1. No category

Advanced Biological Treatment of
Municipal Solid Waste
www.defra.gov.uk
Contents
Preamble
1
1.
Introduction
2
2.
How It Works
3
3.
Markets And Outlets For The Outputs
11
4.
Track Record
14
5.
Contractual And Financing Issues
17
6.
Planning And Permitting Issues
19
7.
Social And Perception Issues
26
8.
Costs
27
9.
Contribution To National Targets
28
10. Further Sources Of Information
30
11. Glossary
32
Prepared by Enviros Consulting Limited on behalf of Defra as part of the New Technologies Supporter Programme.
We acknowledge support from the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra), the Department of
Communities & Local Government (DCLG), the Environment Agency (EA) and BeEnvironmental Ltd.
This Document has been produced by Enviros Consulting Limited (Technical Advisors) on behalf of Defra to provide
assistance to Local Authorities and the waste management market generally through awareness raising of the key
municipal waste management options for thediversion of BMW from landfill. The Document has been developed in
good faith by the Advisors on behalf of Defra, and neither Defra not its Advisers shall incur any liability for any action
or omission arising out of any reliance being placed on the Document by any Local Authority or organisation or other
person. Any Local Authority or organisation or other person in receipt of this Document should take their own legal,
financial and other relevant professional advice when considering what action (if any) to take in respect of any waste
strategy, initiative, proposal, or other involvement with any waste management option or technology, or before
placing any reliance on anything contained therein.
Any interpretation of policy in this document is that of Enviros and not of Defra or DCLG.
Crown copyright, 2007
Cover image courtesy of Greenfinch Ltd
Preamble
This Waste Management Technology Brief,
updated in 2007, is one of a series of
documents prepared under the New
Technologies work stream of the Defra Waste
Implementation Programme. The Briefs
address technologies that may have an
increasing role in diverting Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW) from landfill. They provide an
alternative technical option as part of an
integrated waste strategy, having the
potential to recover materials & energy and
reduce the quantity of MSW requiring final
disposal to landfill. Other titles in this series
include: An Introductory Guide to Waste
Management Options, Mechanical Biological
Treatment, Mechanical Heat Treatment;
Advanced Thermal Treatment; Incineration,
Renewable Energy and Waste Technologies,
and Managing Outputs from Waste
Technologies.
Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT)
process, on which there is a separate
Technology Brief. Information on the
collection and markets for source segregated
materials is available from Defra and from
ROTATE (Recycling and Organics Technical
Advisory Team) at the Waste & Resources
Action Programme (WRAP).
The Defra New Technologies Demonstrator
Programme has provided nine projects aimed
at proving the economic, social and
environmental viability (or not) of a selection
of waste management technologies. For
information on the demonstrator projects see
the Defra website or email
[email protected].
These waste technologies can assist in the
delivery of the Government’s key objectives,
as outlined in The Waste Strategy for England
2007, for meeting and exceeding the Landfill
Directive diversion targets, and increasing
recycling of resources and recovery of energy.
The prime audience for these Briefs are local
authorities, in particular waste management
officers, members and other key decision
makers for MSW management in England. It
should be noted that these documents are
intended as guides to each generic
technology area. Further information can be
found at the Waste Technology Data Centre,
funded by the Defra New Technologies
Programme and delivered by the
Environment Agency (www.environmentagency.gov.uk/wtd). This brief deals with
biological treatment technologies, which can
be used to treat source segregated organic
waste or mechanically separated organic
waste. In the latter, ABT is a component of a
1
1. Introduction
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is waste
collected by or on behalf of a local authority.
It comprises mostly household waste and it
may include some commercial and industrial
wastes. Historically, the quantity of MSW has
risen year on year1, presenting a growing
problem for local authorities particularly as
legislation, now limits (by implication2) the
amount of mixed MSW that can be sent to
landfill, becomes more stringent over time.
One of the guiding principles for European
and UK waste management has been the
concept of a hierarchy of waste management
options, where the most desirable option is
not to produce the waste in the first place
(waste prevention) and the least desirable
option is to dispose of the waste to landfill
with no recovery of either materials and/or
energy. Between these two extremes there
are a wide variety of waste treatment options
that may be used as part of a waste
management strategy to recover materials
(for example furniture reuse, glass recycling
or organic waste composting) or generate
energy from the wastes (for example through
incineration, or digesting biodegradable
wastes to produce usable gases).
At present more than 62% of all MSW
generated in England is disposed of in
landfills3. However, European and UK
legislation has been put in place to limit the
amount of biodegradable municipal waste
(BMW) sent for disposal in landfills4. The
Landfill Directive also requires waste to be
pre-treated prior to disposal. The diversion of
this material is one of the most significant
challenges facing the management of
Municipal Solid Waste in the UK.
management options for dealing with MSW
to limit the residual amount left for disposal
to landfill. The aim of this guide is to provide
impartial information about the range of
technologies available referred to as
Advanced Biological Treatment (ABT). These
technologies include in-vessel composting and
anaerobic digestion and are part of a range
of processes currently being assessed and
investigated through the New Technologies
work stream of Defra’s Waste Implementation
Programme (WIP). Further information can be
found on the Waste Technology Data Centre,
funded by the Defra New Technologies
Programme and delivered by the
Environment Agency (www.environmentagency.gov.uk/wtd).
The role of ABT technologies, particulary
anaerobic digestion (AD) was emphasised in
the Waste Strategy for England 2007. ABT
can be used to process source segregated
waste to produce quality compost/digestate
or it can be the biological component of
Mechanical Biological Treatment (on which
there is a separate Technology Brief). ABT
still has a limited track record in the UK for
treating the organic fraction of mixed,
residual MSW. UK case studies are provided
within this brief, including those from the
Defra New Technologies Demonstrator
Programme. The aim of this document is to
raise awareness of these types of technologies
and present the most current information
regarding their implementation.
There are a wide variety of alternative waste
1 This is now showing signs of slowing down and in some areas waste arisings are falling, and indeed in 2005/6 there was a 3% fall nationally.
However, this may be partly explained by other factors occurring in that particular financial year
2 Targets pertain to the biodegradable fraction
3 Results from WasteDataFlow http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/wastats/bulletin.htm
4 The Landfill Directive, Waste and Emissions Trading Act 2003 and Landfill Allowances Trading Scheme Regulations
2
2. How it works
2.1 Introduction
This Brief describes the biological treatment
of biodegradable municipal waste. Some ABT
technologies have already been used in the
UK for source segregated waste, for green
garden waste and food waste; and in other
industries such as for sewage sludge
treatment and in agriculture. ABT processes
can also be used to treat the biodegradable
fraction mechanically separated from mixed,
residual MSW at a Mechanical Biological
Treatment (MBT) facility, although it still has a
limited track record in the UK.
This guide is designed to be read in
conjunction with the other Waste
Management Technology Briefs in this series
and with the case studies provided on the
Waste Technology Data Centre. Other
relevant sources of information are identified
throughout the document.
2.2 The Process
ABT technologies are designed and
engineered to control and enhance natural
biological processes, and as such can only act
on biodegradable organic materials. ABT
processes can treat either source segregated
materials or those mechanically separated
from a mixed waste stream into a
biodegradable, organic rich fraction.
Source segregated collections will provide a
cleaner organic stream, but on their own are
unlikely to capture sufficient organic material
to achieve the required level of
Biodegradable Municipal Waste (BMW)
diversion from landfill. Therefore, additional
diversion of BMW will be required through
processes such as MBT or thermal treatment
technologies in the longterm.
2. Main
How Heading
it works
In line with the EU Landfill Directive and
national recycling targets, the function of
ABT facilities includes the:
• Diversion from landfill through the
production of compost (or a digestate) that
can be safely applied to agricultural land
for ecological benefit5;
• Pre-treatment of waste going to landfill, to
reduce its biodegradability, if unsuitable
for application to land;
• Diversion of biodegradable MSW going to
landfill if using ABT within an MBT by:
- Reducing the dry mass of BMW prior to
landfill;
- Reducing the biodegradability of BMW
prior to landfill;
- Stabilisation into a compost-like output
(CLO)6 for potential use on land
(although markets likely to be limited
where mixed waste is the source);
- Deriving a combustible biogas from the
organic waste for energy recovery;
and/or
- Drying materials to produce a high
calorific organic fraction for use as a fuel
(Refuse derived fuel RDF).
2.3 Advanced biological treatment (ABT)
Options
Advanced biological treatment is concerned
with the use of relatively new technologies to
treat biodegradable wastes using tightly
controlled biological processes. Food and
green wastes are suitable input materials for
these technologies. Other biodegradable
material, such as card, paper and wood can
be treated, however they take a longer time
to degrade and input levels are limited to
optimise the processing.
5 Compost that has been produced from source segregated waste is currently only allowed to be applied to agricultural land
6 Compost-like Output (CLO) is also sometimes referred to as ‘stabilised biowaste’ or a soil conditioner; it is not the same as a sourcesegregated waste derived ‘compost’ or ‘soil improver’ that will contain much less contamination and has a wider range of end uses
3
2. How it works
All biological waste treatment processes
involve the decomposition of biodegradable
wastes by living microbes (bacteria and
fungi), which use biodegradable waste
materials as a food source for growth and
proliferation.
Microbes excrete specialised enzymes that
digest biodegradable waste constituents (e.g.
cellulose and other complex polysaccharides,
proteins and fats) into simple nutrients (e.g.
sugars, amino acids, fatty acids), which they
absorb. As the microbes grow and proliferate
a significant proportion of this is converted
into heat, carbon gases and water, which can
result in large losses in mass during biological
treatment.
There are two main types of conditions in
which such microbes live, and therefore two
main classes of biological processes used to
treat biodegradable waste:
• Aerobic – in the presence of oxygen; and
• Anaerobic – in the absence of oxygen.
Aerobic composting processes
During aerobic decomposition, biodegradable
material is decomposed into carbon dioxide
(CO2), water (H20), and heat through
microbial respiration in the presence of
oxygen (Figure 1) leaving a stabilised residual
solid material, compost7. If source segregated
biodegradable material is treated, oxygen is
often supplied passively through the presence
of air or through mechanical turning. In MBT
systems, air is usually blown or drawn
through material, to speed up the drying
and/or decomposition of the material.
Figure 1: Aerobic Decomposition
Heat
Carbon
Dioxide
Biodegradable
fraction
Water
Compost
Aerobic processes are relatively dry and used
for materials with high solids content (a
moisture content of around 60% is
considered optimal). These materials must
have a good porous physical structure to
allow the air to pass through the material.
The right balance of carbon to nitrogen (and
other mineral nutrients) is also required.
Accelerated aerobic processes require a net
input of energy to supply the oxygen
required. A large amount of biologically
produced heat is created as microbes respire,
and are associated with high processing
temperatures of 60 – 70°C. High temperatures
have the advantage of killing potentially
pathogenic organisms in the waste
(sanitisation), and can also be used to dry
material.
As the process progresses biodegradable
material is converted into carbon dioxide,
water, and heat, which are lost to the
atmosphere. The material remaining consists
7 Stabilised is the degree of processing and biodegradation at which a) the rate of biological activity under favourable aerobic biodegradation
has slowed ; b) microbial respiration will not revive significantly until environmental conditions are altered
4
2. How it works
of a mixture of non-biodegradable materials;
recalcitrant organics; microbes and microbial
remains; and a complex of decomposition byproducts called humus. This stabilised and
dried mixture is known as compost.
Anaerobic digestion (biogas) processes
During anaerobic digestion (AD)
biodegradable material is converted into
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (together
known as biogas), and water, through
microbial fermentation in the absence of
oxygen (Figure 2), leaving a partially
stabilised wet organic mixture.
AD is ether a ‘wet’ process used for materials
with moisture contents more than ?85% or a
‘dry’ process used for materials with moisture
contents ?80%. Anaerobic processes require
less energy input than aerobic composting
and create much lower amounts of
biologically produced heat. Additional heat
may be required to maintain optimal
temperatures but the biogas produced
contains more energy than is required i.e. the
process is a net producer of energy.
As the process progresses biodegradable
material is converted into a combustible gas
known as ‘biogas’ primarily consisting of a
mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.
Biogas can be burned for heat and/or
electricity production. The material remaining
consists of a wet solid or liquid suspension of
non-biodegradable materials; recalcitrant
organics; microbes (biomass) and microbial
remains; and decomposition by-products. This
partially stabilised wet mixture is known as
‘digestate’.
This wet mixture can be dewatered into its
solid and liquid fractions. Sometimes these 2
fractions may both be referred to as
‘digestate’, but for clarity they will be
referred to as digestate and liquor in this
publication.
Figure 2: Anaerobic Digestion
Biogas
Water
Biodegradable
fraction
Digestate
and liquor
Heat from
process
2.4 Aerobic (composting) technologies
Aerobic treatment (composting) technologies
come in a range of designs. All systems are
designed and engineered to control and
optimise the biological stabilisation,
sanitisation, and/or, in some cases, drying of
biodegradable materials.
These processes can last anywhere from a few
days to 8 or more weeks depending on the
degree to which the material is to be
stabilised. For example, when the purpose of
the process is to dry material prior to
mechanical separation in an MBT facility, the
process can be very short. If material is being
stabilised prior to its use as compost,
compost-like-output or disposal to landfill, a
number of weeks processing will be required.
The technologies described here are all
enclosed, either in buildings and/or
specifically designed vessels (e.g. tunnels,
drums, or towers) and are typically known as
in-vessel composting (IVC). The techniques
used to control the supply of oxygen required
by the process are the mechanical agitation
5
2. How it works
of waste (turning) and/or blowing or sucking
air through the waste (forced aeration)
offering differing levels of process control
and automation. Two methods of material
flow are offered: batch or continuous input
(see Table 1).
Table 1: Technology Options
System
Material
Flow
Aeration Method
Tunnels
Batch
Forced aeration
Forced aeration and
mechanical agitation
Continuous
Forced aeration
Forced aeration and
mechanical agitation
Vertical
towers/silos
Continuous
Passive aeration
Forced aeration
Forced aeration and
mechanical agitation
Rotating
drums
Continuous
Housed bays, Batch
piles or
extendedbeds
Continuous
Mechanical agitation
Forced aeration and
mechanical agitation
Mechanical agitation
Forced aeration,
mechanical agitation
Aeration is achieved by blowing and/or
sucking air through a slatted floor, perforated
pipe-work cast into the tunnel floor, or
special aeration channels on the tunnel floor.
Oxygen and temperature are controlled by
adjusting the amount of cool fresh air
entering the tunnel, and the rate of air flow.
Odorous gases are controlled by passing
exhaust air through water and/or chemical air
scrubbers, bio-filters, and thermal or ozone
based oxidising units.
Moisture may be controlled by pumping
process water or fresh water through a spraybar positioned in the roof of the tunnel onto
material being processed.
Mechanical agitation
Forced aeration,
mechanical agitation
Tunnels
Tunnel composting units are large-scale
rectangular vessels employing forced aeration
systems. They can be built as permanent
structures constructed from concrete and
steel, or more temporary using mobile
concrete push walls and/or special fabrics
stretched over steel frames. Tunnels may be
single or double ended for loading and
unloading, and may be fitted with retractable
or opening roofs to help load or unload.
6
Typically, composting tunnels are used to
process materials in single batches (all-in/allout), although some systems operate on a
continuous flow using specially designed
mechanical systems such as moving floors,
rotating shafts, and augers, to move the
material through the tunnel. Tunnels can be
filled manually using wheeled loading shovels
or using specialised filling equipment, such as
conveyors.
Vertical composting towers and silos
Material is fed on a continuous basis into the
top of a sealed tower or silo, and is processed
as it moves vertically through the vessel. These
systems may consist of a number of vessels
with a single compartment, or a single larger
vessel with several compartments (or levels).
The rate at which material moves through the
system is controlled by the rate at which
finished processed material is removed from
the bottom of the vessel. In single
compartment systems, once the material has
undergone the required processing time, it is
removed from the bottom on the vessel (or
compartment) using augers or scraping arms.
2. How it works
Many tower/silo systems rely on passive
aeration, but some systems also use forced
aeration.
(suction) to prevent odours escaping as well
as improving working conditions inside the
building.
Agitated bays, piles and extended-beds
Rotating drums
Organic material is fed into a large enclosed
building for processing. The material is either
placed in long concrete-walled bays, piles
(windrows), or extended-beds (‘mattresses’).
This is usually a continuous process, where
material is fed into a large, rotating drum.
The material is mixed and aerated as it passes
along the drum. Material is agitated and
moved along the length of the drum by
means of specially designed baffles and tines
situated in its walls. Some systems also
employ forced aeration rather than relying
on passive air flow alone.
Material is turned with specialist turning
machines comprising rotating drums with
tines, augers, or elevated-face conveyors.
Turners can be mounted on top of bay walls,
or driven through the bay or on the floor of
the processing building. Unmanned remote
controlled turners can also be used,
consisting of large bucket-wheels or augers
suspended from mobile gantries in the roof
of the processing building.
The mechanical action of rotating drums is
often used to split refuse bags, reduce waste
particle sizes, and dry waste materials. They
can be used in this way as a pre-treatment
alternative to waste shredding, to aid
mechanical sorting. They can also be used to
stabilise and sanitise pre-sorted waste.
Bio-drying
During the turning process material can be
moved along the length of a bay or
processing building in a continuous flow
fashion. In some cases, these systems are
operated as a batch process.
In many cases, the floor of the processing
building is also fitted with a forced aeration
system, often using negative pressure
When the composting technologies described
above are used to dry waste, this is usually as
part of a pre-treatment process, e.g. in an
MBT plant, and is often referred to as ‘biodrying’. The concept of bio-drying is to force
air through the hot biologically active waste
to dry it quickly. Drying makes the waste
more amenable to mechanical separation
and increases its calorific value if used as a
fuel. This also reduces the mass of waste and
partially reduces its biodegradable content.
Some energy is consumed in drying the
material and negates to some extent the
energy gained through drying the waste.
2.5 Anaerobic digestion (biogas)
technologies
Anaerobic digestion (AD), also known as
biogas technologies, are designed and
engineered to control and optimise the
7
2. How it works
biological digestion of biodegradable
materials to produce methane gas for energy
production. The technologies are, by their
nature, enclosed, using specifically designed
vertical and/or horizontal vessels,
interconnecting pipe-work, mixers,
macerators and pumps.
AD processes last around two to three weeks
depending on the ease and degree to which
materials are converted into biogas and the
technology used. For example, for waste
containing a larger amount of woody (high
lignin content) material, longer residence
times will be required to achieve the desired
biogas production.
There are two main classifications of AD
techniques: ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ (Table 2). In
essence, ‘wet’ AD systems process more liquid
materials (?85% moisture), whereas ‘dry’ AD
processes are used to treat drier materials
(?80% moisture) ranging from thick slurry to
a wet solid. Waste feedstock is mixed and
macerated with a large proportion of process
effluent and/or fresh water to prepare the
waste; giving it the moisture and flow
properties required.
Table 2: AD (biogas) Technology options
Wet or Dry
Operating Temperature Process Stages
Wet (low
solids)
Mesophilic
Single
Multiple
Thermophilic
Mesophilic
Single
Multiple
Thermophilic
Single
Multiple
8
‘Wet’ AD systems used to treat municipal solid
waste have been adapted from well
established systems used to treat wastewater
treatment plant biosolids. The digestion
process takes place in sealed vertical tanks
(digesters) that are usually continuously
mixed to maximise contact between microbes
and waste. Mixing can be achieved using
mechanical stirring devices, or by recirculating
biogas or waste through the digestion tank.
Transfer of material between several tanks is
achieved through pumps. This type of wet
system is better suited to feedstocks that are
readily converted to liquid e.g. food wastes.
In some ‘wet’ AD systems the waste
preparation stage can be used to
decontaminate mixed residual MSW by
removing heavy and light contaminants
through wet gravimetric separation.
‘Dry’ AD technology
‘Dry’ systems use plug flow reactor designs.
This approach involves adding fresh waste
and/or partially fermented waste into one
end of the reactor while fully digested
residue is extracted from the other. Dry
technologies can comprise vertical or
horizontal tanks. Vertical tanks rely on gravity
to move material through the system,
whereas horizontal systems use specialised
augers or baffles. A potential advantage of
the dry system is that it can tolerate higher
levels of physical contaminants.
Single
Multiple
Dry (high
solids)
‘Wet’ AD technology
Operating temperatures
AD technologies can be operated at
moderate (mesophilic: 30 – 40°C)
temperatures or high (thermophilic: 50 –
60°C) temperatures. ‘Dry’ AD processes lend
themselves to thermophilic operation due to
higher solids content and greater biological
2. How it works
heat production. ‘Wet’ AD processes can be
operated at either temperature, but are most
commonly mesophilic. In mesophilic systems,
a pasteurisation unit is used to heat the
material before or after digestion to achieve
sanitization.
some form of generator. Some electricity is
used by the plant, but any excess electricity
produced can be sold and exported via the
local electricity distribution network. Excess
heat can also be used locally, in a district
heating scheme or by a neighbouring
commercial or industrial facility.
Single step and multiple step processes
AD processes can be single step processes
where all the waste is placed into a single
digestion stage/vessel, or a multiple step
process using vessels to optimise different
stages of the process. Multiple step processes
often involve a separate hydrolysis stage,
which can be aerobic or anaerobic, to
breakdown complex organic material into
soluble compounds. This is followed by a
high-rate biogas production stage.
Some case study examples are described in
Section 4, and further information on these
and additional specific examples can be
obtained from the Waste Technology Data
Centre.
Biogas
Biogas produced during anaerobic digestion
is primarily composed of methane (typically
ranging between 50 – 75%) and carbon
dioxide, as well as smaller quantities of other
gases including hydrogen sulphide. Biogas is
also water saturated (100% humidity).
The amount of biogas produced using AD will
vary depending on the process design, such as
retention times and operation temperature,
and the volatile solids (organic matter)
content of the feedstock, i.e. the composition
of the waste inputs.
Biogas is stored in large vessels prior to its use
on or off site. Biogas can be used in a number
of ways (see Section 3.3), but is usually
burned to produce heat and electricity using
Digestate and liquor
Due to the high moisture content of the
waste material entering the process, and the
breakdown of solids during digestion,
digestate can have a high moisture content
upon leaving the process. The material
produced is kept in a storage tank and can be
mechanically pressed into its solids (digestate)
and liquid (liquor) fractions.
The dewatered digestate may be used directly
on land as a soil amendment provided it
meets appropriate regulatory standards (see
Section 3), or aerobically treated to produce a
compost (if from source segregated material)
or a compost-like output (if from
mechanically separated material). Some
liquor may be recycled in the AD process to
wet incoming waste; used directly on land as
a liquid fertilizer due to its valuable nitrogen
content (provided it meets appropriate
9
2. How it works
regulatory criteria); or used to maintain
moisture during the aerobic treatment of the
digestate. Alternatively, if no other route is
available, the liquor may be treated and
discharged in accordance with permit
requirements.
2.8 Energy balance benefits and
feedstock issues
Although IVC and AD treat similar wastes,
they are in fact complimentary and not
competing technologies. From an energy
consumption and greenhouse gas emission
reduction point of view, there is merit in
having an AD stage first following by
composting. The benefit of an AD process is
that it produces energy in the form of biogas,
whereas IVC will generally use energy in the
processing stages, in aerating the waste and
treating any leachate arising from the
10
process. Although AD liquor often needs
treating, the energy required is available
from the biogas. The digestate from AD
often needs to be matured by composting
before it can be applied to land. Since the
AD process has reduced the total amount of
material, less energy should be required than
if the whole amount of waste was treated
through IVC. Notwithstanding these issues,
some proportions of materials are inherently
better suited to either composting of
anaerobic digestion. For example, high
proportions of green waste with much bulky
wood material is better suited to composting
processes as it is easier to handle and has less
gas production. Conversely, high proportions
of kitchen waste are better suited to AD
processes as the gas production potential is
higher and odour control is easier to achieve.
3. Markets and outlets for the outputs
3.1 Introduction
The markets and outlets discussed in this
section relate primarily to those produced
from the biological treatment of source
segregated municipal waste. ABT has the
potential to produce a number of useful
outputs including compost from aerobic
composting and digestate, liquor and biogas
from anaerobic digestion. Outlets for the
outputs from ABT treating mixed, residual
MSW are discussed in more detail in the MBT
Brief.
3.2 Use of compost on land
ABT processing of source segregated organic
municipal waste can produce stabilised and
sanitised compost or partially stabilised
digestate material. The potential applications
of these outputs are dependent upon their
quality and legislative and market conditions.
The quality of compost produced will vary
with different ABT technologies, the quality
of raw waste inputs (including seasonal
variations), and the method and intensity of
waste preparation and separation prior to
ABT, as well as the methods used to screen
the outputs. Compost is suitable for use in a
number of sectors, including:
• Land restoration and soft landscaping
• Domestic use in gardens
• Agriculture and horticulture
The activities of the Waste & Resources Action
Programme (WRAP) have resulted in the
development by the British Standards
Institute of a Publicly Available Specification
for composted materials (BSI PAS 100). The
purpose of the specification is to increase
consumer confidence in buying compost.
Compost producers who are PAS 100 certified
8
produce a ‘quality compost’, by processing
source segregated biodegradable waste
which does not exceed the limits illustrated in
Table 3. For more information see the WRAP
website http://www.wrap.org.uk/composting/
compost_specifications/index.html
Table 3: BSI PAS 100 criteria*
Parameter
BSI PAS 100 limit
Cadmium, ppm
1.5
Chromium, ppm
100
Copper, ppm
200
Mercury, ppm
1
Nickel, ppm
50
Lead, ppm
200
Zinc, ppm
400
Impurities >2mm
Gravel & stones
0.5%; of which 0.25%
maximum can be plastic
>4mm <8% in grades other
than coarse mulch; >4mm in
coarse mulch grade <16%
Pathogens
E.coli 1000 cfu/g; No
Salmonella in 25g
Microbial respiration
rate
16 mg CO2/g organic
matter/day
* BSI PAS 100 is only valid for composts derived from sourcesegregated waste, by definition
Compost derived from waste will only cease
to be a waste when it is applied to land
under an exemption from the Environment
Agency. This is considered to be a barrier to
increasing compost use. In order to formalise
a quality control procedure for using compost
produced from source segregated waste, a
Quality Protocol has been developed8.
The Quality Protocol for the production and use of quality compost from source-segregated biowaste, developed by the Business Resource
Efficiency and Waste (BREW) programme, WRAP and the Environment Agency, published March 2007
11
3. Markets and outlets for the outputs
The Quality Protocol for Compost developed
by WRAP, the Environment Agency and other
key players in the industry sector, sets out the
criteria for the production of quality compost
from source segregated biowaste like food
and garden waste. If compost is produced
according to these criteria the compost
produced is no longer regarded as a waste
and can be spread to land without the need
to register with the Environment Agency for
a waste exemption. Compost not produced
according to the protocol is still considered to
be waste, including any output from noncertified composting sites (e.g. sites which are
not PAS 100 certified or sites covered by other
acceptable certification schemes).
Digestate and liquor are both sources of
nutrients, particularly nitrogen, which offer
great potential for energy and emissions
savings compared with artificially
manufactured fertiliser. WRAP and partner
organisations are producing a Protocol for
digestate from AD that will function in a
similar way to the Composting Protocol to
ease the regulatory barriers to using the
outputs from AD. It is expected to be
finalised in mid 2008.
Due to its low quality, opportunities to apply
compost-like outputs (CLO) and digestate
produced from mixed MSW to land will be
limited (see MBT technology brief).
Waste Management Licensing Regulations
Changes to the Waste Management Licensing
Regulations came into force on 1st July 20059.
Unless the Quality Protocol applies, a waste
management licence (WML) exemption,
under Paragraph 7A of the regulations, is
required by land owners/managers before any
compost, digestate or liquor derived from
source-segregated waste materials can be
applied to agricultural land. A compost-like
output, derived from mixed residual waste, is
not allowed to be applied to agricultural
land. These outputs may be applied to
brownfield and restoration land under a
WML exemption, under Paragraph 9A,
provided that ecological benefit is
demonstrated.
The Government and the National Assembly
for Wales consulted in May 2006 on the
requirement for compost or digestate to be
derived from source-segregated materials if it
is to be permitted to be spread to agricultural
land, under a Paragraph 7A WML Exemption.
In the light of consultation, the Government
has concluded that, for now, the sourcesegregation requirement should remain.
However, the Government views this as an
interim measure, and will carry out work to
find a longer term, more sustainable solution
that will encourage the development of
[mixed MSW ABT] technologies that will
produce high standard outputs which could
be safely spread to land.
For the latest position contact or visit the
Environment Agency and Defra websites.
Animal By-Products Regulations (ABPR)
ABT plants that process food waste and
intend to use the stabilised organic material
on land (including landfill cover) will be
considered to be a composting or biogas
plant, and will fall within the scope of the
ABPR. These sites must therefore meet all
treatment and hygiene standards required by
source-segregated waste composting/biogas
plants (see Section 6).
Mixed MSW will contain household kitchen
(‘catering’) waste including meat, and as such
will, at least, fall under UK national ABPR10
9 The Waste Management Licensing (England and Wales) (Amendment and Related Provisions) (No. 3) Regulations 2005 (S.I. No. 1728)
10 Animal By-products Regulations 2003 (SI 2003/1482); Wales (SI 2003/2756 W.267); Scotland (SSI 2003/411)
12
3. Markets and outlets for the outputs
standards for catering waste containing meat.
In some cases it may also contain certain
commercial/industrial waste containing raw
meat or fish; classified as ‘Category 3’ animal
by-products. Category 3 animal by-products
must be treated in accordance with the EU
regulation11 standards.
Where biogas is used for onsite electricity
generation, a generator similar to that used
in landfill gas applications can be used, as
these generators are designed to combust
moist gas containing some hydrogen
sulphide. Gas compression equipment may be
required to boost the gas pressure to the
level required by the generator.
3.3 Biogas from anaerobic digestion
Biogas can be used in a number of ways. It
can be used as a natural gas substitute
(distributed into the natural gas supply) or
converted into fuel for use in vehicles. More
commonly it is used to fuel boilers to produce
heat (hot water and steam), or to fuel
generators in combined heat and power
(CHP) applications to generate electricity, as
well as heat.
Biogas electricity production per tonne of
waste can range from 75 to 225 kWh, varying
according to the feedstock composition,
biogas production rates and electrical
generation equipment. Generating electricity
from biogas is considered ‘renewable energy’
and benefits from support under the
Renewables Obligation, see Section 9.3.
In most simple energy production
applications, only a little biogas pretreatment is required. Biogas used in a boiler
requires minimal treatment and compression,
as boilers are much less sensitive to hydrogen
sulphide and moisture levels, and can operate
at a much lower input gas pressure.
11
Some electricity is used by the AD plant, but
excess electricity produced (typically ~75%)
can be sold and exported via the local
electricity distribution network. Excess heat
can also be used locally in a district heating
scheme, if there is an available user.
For high specification applications (e.g.
vehicle fuel, natural gas substitute), or when
using more sophisticated electricity
generation equipment (e.g. turbines), biogas
will require more pre-treatment to upgrade
its quality. This includes the removal of
hydrogen sulphide (a corrosive gas); moisture
removal; pressurization to boost gas pressure;
and removing carbon dioxide to increase the
calorific value of the biogas. However, the
cost of the equipment required to upgrade
biogas can be prohibitive.
3.4 Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
RDF is not usually an output from ABT
accepting source segregated waste only. For
information on RDF outlets please refer to
the MBT Technology Brief.
Regulation EC 1774/2002 laying down health rules concerning animal by-products not intended for human consumption
13
4. Track record
ABT technologies such as in-vessel
composting (IVC) and anaerobic digestion
have been proven for source segregated
materials overseas and increasingly in the UK,
but operations processing organics from MBT
are much fewer. The examples illustrated
here are for UK facilities, including two from
the Defra New Technologies Demonstrator
Programme. For examples of facilities using
ABT within MBT processing mixed residual
MSW, please see the separate MBT Brief
within this series.
A new Bioganix facility has recently been
constructed under the Defra New
Technologies Demonstrator Programme in
Leominster. The facility accepts source
segregated organic waste from Shropshire
and Herefordshire. A visitor centre will be
available for local authorities to learn more
about the Bioganix process.
Terra Eco Systems in-vessel composting
system, High Heavens, High Wycombe,
Buckinghamshire
4.1 Aerobic (composting) technology
This form of technology has been
commercially developed in the UK for sourcesegregated materials. Most UK experience to
date is still dominated by open-air
mechanically turned pile (windrow)
composting accepting green garden waste,
although in-vessel facilities have increased
due to the Animal By-Product Regulations.
In-vessel systems allow animal by-products,
such as meat and dairy products, to be
composted.
Case studies
Bioganix rotating drum in-vessel compost
facility, Parham near Ipswich
This £2.4 million rotating drum composting
system is designed to take 15,000 tonnes per
year, including source-segregated garden and
kitchen waste from Suffolk Coastal District
Council. The waste is shredded before it is
placed inside the rotating drum. It is a batch
process, so once a drum has been filled the
process begins. The material is composted in
one drum for 4 days. The material is then
removed from the drum, screened to a 12mm
particle size and placed into a second drum
supplemented with steam to achieve
sanitisation under EU animal by-products
legislation. This material is then distributed
off-site for use on farmland.
14
High Heavens IVC composting bays. Source: CRS
www.crservices.co.uk
The High Heavens facility was built to a CRS
Ltd design and is operated by Terra Eco
Systems for Buckinghamshire County Council.
Partial funding was received from the Defra
Challenge fund. The facility has been
operating under full ABPR approval since
February 2005 and receives kerbside collected
garden and kitchen waste, also garden waste
from civic amenity facilities. Current process
capacity is for 15,000 tonnes per year; a
planned expansion to 40,000 tonnes per year
will accommodate increased kerbside
collections.
Input material is shredded, has water added
and is then screened (200 mm) before being
loaded into a first barrier composting bay.
The composting process takes place in single
door bays, each having a capacity of around
140 tonnes. Aerobic conditions are sustained
through use of an air handling system, with
air being drawn into the compost from pipes
within the floor and then either recirculated
or vented through an odour control system.
4. Track record
Continuous temperature monitoring
identifies the stage at which the first ABPR
barrier has been passed, following which the
material is moved to another composting bay
and monitored until the second barrier is
passed. The processed material can then be
moved to an open maturation area. The
composted material is distributed off site for
use on farmland and in landscaping.
conditioner, and liquor to be used as a
biofertiliser. The biogas produced fuels a
combined heat and power (CHP) unit, to
produce renewable electricity for the grid
and process heat available for district / local
heat needs. When operating at full capacity,
the net electricity production is estimated to
be 1.5 million kWh and a net heat output of
2.2 million kWh.
4.2 Anaerobic Digestion (biogas)
technology
Stornaway AD facility, Western Isles Scotland
This technology has been proven on sewage
sludge across the UK water industry, with
some success on source segregated municipal
waste.
South Shropshire Biowaste Digester
(Greenfinch Ltd & South Shropshire District
Council)
Stornoway digestor under construction.
Source: Earth Tech UK
Greenfinch AD plant Ludlow. Photo: Greenfinch
This facility in Ludlow, Shropshire is a Defra
New Technologies Demonstrator plant. It is
designed to treat 5,000 tonnes per year of
source separated garden and kitchen waste.
The input waste undergoes two
shredding/wetting stages before being
placed into a feedstock buffer tank. This
feeds the AD tank, which uses a uses wet
mesophilic (37ºC) AD process in a fully-mixed
tank. The AD process is continuous with a
batch pasteurisation process (70ºC for one
hour) at the end to meet ABPR requirements.
The digested material is then separated into
digestate (>0.5mm) for use as a soil
This facility is a ‘dry’ AD system by
technology supplier Linde, constructed by
Earth Tech. The source segregated organic
stream is offloaded to a dedicated reception
bay and then crushed to reduce particle size.
Crushed waste is conveyed via an over band
magnet to remove metal contamination
before being screened through a trommel;
the screened under size (<60 mm) is
transferred to the anaerobic digestion plant
and the over size is recycled back to the
crusher. The screened material passes to
aerated buffer tanks for 1.5 days to increase
feedstock temperature prior to digestion and
is further refined in particle size to comply
with ABPR requirements (<50mm). The feed
stock is then fed into the digester where it is
anaerobically treated over a 26 day period.
15
4. Track record
The AD plant inputs are dry solids of
approximately 32%, output dry solids of
approximately 25%. The digester complies
with ABPR requirements of 57°C for 5 hours.
Digestate is dewatered in a two stage system
and the digestate cakes are taken off site for
open windrow composting and maturation.
Collected biogas is used to generate
electricity and heat in a combined heat and
power engine. All electricity produced
qualifies for ROCs and is used to run the
facility, with excess being exported to the
grid.
4.3 MBT technology
Several MBT technologies have been proven
in mainland Europe (see MBT Waste
Management Technology Brief, in this series)
and so the current issue is one of appropriate
technology transfer. The UK test-bed for
these technologies is now in progress, with
16
the construction of 2 plants operated by
Shanks in East London Waste Authority
(ELWA), the Biffa plant in operation in
Leicester, the SITA plant in operation at Byker
and the smaller scale Premier plant in County
Durham.
The least proven aspect of MBT technologies
is probably the final quality and
contamination levels of any stabilised organic
residues produced. There are expected to be
only limited outlets for these compost-like
outputs (CLOs), even when distributed free of
charge, with costs involved to dispose of such
materials through other routes. Further
information is available in the MBT
Technology Brief and other reference
documents such as the SITA Environmental
Trust report on MBT (see further reading).
5. Contractual and financing issues
5.1 Financing
Contractual Arrangements
Development of ABT plant will involve capital
expenditure of several million pounds. There
are a number of potential funding sources for
Local Authorities planning to develop such
facilities, including:
Medium and large scale municipal waste
management contracts are usually procured
through the Competitive Dialogue procedure
under the Public Contract Regulations (2006).
Capital Grants: general grants may be
available from national economic initiatives
and EU structural funds;
Prudential Borrowing: the Local
Government Act 2003 provides for a
'prudential' system of capital finance controls;
PFI Credits and Private Sector Financing:
under the Private Finance Initiative a waste
authority can obtain grant funding from
central Government to support the capital
expenditure required to deliver new facilities.
This grant has the effect of reducing the
financing costs for the Private Sector, thereby
reducing the charge for the treatment service;
Other Private-Sector Financing: A
contractor may be willing to enter a contract
to provide a new facility and operate it. The
contractor’s charges for this may be expressed
as gate fees; and
Existing sources of local authority
funding: for example National Non-Domestic
Rate payments (distributed by central
government), credit (borrowing) approvals,
local tax raising powers (council tax), income
from rents, fees, charges and asset sales
(capital receipts). In practice capacity for this
will be limited but generally it is through
raising taxes.
The Government is encouraging the use of
different funding streams, otherwise known
as a ‘mixed economy’ for the financing and
procurement of new waste infrastructure to
reflect the varying needs of local authorities.
The available contractual arrangement
between the private sector provider (PSP) and
the waste disposal authority (or partnership)
may be one of the following:
Separate Design; Build; Operate; and
Finance: The waste authority contracts
separately for the works and services needed,
and provides funding by raising capital for
each of the main contracts. The contract to
build the facility would be based on the
council’s design and specification and the
council would own the facility once
constructed;
Design & Build; Operate; Finance: A
contract is let for the private sector to provide
both the design and construction of a facility
to specified performance requirements. The
waste authority owns the facility that is
constructed and makes separate
arrangements to raise capital. Operation
would be arranged through a separate
Operation and Maintenance contract;
Design, Build and Operate; Finance: The
Design and Build and Operation and
Maintenance contracts are combined. The
waste authority owns the facility once
constructed and makes separate
arrangements to raise capital;
Design, Build, Finance and Operate
(DBFO): This contract is a Design and Build
and Operate but the contractor also provides
the financing of the project. The contractor
designs, constructs and operates the plant to
agreed performance requirements. Regular
performance payments are made over a fixed
17
5. Contractual and financing issues
term to recover capital and financing costs,
operating and maintenance expenses, plus a
reasonable return. At the end of the contract,
the facility is usually transferred back to the
client in a specified condition; and
DBFO with PFI: This is a Design, Build,
Finance and Operate contract, but it is
procured under the Private Finance Initiative.
In this case the waste authority obtains grant
funding from Government as a supplement to
finance from its own and private sector
sources. The PFI grant is only eligible for
facilities treating residual waste and is
payable once capital expenditure is incurred.
The majority of large scale waste
management contracts currently being
procured in England are Design, Build,
Finance and Operate contracts and many
waste disposal authorities in two tier English
arrangements (County Councils) are currently
seeking to partner with their Waste
Collection Authorities (usually District or
Borough Councils). Sometimes partnerships
are also formed with neighbouring Unitary
Authorities to maximise the efficiency of the
waste management service and make the
contract more attractive to the Private Sector
Provider.
Before initiating any procurement or funding
process for a new waste management
treatment facility, the following issues should
be considered: performance requirements;
waste inputs; project duration; project cost;
available budgets; availability of sites;
planning status; interface with existing
contracts; timescales; governance and decision
making arrangements; market appetite and
risk allocation.
18
Further guidance on these issues can be
obtained from the following sources:
• Local Authority funding
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/wast
e/localauth/funding/pfi/index.htm
• The Local Government PFI project support
guide
www.local.odpm.gov.uk/pfi/grantcond.pdf
• For Works Contracts: the Institution of Civil
Engineers ‘New Engineering Contract’
(available at www.ice.org.uk)
• For large scale Waste Services Contracts
through PFI and guidance on waste sector
projects see the 4ps, local government's
project delivery organisation
http://www.4ps.gov.uk/PageContent.aspx?id
=90&tp=Y
6. Planning and permitting issues
6.1 Planning
• Standard Application – 8 weeks
This section contains information on the
planning and regulatory issues associated
with ABT facilities based on legislative
requirements, formal guidance, good practice
and in particular drawing on information
contained in the Office of the Deputy Prime
Minister’s research report on waste planning
published in August 200412.
• Major Development - 13 weeks
6.2 Planning
All development activities are covered by
Planning laws and regulations. Minor
development may be allowed under
Permitted Development rights but in almost
all cases new development proposals for
waste facilities will require planning
permission.
Under certain circumstances new waste
facilities can be developed on sites previously
used for General Industrial (B2) or Storage
and Distribution (B8) activities. In practice
even where existing buildings are to be used
to accommodate new waste processes,
variations to existing permissions are likely to
be required to reflect changes in traffic
movements, emissions etc.
Under changes to the planning system
introduced in 2006 all waste development is
now classed as ‘Major Development’. This has
implications with respect to the level of
information that the planning authority will
expect to accompany the application and also
with respect to the likely planning
determination period. The target
determination periods for different
applications are:
• EIA Development - 16 weeks
The principal national planning policy
objectives associated with waste management
activities are set out in Planning Policy
Statement (PPS) 10 ‘Planning for Sustainable
Waste Management’ published in July 2005.
Supplementary guidance is also contained
within the Companion Guide to PPS 10. Both
of these documents can be accessed via the
Department of Communities and Local
Government (DCLG) website13.
PPS 10 places the emphasis on the plan led
system which should facilitate the
development of new waste facilities through
the identification of sites and policies in the
relevant local development plan. Separate
guidance on the content and validation of
planning applications is also available from
DCLG through their website14. Individual
Planning Authorities can set out their own
requirements with respect to supporting
information and design criteria through
Supplementary Planning Documents linked to
the Local Development Framework. It is
important that prospective developers liaise
closely with their Local Planning Authorities
over the content and scope of planning
applications.
The process of gaining planning permission
for a new ABT facility should not be
underestimated. Although potentially less
contentious compared with other waste
processing operations such as thermal
treatment the majority of all new waste
proposals attract considerable local interest.
12 http://www.communities.gov.uk/embeddedindex.asp?id=1145711
13 http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1143834
14 http://www.communities.gov.uk/pub/494/BestPracticeGuidanceontheValidationofPlanningApplicationsPDF326Kb_id1144494.pdf
19
6. Planning and permitting issues
6.3 Key Issues
The primary emissions from these plants are
emissions to air and the limited potential for
discharges to water by leachate and land
impacts from the application of soil
conditioners.
When considering the planning implications
of an ABT facility the other issues that will
need to be considered are common to most
waste management facilities. The key issues
are therefore:
• Plant/Facility Siting;
• Traffic;
• Air Emissions / Health Effects;
• Odour;
• Bio-aerosols (and Dust)
• Flies, Vermin and Birds;
does not differentiate between facility types
but states that:
“Most waste management activities are now
suitable for industrial locations, many fall
within the general industrial class in the Use
Classes Order.15
The move towards facilities and processes
being enclosed within purpose designed
buildings, rather than in the open air, has
accentuated this trend. The guidance goes
on to state:
“With advancement in mitigation techniques,
some waste facilities may also be considered
as light industrial in nature and therefore
compatible with residential development. In
more rural areas, redundant agricultural and
forestry buildings may also provide suitable
opportunities, particularly for the
management of agricultural wastes”
• Noise;
• Litter;
• Water Resources;
• Nutrient Retention; and
• Visual Intrusion.
A brief overview of the planning context for
each of these issues is provided below.
6.4
Plant Siting
ABT technologies are often housed in
purpose designed and configured buildings
but may also, (particularly in-vessel
composting) be developed within existing
buildings. AD reactors are invariably
externally sited tank structures.
PPS 10 and its Companion Guide contain
general guidance on the selection of sites
suitable for waste facilities. This guidance
15
20
The following general criteria would also
apply to the siting of new ABT plants:
• Buildings which might house ABT can be
similar in appearance and characteristics to
various process industries. It would often
be suitable to locate facilities on land
previously used for general industrial
activities or land allocated in development
plans for such (B2) uses;
• Facilities are likely to require good
transport infrastructure. Such sites should
either be located close to the primary road
network or alternatively have the potential
to be accessed by rail or barge;
• The location of such plants together with
other waste operations such as MBT/MHT
and ATTs can be advantageous. The
potential for co-location of such facilities
on resource recovery parks or similar is also
The Town and Country Planning (Use Classes) Order 1987. SI 1987 No. 764
6. Planning and permitting issues
highlighted in the PPS 10 and the
Companion Guide; and
• The potential for export of energy to host
users or the national grid should also be a
key consideration in the siting of AD type
ABT plants.
6.5 Traffic
ABT facilities may be served by significant
numbers of HGVs (depending on the scale of
the facility) with a potential impact on local
roads and the amenity of local residents. It is
likely that the site layout/road configuration
will need to be suitable to accept a range of
light and heavy vehicles. For a 50,000tpa
capacity plant, up to 20 Refuse Collection
Vehicles per day would be anticipated.
6.6 Air Emissions / Health Effects
Potential health effects of composting
facilities are likely to be strongly dependent
on the type of facility (open windrow or invessel system). Studies have found no
increase in cancer or asthma in populations
close to composting facilities. However, even
a well-run open windrow facility can give rise
to emissions of micro-organisms and dusts,
which can lead to public concern about
health impacts on people living in close
proximity to the facility. The Environment
Agency suggests that risk assessments may be
undertaken on sites where there are sensitive
receptors nearby. Emissions and potential
risks to health can be more readily controlled
in an IVC and AD facility than an open site.
One published study has indicated a possible
link between commercial scale open
composting and respiratory symptoms in
people living nearby. This study related to a
single facility and is currently being reevaluated by the German Environment
Ministry.
No studies suggesting adverse health effects
of AD facilities processing municipal waste
have been published. Depending on the
nature of an individual facility, potential
health effects of AD facilities might be
expected to be comparable to those of
composting facilities, and may potentially
have fewer emissions of volatile odorous
compounds. AD processes also involve the
production and combustion of biogas. This is
beneficial for the production of heat and/or
electricity, the combustion of biogas will
result in mainly carbon dioxide and water
vapour.
6.7 Odour
The control of odour at ABT facilities needs
extremely careful consideration. As most ABT
technologies are almost entirely enclosed,
potential odour emissions can normally be
controlled through the building ventilation
system. If there is a combustion element to
the facility, odorous air extracted from
process areas can be used in the combustion
stage. Particular attention may need to be
paid to headspace air in enclosed storage
facilities such as digestate tanks.
If there is no combustion element, the
process of air extraction and ventilation will
nevertheless dilute odorous air. It may be
necessary to disperse extracted air from an
elevated point, and/or treat the air.
Biofiltration systems can be used for control
of odours in air extracted from working areas
if required. The need for, and design of
odour control systems would need to be
assessed on a site-by-site basis.
Control of odours from open composting
systems relies on good control and
management of the composting process.
Some odour is unavoidable, and open
composting facilities can be problematic from
the perspective of odour if not properly sited
and operated.
21
6. Planning and permitting issues
6.8 Flies, Vermin and Birds
6.11 Water Resources
The enclosed nature of ABT operations will
limit the potential to attract vermin and
birds. However, during hot weather it is
possible that flies could accumulate, especially
if they have been brought in during delivery
of the waste. Effective housekeeping and on
site management of tipping and storage
areas is essential to minimise the risk from
vermin and other pests. In some operations
waste heat from the process may be used to
bring temperatures in fresh input waste to
levels above which flies can live.
The release of potentially harmful chemicals
into surface and/or ground water is only likely
where there is uncontrolled leachate and/or
run off from the working areas contaminated
with waste materials. Most ABT will have tight
control of such emissions through extensive
impermeable surfaces, drainage, and hygiene
procedures as required under ABPR.
6.9 Noise
Noise is an issue that will be controlled under
the waste licensing regulations and noise
levels received at nearby receptors can be
limited by a condition of a planning
permission. The main contributors to noise
associated with ABT are likely to be:
• vehicle movements / manoeuvring;
• traffic noise on the local road networks;
• mechanical processing such as waste
preparation;
• air extraction fans and ventilation systems;
and
• operations associated with turning and
aeration of the biomass.
6.10 Litter
Any waste which contains plastics and paper
is more likely to lead to litter problems. Litter
problems can be minimised as long as good
working practices are adhered to and vehicles
use covers and reception and processing are
undertaken indoors.
6.12 Nutrient Retention
Biological processes (both aerobic and
anaerobic) offer the opportunity for key
nutrients including Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Potassium and other trace metals to be
retained in the agricultural/horticultural cycle.
This is in contrast to the thermal processes,
where bulk of the nutrients are either lost to
a different medium or removed completely
from the natural cycles.
6.13 Design Principles and Visual
Intrusion
Planning guidance in PPS 10 emphasises the
importance of good design in new waste
facilities. Good design principles and
architect input to the design and physical
appearance of waste facilitates is essential.
Buildings should be of an intrinsically high
standard and should not need to be screened
in most cases.
Good design principles also extend to other
aspects of the facility including having regard
to issues such as:
• Site access and layout;
• Energy efficiency;
• Water efficiency; and
• The general sustainability profile of the
facility.
22
6. Planning and permitting issues
Construction of any building will have an
effect on the visual landscape of an area.
Visual intrusion issues should be dealt with on
a site specific basis and the following items
should be considered:
• Direct effect on landscape by removal of
items such as trees or undertaking major
earthworks;
• Site setting; is the site close to listed
buildings, conservation areas or sensitive
viewpoints;
• Existing large buildings and structures in
the area;
• The potential of a stack associated with
some air clean up systems for mixed waste
processing operations may impact on visual
intrusion;
• Use of screening features (trees, hedges,
banks etc);
The scale of the biological process depends
on the total material throughput, and the
residence time of the material in the
biological process. In general AD processes
require shorter residence times and so are
smaller in scale than IVC facilities. However,
often AD facilities will need to be followed by
an aerobic (composting) process to complete
stabilisation, and dry the digestate.
Different residence times will relate to
regulatory requirements (e.g. ABPR), the
efficiency of the process, and parameters
required for the final output (e.g. moisture
content, stability/respiration rates), and
output end use.
Landtake is highly variable, a general rule of
thumb is between 0.5 and 1m2 per tonne of
input material will be required. Taller
buildings are required for vertical composting
units compared to tunnel units.
• The number of vehicles accessing the site
and their frequency, and;
• Many of these facilities are housed in
‘warehouse’ type clad steel buildings,
however use of good design techniques
can help minimise visual intrusion.
6.14 Size and Landtake
ABT plants can be built for a wide range of
capacities. The chosen scale will reflect the
tonnage necessary to meet local waste
strategy targets and make the facility
profitable within the conditions of the
contract, within the limitations of local
planning and permitting restrictions. Most
ABT facilities for source segregated waste will
have capacities in the range of 10,000 and
60,000 tpa.
The capacity of ABT facilities within MBT
facilities is usually over 50,000 tpa but under
200,000 tpa.
23
6. Planning and permitting issues
6.15 Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA)
Some small ABT facilities may not require EIA.
However, those which are located within
sensitive areas or close to sensitive receptors
will require EIA under Schedule II – Part 11
‘Other Projects’ (b) installations for the
disposal of waste – of the EIA Regulations.
6.16 Licensing/permitting
If processing over 50 tonnes a day, a Pollution
Prevention & Control (PPC) permit would be
required to operate an IVC and AD facility.
Most facilities are smaller in size and will
require a Waste Management Licence to
Box 1: Wanlip AD facility
• The 40,000 tpa facility is located on 0.7ha
of Severn Trent Water’s sewage treatment
works
• It is designed to receive the fine organic
fraction from the ball mill facility (a
mechanical treatment facility receiving
residual MSW)
• Application submitted in December 2002
and approved in March 2003 with 14
conditions
• An EIA was not required; site is
surrounding by existing industrial land to
the north and west with the A46
immediately to the south and east
24
operate. The Environmental Permitting
Programme (EPP) is due to be implemented in
April 2008 which will combine waste licensing
and permitting systems.
For more information on licensing &
permitting see the Environment Agency site.
For more information on licensing &
permitting see http://www.environmentagency.gov.uk/subjects/waste/?lang=_e
Box 1 illustrates some of the key planning
features of the Wanlip AD facility operated
by Biffa Ltd in the planning authority of
Leicestershire County Council.
6. Planning and permitting issues
6.17 Animal By-products Regulations
(ABPR)
Any ABT type facility producing a stabilised
organic output to land will be required to
meet EU ABPR standards for processing
Category 3 animal by-products or, at least,
national ABPR standards for ‘catering’ waste
containing meat (see table below). The EU
ABPR standard requires that all material be
either anaerobically digested or composted at
70°C for at least 1 hour with a maximum
feedstock particle size of 12 mm.
Table 4: National ABPR minimum standards
AD
Composting*
(one process stage
(any 2 process stages
below, plus storage) listed below)
70°C; 1 hour; max
particle size 60mm
Enclosed reactor 70°C for at
least 1 hour with a maximum
particle size of 60mm
57°C; 5 hours; max
particle size 50mm
Enclosed reactor at 60°C for at
least 2 days with a maximum
particle size of 400mm
At least 18 days
storage (may be in
the open)
Housed (if first stage) or open
air (if second stage) turned piles
Premises must be enclosed from waste
reception until at least the completion of the
first processing stage. The processing site
must also prevent access to animals and birds,
which could act as potential pathogen
vectors. Partially or fully treated material
must not be contaminated with any material
that has been treated to a lesser extent.
There must be no way that any untreated or
partially treated materials can by-pass the
pasteurisation and storage stages within the
system.
To ensure all these process and hygiene
standards are met, strict operating,
monitoring, and hygiene procedures must be
followed according to a Hazard Analysis and
Critical Control Point (HACCP) plan. The
HACCP plans must be developed and verified
(through site checks and microbial analysis of
samples) as part of the ABPR approval
process.
60°C; 2 days achieved 4 times
consecutively, with a turning
between each; max particle size
of 400mm
* Two processing stages can be achieved in one reactor
where an internal mixing process is used.
25
7. Social and perception issues
This section contains a discussion of the social
and environmental considerations of ABT
facilities.
New waste facilities of whatever type are
rarely welcomed by residents close to where
the facility is to be located.
7.1
Public opinion on waste management issues is
wide ranging, and can often be at extreme
ends of the scale. Typically, the most
positively viewed waste management options
for MSW are recycling and composting.
However, this is not necessarily reflected in
local attitudes towards the infrastructure
commonly required to process waste to
compost, or sort mixed recyclables, or indeed
to have an extra wheeled bin or box. It
should be recognised that there is always
likely to be some resistance to any waste
management facility within a locality, despite
the necessity to have the capacity to deal
with societies waste.
Social Considerations
Any new facility is likely to impact on local
residents and may result in both positive and
negative impacts. Potential impacts on local
amenity (odour, noise, dust, landscape) are
important considerations when siting any
waste management facility. These issues are
examined in more detail in the Planning &
Permitting chapter of this Brief. Transport
impacts associated with the delivery of waste
and onward transport of process outputs may
lead to impacts on the local road network.
The Planning and Permitting chapter of this
Brief provides an estimate of potential vehicle
movements.
Potential environmental and local amenity
impacts, whether real or perceived, can cause a
great deal of concern. ABT plants can be large
facilities that should be sited carefully, to
minimise these impacts (see section 6). ABT
facilities may also provide positive social
impacts in the form of employment and
educational opportunities, as well as a low-cost
source of heat (in the case of biogas plants).
Table 4 provides an estimate of the jobs
created by a new plant. These facilities are also
likely to provide vocational training for staff.
Many new facilities are built with a visitors
centre to enable local groups to view the
facility and learn more about how it operates.
7.2 Public Perception
Changes in waste management arrangements
in local areas is creating a higher profile for
the service through the media. Many people
as a result of greater publicity and targeted
education are now embracing the need for
waste reduction, recycling and to a lesser
extent the need for new waste facilities. The
wider perception of waste facilities as a bad
neighbour will take longer to overcome.
26
Overall, experience in developing waste
management strategies has highlighted the
importance of proactive communication with
the public over waste management options.
The use of realistic and appropriate models,
virtual ‘walk – throughs’ / artists impressions
should be used to accurately inform the
public. Good practice in terms of public
consultation and engagement is an important
aspect in gaining acceptance for planning
and developing waste management
infrastructure. Defra are funding the
development of small to medium scale
demonstration plant in England for local
authorities to visit and for Defra to publish
data on performance.
At present there is a relatively low level of
public understanding on the concept of ABT.
However it would be anticipated that
biological processing of waste, in line with
the concept of composting, may receive a
more positive reaction than other alternative
waste management options.
Defra is funding the development of small to
medium scale demonstration plant in England
for local authorities to visit and for Defra to
publish data on performance. For more
information contact [email protected].
8. Cost
In this section, the cost of ABT facilities with
anaerobic and aerobic processes is discussed.
The costs below in Table 5 illustrate the
estimated gate fee for different biological
treatment technologies recently published by
WRAP16. The gate fee for in-vessel
composting is suggested for a typical capacity
of between 10-20,000 tpa. A recently
published study by Defra however suggests
that the practical, optimum capacity for IVC is
50,000 tpa, using a transport and process cost
model17. ABT facilities require considerably
more capital expenditure compared with
windrow composting. Costs are associated
with buildings, concrete slabs, monitoring
equipment and other costs associated with
ensuring facilities are ABPR compliant.
The variation in magnitude and ranges of
costs are due to the wide variety of systems
available on the market, plant capacities, and
the level of mechanical automation used.
Capital expenditure for IVC is estimated to be
between £30 and £60 per tonne per annum.
The cost of an AD system will depend on the
size of the facility and will vary between
technology providers. As an indication of
possible costs, a large 1 MWe capacity facility
will cost:
• £3 to 4 Million capital expenditure
• Up to £100,000 per annum running costs
Table 5: Typical gate fees for biological
treatment processes
Biological Process
Gate Fee (£/t)
Windrow composting
£19
In-vessel Composting
£35-40
Anaerobic Digestion
£55-65
16 Managing biowastes from households in the UK: Applying life-cycle thinking in the framework of cost-benefit analysis. Eunomia Research
and Consulting for Waste & Resources Action Programme, May 2007
17 Economies of Scale - Waste Management Optimisation Study by AEA Technology for Defra, April 2007
27
9. Contribution to national targets
9.1 Best Value Performance Indicators
(BVPI)
BVPI 82b: Composting and Anaerobic
Digestion
Compost generated through the processing
of source segregated organic material by invessel composting will contribute to BVPI 82b,
the indicator for the amount of composting a
local authority has achieved. The definition of
BVPI 82b now also includes waste which has
been treated through a process of anaerobic
digestion.
Where MBT processes are configured to
produce an organic rich stream known as a
compost-like output (CLO) from mixed
residual MSW to be utilised as a low grade
soil conditioner for example, this material
may (but is ‘unlikely to’ see below) qualify as
composting under BVPI 82b. The CLO could
be utilised in applications such as brownfield
restoration, landfill restoration or some bulk
fill uses (provided that the appropriate
engineering and quality standards are met).
These materials will only qualify as
‘composted’ under the Best Value
Performance Indicator (BVPI 82b) if the
output meets the appropriate criteria for use
in the intended application. Some waste
management contractors have demonstrated
that there is a market for these materials,
however the current Best Value Performance
Indicator Guidance (as of November 2004)
states the criteria for composting should be ‘a
product that has been sanitised and
stabilised, is high in humic substances, and
can be used as a soil improver, as an
ingredient in growing media or blended to
produce a top soil that will meet British
Standard BS2882 incorporating amendment
no.1…’ It also states that it is ‘unlikely that
products of a Mechanical Biological
28
Treatment process will meet this definition.’
However if the definition could be achieved
then the product would qualify as BVPI 82b.
The Government has recently increased
national recycling and composting targets for
household waste through the Waste Strategy
for England 2007. Targets are at least 40% by
2010, 45% by 2015 and 50% by 2020. For
more information on the contribution of ABT
to Best Value Performance Indicators and
recycling see the local authority performance
pages on the Defra website
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/l
ocalauth/perform-manage/index.htm and
http://www.wastedataflow.org/Documents/BV
PI%20FAQs.pdf
9.2 Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme
(LATS)
The European Landfill Directive and the UK’s
enabling act, the Waste & Emissions Trading
Act 2003, require the diversion of
biodegradable municipal waste (BMW) from
landfill. LATS (known as the Landfill
Allowances Scheme, LAS, in Wales) began in
2005, and places increasing restrictions on the
amount of biodegradable municipal waste
(BMW) going to landfill, in line with the EU
Landfill Directive targets. Local authority
allowances for the amount of BMW they can
send to landfill have been set in relation to
their total MSW arisings in 2001/2.
The ability for ABT processes to divert BMW
depends on the input material, the type &
quality of outputs produced and the markets
or outlets found for the outputs. The
treatment of source segregated
biodegradable waste will produce compost or
digestate and liquor, all of which can
potentially find a market and result in the full
diversion of BMW from landfill.
9. Contribution to national targets
The biological processing stage of an MBT
facility will be able to contribute to these
targets in two ways: 1) by turning BMW into
a compost-like output for use on land; or 2)
by reducing the mass and biodegradability of
BMW prior to landfill.
A compost-like output has more limited
applications to land than compost produced
from source segregated waste because of its
lower quality. If a WML exemption can be
obtained for the application of the CLO to
land then BMW is diverted from landfill.
However, MBT plant can also be used to biostabilise waste prior to landfilling. In this case
biological treatment is used to reduce the
waste’s potential to degrade and produce
methane once landfilled. The Environment
Agency (EA) has developed a methodology to
determine the ‘stability’ or ‘biodegradability’
of any outputs from an MBT plant which are
sent to landfill. This methodology can be
used to determine the actual amount of
biodegradable material being landfilled. This
information could help an authority achieve
allowance allocations under the Landfill
Allowance Trading Scheme (LATS). The
testing is not a statutory requirement
currently. Detailed guidance on how the
diversion of biodegradable waste is measured
in MBT processes can be found on the
Environment Agency website:
http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/
commondata/acrobat/mbt_1154981.pdf
Up to date information can be obtained from
Defra’s LATS information webpage:
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/l
ocalauth/lats/index.htm
9.3 Renewable Obligation Certificates
(ROCs)
The Renewables Obligation (RO) was
introduced in 2002 to promote the
development of electricity generated from
renewable sources of energy. The Obligation
requires licensed electricity suppliers to source
a specific and annually increasing percentage
of the electricity they supply from renewable
sources, demonstrated by Renewables
Obligation Certificates (ROCs). The target
currently rises to 15.4% by 2015/16. In
essence, the RO provides a significant boost
to the market price of renewable electricity
generated in eligible technologies.
Electricity generated from the biomass
(renewable) fraction of waste by anaerobic
digestion is eligible for support under the RO.
In the case of ABT, this applies to the
electricity generated from the biogas. This
can provide an important additional revenue
stream for a proposed plant, as long as it
meets the qualifying requirements. As the
value of a ROC is not fixed, the long term
value would need to be assessed in detail to
determine its overall financial value to the
project.
The Department for Industry (DTI) is
considering providing greater support to
technologies producing renewable energy
and assessing methods for removing barriers
to renewable energy generation.
Up-to-date information regarding RDF and
ROCs can be obtained from the DTI website
www.dti.gov.uk/energy/sources/renewables/in
dex.html.
29
10. Further reading and sources of
information
WRATE (Waste and Resources Assessment Tool for the Environment)
http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/wtd/1396237/?version=1&lang=_e
The Waste Technology Data Centre www.environment-agency.gov.uk/wtd
New Technologies Demonstrator Programme [email protected]
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, Draft Reference Document on Best Available
Techniques for the Waste Treatments Industries, European Commission – Directorate General
Joint Research Centre, January 2004
WRAP Organics website http://www.wrap.org.uk/materials/organics/
The Composting Association, including reports on Anaerobic Digestion and Directory of InVessel Composting http://www.compost.org.uk/dsp_home.cfm
Chartered Institution of Wastes Management. http://www.ciwm.co.uk
Mechanical Biological Treatment: A Guide for Decision Makers, Processes, Policies and Markets
(2005), by Juniper consultancy Ltd for Sita Environmental Trust
http://www.sitaenvtrust.org.uk/research/overview
Defra (2004) Review of Environmental and Health Effects of Waste Management: Municipal
Solid Waste and Similar Wastes.
European Commission – Directorate General Joint Research Centre (January 2004) Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control, Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for
the Waste Treatments Industries.
Greenpeace Environmental Trust (2003) Cool Waste Management: A State-of-the-Art
Alternative to Incineration for Residual Municipal Waste: MBT
Friends of the Earth, Residuals Report
Defra (2001) Guidance on Municipal Waste Management Strategies; and Best Value
Performance Indicators for Frequently Asked Questions for 2004/05 at:
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/localauth/bvpi_faq.pdf
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister’s guidance:
http://www.odpm.gov.uk/stellent/groups/odpm_localgov/documents/page/odpm_locgov_609123
-10.hcsp
GLA / S. McLanaghan (2003) City Solutions: New and Emerging Technologies for Sustainable
Waste Management ISBN: 1-85261-491-2
30
10. Further reading and sources of
information
GLA (2003) Supporting documentation for City Solutions Conference:
http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies/waste/wasteconfce.jsp#docs
Associates in Industrial Ecology (AiIE) (2002) Delivering the Landfill Directive: The Role of New
and Emerging Technologies. Report for the Strategy Unit 0008/2002
Associates in Industrial Ecology (AiIE) (2003) Review of residual waste treatment technologies
Report prepared on behalf of Kingston upon Hull City Council and East Riding of Yorkshire
Council http://www.hullcc.gov.uk/wastemanagement/download/aiie_report.pdf
Cal Recovery Europe Ltd, Edited by Papadimitriou, E. K. and Stentiford, E. I. (2004) Proceedings
of the 1st UK Conference and Exhibition on: Biodegradable and Residual Waste Management
ISBN: 0-9544708-1-8
CIWM (2002) Biological Techniques in Solid Waste Management and Land Remediation. IWM
Business Services Ltd.
DEFRA (2004) Introductory Guide: Options for the Diversion of Biodegradable Municipal Waste
From Landfill: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/wip/newtech/index.htm
Enviros & Deloitte (2004) Report for the Mayor of London. Capital Solutions: Guidance for
funding and procuring new and emerging waste recovery technology. ISBN 1 85261 644 X.
Strategy Unit (2002) Waste Not, Want Not. The Stationary Office.
European Environment Agency (EAA) (2002) Biodegradable Municipal Waste Management in
Europe. EEA Part 3 Technology & Market Issues. Available from the European Environment
Agency website at: http://reports.eea.eu.int/topic_report_2001_15/en.
Eunomia Research & Consulting (2003) Economic Analysis of Options for Managing
Biodegradable Municipal Waste. Available from the European Commission website: Local
Authority funding http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/localauth/funding/pfi/index.htm
The Local Government PFI project support guide www.local.odpm.gov.uk/pfi/grantcond.pdf
For Works Contracts: the Institution of Civil Engineers ‘New Engineering Contract’ (available at
www.ice.org.uk).
For large scale Waste Services Contracts through PFI and guidance on waste sector projects see
the 4ps, local government's project delivery organisation
http://www.4ps.gov.uk/PageContent.aspx?id=90&tp=Y
Planning for Waste Management Facilities – A Research Study. ODPM, 2004.
http://www.odpm.gov.uk/stellent/groups/odpm_planning/documents/page/odpm_plan_030747.pdf
http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/waste/compost/econanalysis_finalreport.pdf.
31
11. Glossary
Aerobic
In the presence of oxygen.
Anaerobic
In the absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic Digestion
A process where biodegradable material is encouraged to break down in the
absence of oxygen. Material is placed in to an enclosed vessel and in controlled
conditions the waste breaks down typically into a digestate, liquor and biogas.
Animal By-Products
Regulation
Legislation governing the processing of wastes containing, or having come in
contact with, materials derived from animal sources.
Auger
Helical shaft, or shaft fitted with a screw-thread, designed to bore into and/or
move material along its length.
Baffle
Rigid plate used to direct the flow of material.
Biodegradable
The component of Municipal Solid Waste capable of being degraded by plants and
animals. Biodegradable Municipal Waste includes paper and card, food and garden
waste, wood and a proportion of other wastes, such as textiles.
Biogas
Gas resulting from the fermentation of waste in the absence of air
(methane/carbon dioxide).
Biodegradable Municipal
Waste (BMW)
The component of Municipal Solid Waste capable of being degraded by plants and
animals. Biodegradable Municipal Waste includes paper and card, food and garden
waste, and a proportion of other wastes, such as textiles.
Composting
Biological decomposition of organic materials by micro-organisms under controlled,
aerobic, conditions to a relatively stable humus-like material called compost.
Digestate
Solid and / or liquid product resulting from Anaerobic Digestion.
EPA 1990
Environmental Protection Act.
Feedstock
Raw material required for a process.
Greenhouse Gas
A term given to those gas compounds in the atmosphere that reflect heat back
toward earth rather than letting it escape freely into space. Several gases are
involved, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
ozone, water vapour and some of the chlorofluorocarbons.
Green Waste
Vegetation and plant matter from household gardens, local authority parks and
gardens and commercial landscaped gardens.
In-vessel Composting
The aerobic decomposition of shredded and mixed organic waste within and
enclosed container, where the control systems for material degradation are fully
automated. Moisture, temperature, and odour can be regulated, and stable
compost can be produced much more quickly than outdoor windrow composting.
32
Main
11. Heading
Glossary
Mechanical Biological
Treatment (MBT)
A generic term for mechanical sorting / separation technologies used in conjunction
with biological treatment processes, such as composting.
Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW)
Household waste and any other wastes collected by the Waste Collection Authority,
or its agents, such as municipal parks and gardens waste, beach cleansing waste,
commercial or industrial waste, and waste resulting from the clearance of flytipped materials.
Recyclate/Recyclable
Materials
Post-use materials that can be recycled for the original purpose, or for different
purposes.
Recycling
Involves the processing of wastes, into either the same product or a different one.
Many non-hazardous wastes such as paper, glass, cardboard, plastics and scrap
metals can be recycled. Hazardous wastes such as solvents can also be recycled by
specialist companies.
Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
A fuel produced from combustible waste that can be stored and transported, or
used directly on site to produce heat and/or power.
Renewables Obligation
Introduced in 2002 by the Department of Trade and Industry, this system creates a
market in tradable renewable energy certificates, for which each supplier of
electricity must demonstrate compliance with increasing Government targets for
renewable energy generation.
Source-segregated/ Source- Usually applies to household waste collection systems where recyclable and/or
separated
organic fractions of the waste stream are separated by the householder and are
often collected separately.
Statutory Best Value
Performance Indicators
(BVPI)
Local Authorities submit performance data to Government in the form of annual
performance indicators (PIs). The Recycling and Composting PIs have statutory
targets attached to them which Authorities are required to meet.
Tine
Point, or spike protruding from a central shaft to agitate and break-up material
during turning.