo Every Birth its Blood (1981),Mphalele’sThe
Unbroken Song (1981), and SiphoSepamla’s A Ride on the Whirlwind (1981). Anglophone fiction is the
richest genre of African literatures in English. Joseph Ephraim CaselyHayford of Ghana set the pace
and revealed the preoccupation of prose in English in his novelEthiopia Unbound: Studies in Race
Emancipation (1911). Several years later his compatriot, R.E Obeng, inEighteenpence(1943), depicted
the procedures of the different judicial systems in use in the then Gold Coast.
The Palm-wine Drinkard and His Dead Palm-wine Tapster in the Dead’s Town (1952), by Nigerian
writer Amos Tutuola, the first written literature in Nigeria was significant in Anglophone fiction. The
book achieved tremendous success in Europe and the United States. Soon after Tutuola’s work
appeared, Chinua Achebe published Things Fall Apart (1958), the first of five novels in which he
chronicled the consequences of British colonialism in his country. Other Nigerian writers include
Cyprian Ekwensi, who wrote Jagua Nana (1961), and Flora Nwapa, who wroteEfuru in (1966).
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The Gambian William Conton published ANew Political Party in the Africa (1960) while
GhanaianAyiKwehArmah criticized political corruption in The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968).
Kofi Awoonor wrote This Earth, My Brother…. (1971). The Biafran war, a civil war that raged in Nigeria
from 1966 to 1969, produced several works. They include Soyinka’s Season of Anomy (1973), Eddie
Iroh’sForty-eight Guns for the General (1976), Destination Biafra (1982) by BuchiEmecheta and Festus
Iyayi’s Heroes (1982). Others include; Houseboy (1966) by Ferdinand Oyono and The Poor Christ of
Bomba (1971) by Mongo Beti, a Cameroonian writer.
In fiction as in poetry writers turned their attention to social-political problems soon after
independence. A good example of this shift is Xala by Senegalese writer OusmaneSembene which
denounces corrupt government officials. Other works are Femi Osofisan’s Once Upon Four Robbers
(1980), Soyinka’s A Play of Giants (1984).
Drama
The First African play published in English was The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongquase the Liberator
(1935) by Hebert Isaac Ernest Dhlomoof South Africa. Its subject of resistance to white oppressors
reflected in Lewis Nkosi’s The Rhythm of violence (1964) and other later works from South Africa.
These works include; Sons and Daughters (1963) by Joe de Graft of Ghana and Dear Parent and Ogre
(1965) by SarifEasmon of Sierra Leone. Ama Ata Aidoo of Ghana wroteThe Dilemma of a Ghost (1964),
Efua Sutherland wrote The Marriage of Anansewa(1975), while Wole Soyinka published The SwampDwellers (1963).
NgugiwaThiongo’s The Black Hermit (1968) marked East Africa’s debut in drama. The play is
concerned with stamping out tribalism among African ethnic groups. One of the most celebrated
francophone playwrights is the Cameroonian Guillaume Oyono- Mbia. His best works include Three
Suitors, One Husband (1968).La mort de Chaka (The Death of Chaka), (1961) by SaydouBadian of Mali
and The Zulu(1977) by Tchicaya U Tam’si of the Republic of the Congo are also noteworthy plays in
French.
Conclusion
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Whether in poetry, drama or fiction, African literature bears the burdens of the African identity,
exploring themes that seek the place of the African after a chequered history of colonial exploitation.
Contemporary literature explores themes of social and political concerns, about how to make Africa a
better place to live in.
WRITING YOUR OWN LITERARY PIECE
People write usually for two primary reasons i.e. to be read and to make money. Don’t be afraid of
starting. The best way to learn to write is to actually write. The more you write the more proficient
you will be.
Questions for beginning writers
Ask yourself:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
What is my heritage i.e. my experience and background?
What is my flair? Is it for fiction, nonfiction, poetry or drama?
Who is my possible audience i.e. am I writing for a magazine, newspaper or is it a
book?
When you have answered these questions you can now start to write with a focus.
To be a good writer:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
Be interested in people
Be desirous to share your observations and views
Be sensitive to human conditions
Have a passion for words
Be committed to what you are writing
Be susceptible to changing your views everyday
Be aware that writing means rewriting
Be concerned with details
Be prepared to write everyday
Be prepared to have your scripts rejected
Remember it can be a lonely profession
Endeavour to discover early where your talents lie and concentrate your efforts there for maximum
success.
Choice of Subject Matter
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Writers write from what they have perceived and what they remember. You may need to travel, stay
in a small town, stay in your home town. Wherever you are, you need to be reading, responding as
well as remembering. Remember that many ordinary happenings are situations that could suggest
possible stories.
The Playwright
You will know you are a playwright if you love the theatre and love to see plays, not just to read them.
You need a talent for words and an ear for dialogue and you must know the difference between
conversation and dialogue. You need to decide the length of play i.e. the line of the drama. You need
to decide on your theme and then block your material into major divisions or acts, depending on the
content of the play. Establish a dramatic question which will seize your audience. In the first act,
introduce at least all your major characters, theme, overall conflict as well as unsolvable conflict. The
2nd and 3rd Acts rise in intensity from crisis to crisis to the inevitable climax and conclusion.
For dialogue, you need to look at your play in your mind and listen to it. Remember that dialogue is
the substance of the play. It must be natural, advance the story line, be purposeful and give
information. The atmosphere and tone of the play must be well set.
The Fiction Writer
While the non-fiction writer puts together facts, data, reports and truths, the novelist, or a playwright
or a poet makes, forms and feigns. Through doing this he arrives at and leads us into a truth. The fact
is that despite the television and video plays the public still insists on reading.
The novel
The literary novel today is a story which is intense, brief, economical and generally told from one
person’s point of view. When the writer sets his character into a dramatic situation and swiftly moves
to the conclusion, we call it the vertical novel e.g. William Golding’s Lord of the Flies. Here, a group of
boys find themselves in an isolated Island. They had to care for themselves and the activities they got
involved in and the relationship which developed was used to depict man’s frailties. The horizontal
novel on the other hand, is considerably extended in time, space, characters and scope of plot. This is
the panoramic novel and here the protagonist is usually larger than life. An example of this is the
historical novel such as Mary Renault’s The King Must Die.
The structure of the novel is the same as that of the short story, only that the novel is longer and the
idea there is wider in scope. While the short story seeks a compelling single effect, the novel seeks a
comprehensive though unified effect. The writer can use the forward approach of chronology or use
flashback i.e. a return to plot with new time and place, which requires skill for effectiveness. The
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writer should provide the setting. This includes where, when as well as creating an atmosphere. This
will help character revelation and plot development.
The characters should be introduced, mentioned and a narrator can be used to throw light on the
characters. They should be real and interesting. Avoid stereotype characters. The plot or story line
should be carefully developed for clarity.The introduction should be fascinating, so as to capture the
readers’ attention. There should be a crisis of climax.The theme is to be hinted at, implied right from
the beginning. It is what the story is about. It is good to remember that without the theme, the story
is nothing but plot. So the theme grows as the plot advances, emerging complete at the end.There is
need to plan your work before you start to write. Write a fairly complete synopsis with detailed
descriptions of the important people. Next outline your chapters, at least four or five, at the
beginning. Remember to allow room for flexibility.
The Poet
The best way to learn to write poetry is to write it. There are no limits to themes appropriate to
poetry, although some themes are more common than others. Poems can grow from many points e.g.
-
A very early memory of pain, relief or insecurity
A moment of intense joy
An experience giving you insight to other people or yourself
A dream
Everyday objects
Sudden recognition of a likeness between two things
Next, you may consider the form for your poem. Do you want to write a Haiku, a Sonnet or do you
want to write in free verse? You also need to be aware of all the figures and figurative expressions
available and make use of them appropriately to embellish your theme.
The hints above will surely assist you in writing your own literacy piece.
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