Fertility and nuptiality in Iceland's demographic history / Gisli Gunnarsson. Gísli Gunnarsson, 1938Lund : Ekonomisk-historiska institutionen, 1980. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Creative Commons Attribution http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 This work is protected by copyright law (which includes certain exceptions to the rights of the copyright holder that users may make, such as fair use where applicable under U.S. law) but made available under a Creative Commons Attribution license. You must attribute this work in the manner specified by the author or licensor (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Please check the terms of the specific Creative Commons license as indicated at the item level. For details, see the full license deed at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/. “Nina Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 .1 ~ I \J K _ ~ - ,l. :bQR'NELL; UNIVERSITX _ v LIBRARIES" ITHACA, N. LIBRARY. ‘ ' ‘ ' - 1514853 1 " _ 1924 00 mu » i ' imng ‘ n _ _2j ’ n *‘R 3 ;;_15 » 2 R ' ;_;' I v: -._ _ , #6. I £)'Q - ‘ lw | “MAY Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 ' ‘ ~-:. Comlll Unlvenltylerlry HB 1023.697 and nuptiality In Iceland's de III‘III EKONOMISK-HISTORISKA INSTITUTIONEN Fi nnnnnan 16 223 62 LUND FERTILITY AND NUPTIALITY IN ICELAND'S DEMOGRAPHIC HISTORY Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Gisli Gunnarssnn Nr IZ. 1980 MEDDELANDE FRÅN EKONOMISK-HISTORISKA INSTITUTIONEN LUNDS UNIVERSITET Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 FERTILITY Gisli Lund ISSN 1980/12 8039 AND NUPTIALITY IN ICELAND'S DEMOGRAPHIC HISTORY Gunnarsson 8/, Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 ‘ ii n \ G 6! 3+ CONTENT ...................... Abstract . . . . . . . . ............. Introduction ..... . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . ... . The census of 1703, the general outline ...... . The nuptiality ratio and legal restrictions on ............................. marriage . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . of sexual permissiveness .. . . . . ............ miscomprehension regarding "impliCit" marriages. the "Nordic" illegitimacy ratio unique? ........ "sexual revolution" in Iceland ................. marriage and illegitimacy in nineteenth century Pages 1 2 4 7 The myth 15 The 19 Was The Law, Iceland ......................... ........ Relative illegitimacy Fertility and Bibliography nuptiality in ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . modern .... ................. Iceland ......... ......................... 21 28 29 31 36 39 FIGURES Figure 1: Age pyramids, Iceland 1703 and Sweden 1750 Figure 2: The illegitimacy ratio in Iceland 1770—1978 Figure 3: The covariation between the percentage of married women in the age group 15—50 and the legitimacy ratio in 15 Icelandic districts 1860/1870. 5 22 27 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 TABLES Table 1: Percentage of married women in Iceland and in different periods. ...... Different age groups, nuptiality groups and social groups in Iceland 1703 among women, Sweden Table 2: percentage Table Table Nuptiality tives aged of each group. .. . . . . . . . . . .. status of female dependant rela in Iceland. . . . . . . .. The combined percentage of married women and widows of different age groups in Iceland 50+ in 1703 1703 Table Long term changes in Table some in the illegitimacy ratio European counties. Long term averages of the illegitimacy in the Nordic countries. ratio 8 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Pages Table The legitimate and the illegitimate fertility rates per year in Iceland during different . . . . . periods. .................... Table Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Table 32 ............... 33 legitimate and rates in different countries during different The periods. Table ........... illegitimate fertility The .......... . . . . . . . . . . . factors changing the illegitimacy ratio in Iceland 1790-1977. ....................... (footnote) Illegitimacy and social groups in Prussia 1877-1886. .. . . . . . . ........... . . . . . .. 36 24 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 ABSTRACT nuptiality social status are among the demographic variables found in the Icelandic census of 1703. The age distribution indicates a rapidly declining population and from other sources a great frequency in starvation deaths is known for the decade preceding 1703. The Icelandic popu lation size in 1703 was nevertheless higher then than at any time later during the 18th century and first reached the level of 1703 in 1825. Age, Only 27.8 % in 1703. As and of the women in the age group 15-49 were married all functional marriages were registered in the of married women reflects a pre— ventive check on the population. (Economic crisis > low nup tiality > low fertility). The causal link between low nup tiality and the economic crisis consisted primarily of the control of the landowners as access to land was the prere— quisite to marriage and of the control exercised at the lowest administration unit, the commune, by the ratepaying farmers. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 census, this low proportion Nuptiality was the main determinant of fertility. Although some illegitimacy existed,it was considered a social evil and brought legal punishments. The 1703 census provides no information about the illegitimacy ratio. There is .information about illegiti of 10%. macy for the period 1770-1800, showing an average ratio During years of demographic crisis this ratio fell 6-7 %. Considering the low nuptiality ratio, this indicates a low illegitimacy fertility rate. During the 19th century the illegitimacy ratio became higher, probabably because of an increase in the illegitimacy rate early during the century. This, together with statements made by contemporarieslsupports the thesis of E. Shorter about a "sexual revolution" in western countries. The most important reason for the high illegitimacy ratio in Iceland before 1900 was nevertheless thevery low nuptiality ratio due to restrictions on marriage, a fact which supports a thesis put forward by J. Knodel. 1850—1930 there were great fluctua tions in the illegitimacy ratio while the illegitimacy ferti— lity rate remained rather constant. Thus nuptiality and ille— gitimacy had a clear inverse relationship. most fertility Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 The hypotheses have been put forward (mainly by Tomasson) that in the Nordic countries, and then especially in Iceland, there had been from pagan to urban society, unaffected by other social changes, a high degree of "sexual permissiveness", reflected in high illegitimacy ratios. There is no historical evidence to support these ideas which reflect serious ignorance of social and economic life in the past. For instance, the Nordic illegitimacy ratios were not exceptionally high by European standards. very high illegitimacy ratio in Iceland after 1930 is no logical continuation of 19th century illegitimacy but reflects basically the specific social conditions of 20th century Iceland The which are new in origin. Introduction great value of Nordic demographic data for population studies far back in time is well known. As regards Iceland, this country has an unusually good record of population cen cuses. These were, before 1835, made the following years: 1703, 1762, 1769, 1785, 1801 and 1816. During the period 1835—1860 there was a population census every fifth year, after 1860 every tenth year.1) Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 The 1) All no the material of the census of 1703 has been printed, with details being left out. (Manntal a Islandi arié 1703, asamt manntali i prem syslum 1729. Reykjavik 1924—1947). Statistical elaborations of this census have also been published (Statistics of Iceland II, 21, Reykjavik 1960). As for the other 18th cen tury censuses only contemporary aggregates exist at present. The material of the 1816 census has been printed through the efforts of the Icelandic genealogical society In SkYrslur um landshagi a Islandil vol. 1 - 5, published in Copenhagen 1858-1875, there are many useful statistical elaborations of both 18th and 19th century demographic data in Iceland. A population census for three Icelandic counties was made in 1729, the material of this census has been printed in Manntal a Islandi...., have been vik 1975). op.cit., published. and statistical elaborations of it (Statistics of Iceland, II, 59 Reykja Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 3. royal decree in 1735 made it obligatory for the bishops in the kingdom of Denmark—Norway to keep records about the number of births and deaths in their respective bishoprics. Later during the 18th century the registration of marriages, confirmations and sex started and from one of the bishoprics the aggregates of illegitimate births is available for the period 1771-1800.2) A to use the extensive Icelandic demographic data in the context of demographic history and theory in general have been very limited and the exceptions to this rule are easily accounted for. 3) This may have helped to create certain mis understandings regarding this data. 4) But the purpose of this paper is to improve the academic communication concerning Icelandic demography with special regard to some of the efforts Attempts prviously 2) Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 3) made. Published in Skyrslur um landshagi, op. cit., vol, 1, p.336—338. The calculated statistics are found here in figure 2. The most notable exception in this context is H. Gille: The Demographic History of the Northern European Countries in the Eighteenth Century, Population Studies, Vol. 1949-1950. In his discussion of the 1703 census H. Gille was somewhat handicapped by the fact that several valuable aggregates were not available to him as these were first published in 1960. (Statistics of Iceland II, 21). For his study of 18th century Iceland he only made use of the censuses of 1703 and 1801. He made some minimal use also of the total population aggre gates in SkYrslur um landshagi, op. cit. As for the combination of the two demographic variables, nuptiality and fertility, III, in the legitimate and illegitimatefertilityrates, his article mainly studied the Swedish data and he did not consider the available Icelandic data here at all. His main interest regarding Iceland’s demographic history during the 18th century was the country’s remarkable age and sex distri— bution. He also presented graphs showing the very great fluc tuations in both the mortality and fertility rates in 18th century Iceland. (p. 41—42). Hans Oluf Hansen has also made some interesting use of the Icelandic data. See, for instance: Some age structural conse quences of mortality variations in pretransitional Iceland and Sweden, Institute of Statistics, Copenhagen University, as expressed H. Gille in March J. 1975. very short but valuable references to Icelandic by D.V. Glass and D.E.C. Eversley, London 1965, p 137. For instance Tomasson Richard: A Millennium of Misery: The Demography of the Icelanders, Population Studies No. 3, 1977. Hajnal has made demographic data 4) in Population in History, edited Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 of 1703, the general outline. The census The most unique source the census of 1703. . All in Icelandic demography the material census has been preserved. is undoubtedly collected during the 5) According to the circular given to the census registrators every person should be included. For each farm and for each cottage there should be recorded the hquand and the wife, the children and other residents both with their Christian names and their fathers' For each male and female names, specified. clearly specified his and the age should there should be be or her occupation, whether he (she) was a farmer or a lodger, a free labourer or a labourerixlservice, or engaged in any other honest way of living. Also the name and the age of each communal pauper should be recorded with specification as to the responsibility for his or her upkeeping. The names of the vagrants passing by in the commune the night before Easter 1703 should be registered. mainly in March and April 1703. Altogether there were 50358 individuals registered (according to the elabo— rations made by the Statistical Bureau of Iceland), but then some double counting, a statistically insignificant number, had The census was taken Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 been The eliminated. historical crisis in background to the 1703 census was the economic Iceland. country was a dependancy of the Danish—Norwegian crown, economically with a colonial status. Its very important foreign trade was ineffectively carried out by monopoly merchants in Copenhagen under the tutelage of the crown. Due to a technical and economic stagnation, the great resources of the adjoining seas were only exploited in a minimal way and the population was left for its sustenance to the resources of the land. Here farming had been made difficult by the extreme cold weather during the last decade of the 17th century, which definately was thecoldestperiod during the socalled Little Ice Age The 5) See note 1, op.cit. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 5. Especially the population in the areas most (1600—1900). easily reached by the arctic climate in the north and east regions of Iceland were badly hit. Very many people died from hunger during the decade preceding the census of 1703. Various sources, including the historical annals make this clear. 6) Figure 1. Iceland Age pyramides, 1703 and Sweden 1750. 59' Males n7&'| Females I=I"44::J mac-69 60-6 55-59 c2350“ 45-49 40-44 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 SC" 45 an 20 fl 0 9 I) 20 Sweden 1750 6) 33 40 50 I . ' *4 '/~ 40 . 30 Iceland 1703 According to the historical annals there were hunger deaths on a large scale every year 1694-1702. (Annalar 1400-1800 I—, Reykjavik 1922-. Thoroddsen, Thorvaldur: Arferoi a Islandi i pfisund ér, Copenhagen 1916-1917. Steffensen Jon: Hungursottir in Menning og meinsemdir, a Islandi (Hunger deseases in Iceland) Reykjavik 1975. In this same book by Steffensen there are articles on Small Pox and Plague in Iceland. There were no epidemics recorded in Iceland 1672 to 1707. But due to the hunger certain endemic deseases began to cause more deaths than they did in "normal" periods. According to one source (Thoroddsen, op.cit.) 9000 people died because of star vation in the decade preceding 1703, or 15 to 17 per cent of the population. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 6. data shows clearly that the population was declining, instance the very low nuptiality rate and the remarkable Census for structure of the population, indicating either an unusu— ally high infantile death rate or a very low birth rate or, age as is most probable both.7) In figure 1 we can see this age structure of 1703. For comparison the age structure of the Swedish population in 1750 is shown, but we may assume that this Swedish population was rather typical for a pretransitional society which was not subjected to excep— tional shocks. exogeneous declining Icelandic population in 1703 is remarkable with respect to the fact that it was bigger in 1703 than at any other point of time during the 18th century. First in 1825 the population size of 1703 was reached. This is indeed a clear indication of the economic decline of 18th century Iceland. 8) The 7) Hajnal has also drawn attention to this phenomena stating that "the age structure of the Icelandic census of 1703 suggests a rapidly declining population with a low birth rate". (Population in History, op.cit.) One writer has described "the general rule" thus: "falls in births and marriages seem to coincide with a rise in the death rate in famine years“. Such a coincidence was not found during Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 epidemic years. (solvi Sogner: A Demographic Scandinavian Economic History4Review, 1976:2) Crisis Averted?, H. Gille made this cautious statement about the age distribution of Iceland in 1703:"... it is clear that the great changes in the birth—rate during the last half of the seventeenth century to which the 8) ... age distribution .. testifies, must have been peculiar to Iceland". He then adds: the marked variations found in the number of births and deaths after 1735, suggests that the age distribution in Iceland was not only very irregular at the beginning of the 18th century, but must have continued to be so throughout the whole century". (Gille, op.cit., p. 24—26.) The factors leading to this decline are my primary research objects. Briefly it can be related here that according to my findings this can best be explained by various institutional factors, mainly the Copenhagen monopoly trade in combination with the archaic socio economic system within the country. There cer tainly were some great exogenous shocks, both in the form of climatic and geophysical (vulcanid catastrophes. But in my opinion the effects of these shocks must be studied in the context of the societal response to these shocks (or rather to the lack of these). These problems have been discussed by me in various articles or: "The Limitations of Climatology as an explanatory Factor of Human Institutions" in Climatological Papers, No. 4, Danish Meterological Institute, Copenhagen 1978. "Some Inter disciplinary Problems of Climate and History: A study in Causal Relations and other Questions of Methodology". A paper delivered at the International Conference on Climate and History in Norwich, July 1979, (Stencil). "Fishery Records in Iceland and Sea Tempe rature in Icelandic Waters during the Little Ice Age". (Stencil 1979) "Landskuld coming i mjoli og vero pess in Saga 1980, Reykjavik. fra 15. til 18. aldar", forth— Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 7. The nuptiality ratio legal restrictions and on marriage high number of unmarried women in 1703 has been met with some scepticism and the suggestion has been made that the actual number of married women might have been higher than the registered one. 9) It is indeed reasonable to ask if in fact only 27.8% of Icelandic women in the age group 15—49 were married in 1703. Is this to be explained by failures in the registration or by the effective social control of the reproduction process that is: Was there in Iceland a good preventive check in times of crisis which through keeping the nuptiality rate low, the fertility rate was kept at a low The level? In table 1 we can see the nuptiality ratio for Icelandic historical perspective. The sources for the 19th century are quite certainly reliable. Here we can see that the nuptiality rate was traditionally low in Iceland and women in first a change a half of the 20th century. In 1703 it certainly was lower than at later dates but the difference may very well be explained by the special came here during the second Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 economic circumstances in Iceland at the time. In table 2 the nuptiality status of women in 1703 is related both to age and to their social status. The table gives in a concise form most of the available information regarding these variables among Icelandic women at the time. Here we can see that mainly the young the unmarried category and social status were Almost all we women constituted can also see that marriage closely interrelated the communal then and phenomena. female paupers were unmarried, indeed the great majority of the old unmarried women were paupers. By contrast, then, was the social position of married women and widows, who in old age at least were much better off than the spinsters. were more frequently paupers than men, especially in the age groups 20-59, which obviously was the consequence Women 9) Population in History, op.cit. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 8. Table 1 Percentage of married in Iceland women and Sweden in different periods All Iceland women 15 21.2 25.9 1703 1729 1750 1800/01 1850 1860 1870 1900/01 1930 1950 1960 1974 29.8 27.9 27.3 24.2 26.7 29.4 34.1 36.8 40.4 All Age groups + 28.4 38.4 40.1 40.2 37.1 39.8 42.8 48.9 55.9 57.7 20 Sweden Age group women 15 + 32.9 44.7 34.5 34.5 31.7 32.3 31.7 32.2 35.6 46.0 47.5 47.2 48.3 45.6 43.8 44.7 48.7 55.1 66.8 + 50.3 50.1 46.5 47.8 47.2 46.8 46.8 59.6 60.6 only three counties in Iceland Sources: 1. Iceland: Statistics of Iceland II, 21, 40, 59, 63. SkYrslur um landshagi, vol 1-5. 2. Sweden. Historical Statistics of Sweden, Part 1, Population. For comparison with Norway, Denmark and Finland in the years 1750, 1800 and1900, see H. Gille, Population Studies, vol. 3, 1949-1950. 1729 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 of their failure in participating in the production process, either as housewives or in the unmarried state as workpeople.10) Hajnal has suggested that when wife of the head of a household to the head as a servant would that she was married.11) 10) The a married woman was not the in Iceland, her relationship be recorded and not the fact available statistics both from 1703 and from the 19th century show clearly that many women must have been unmarried servants all their life in Old Iceland. Servanthood was thus more than a phase in the life cycle in Iceland. It also served the purpose of preventing marriage for life time. This should be compared to P. Laslett's thesis of "life cycle servants" in "Characteristics of the Western Family", published in Family love in earlier generations. Essays in histo life and rical sociology, Cambridge 1977. Jonas Fryklund comes to a similar conclusion for Sweden as Laslett did for England: "To be a maid was more of a phase in a life cycle than a means of livelihood". (Horan i bondesamhallet, Lund 1977, p. 226). 11) Population in History, op.cit. illicit Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Table 2 Different nuptiality age groups, Iceland in 1703 among women. groups and social groups in of the total of each Percentage group1 0-14 15-24 25-49 Total in absolute numbers 6910 5394 9823 2757 2412 27491 Total in percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0100.0 100.0 97.6 77.8 3.6 0.5 43.2 5.0 29.9 19.4 53.8 1.9 6.3 6.2 30.9 8.5 43.8 3.9 0.2 5.0 15.2 18.7 45.9 4.6 41.7 40.8 0.0 0.4 0.5 4.5 2.8 0.4 0.7 0.6 40.4 39.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 16.6 10.0 4.3 0.9 1.4 19.7 18.2 1.2 total Unmarried of households Children at home Relatives at home Heads Workpeople Paupers and vagrants 18.1 Married total Housewives Children & relatives 2.4 2.2 1) 0.1 0.1 Workpeople Paupers and vagrants total Widows Heads of households Children and relatives 1) Workpeople Paupers and vagrants 1. 2. 60+ 6.3 5.9 29.1 0.1 0.2 34.4 6.8 25.7 0.5 1.4 100.0 72.5 1.5 30.3 5.2 19.2 16.3 21.2 20.6 0.15 0.2 0.25 6.3 2.6 2.8 Children and relatives "at home". 195 with unspecified age is included in the total. The census always stated the nuptiality and the social position, if not always sufficiently accurate. Statistics of Iceland II,21 Source: Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 0.1 50-59 o-wZ) Age groups But a female were Manntal a a male) worker in the law—stipulated yearly of their masters' househoulds not expected to be married during the service period as marriage wouldnormally mean the establishment of own separate hoursehold which according to the instructions of census would then be registered seperately from the master's household. 12) Only if married couples were not living together, for instance because of impoverishment after marriage, the registration of the married status was not stipulated in the instructions. 12) service (or as members Islandi, op.cit. 0 4 0.5 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 10. organizers of the census obviously did not consider it to be important to have non—functional marriages registered.13) The of 1703 was very thoroghly done in one commune in Iceland's south. 14) The marriage status of all social categories was always registered here, also when the couples were living The census seperately and consequently did not constitute separate house holds. If we assume that the registration of non—functional marriages in this commune was similar to the actual status of non-functional marriages in the whole of Iceland in 1703, the nuptiality percentage of women in all age categories would in— crease from 21.2 to 22.9%. Thatis: It would remain very low.15) It is obvious that the status of widowhood must usually have been recorded as we can see in tables 3 and 4. Table 3 describes the nuptiality status of female "private paupers" aged 50+. Many of these were widows. Is there any reason to assume that the registration of widowhood was better made than the registra— tion of s insterhood? Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 13) Usually a separate household also meant a seperate production unit, but there were notable exceptions to this rule, mainly the class of cottars "without land use" and the socalled "lodgers' class". These people normally did notpossess their means of pro— duction but used the farmers‘ means for the farmers' account. Thus either directly or indirectly the establishment of a sep— erate household in Iceland was bound to the access to land, in the cottars' case through the dependency on the farmers' class, but this arrangement was usually stipulated through law. The cottars were frequently compelled to give all their labour to farmers, or they were forbidden to possess any means of produc own use. Thus fishing was tied to farming. The commune any cottar from its district. sometimes had the power to expel Through this mechanism the landowners more or less controlled simultaneously both the production and the reproduction process in this society. This mechanism, of which the cottars' position was an important part, will in another context be further ex— plained by me. The sources for laws and descriptions of the rights of labour and land in Old Iceland are numerous from the 12th to the 20th centuries, showing here a relative status quo. 1117: Gragas II, p. 145-146, 273. 1281: Jonsbok, p 234. 1350: DI, vol. 2 p 860. 1490 & 1514: LI, 1:42, 21, 8:511. 1622: LI, 1?205, 1679: LI,1 396. 1785: BibliotheCa Arnamagnaeana IV:83—85. 1821:LI _ 8:281—283, tion for 14) 15) 1863:25 17:557. Manntal a Islandi, It is op.cit. of course questionable in the nuptiality ratio. (The commune of Stokkseyrir). to include non-functional marriages Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 11. In table of married women and widows in different age groups. The constant percentage of the different age groups 35+, together with the low percentage of women who were married or were widows under the age of thirty five, as we may expect in a society in an economic crisis, increases in my opinion the reliability of the nuptiality records of the census. Table we can 4 percentage see the combined 3 Nuptiality status of female dependant relatives in the age Unmarried (private paupers) 1703. 50+. 22.2 3.5 74.3 Married Widows 100.0 Source: Table Statistics of Iceland II,21 4 The combined age groups. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Age group 45-49 of married women and widows of different 1703. % 4.8 20.7 40.9 51.5 58.6 57.3 20—24 25—29 30—34 35—39 40—44 Source: percentage Age group 50—54 55—59 60—64 65—69 70—74 75—79 % 58.1 55.7 52.0 55.2 58.2 54.9 Age group 20-34 30—49 30-59 50+ % 20.4 52.1 53.3 55-7 StatiStics of Iceland, II,21. small number of married workpeople (and children at home) is quite in accordance to what we might have expected with respect to the prevalant traditions and regulations which again may in the first instance be explained by purely economic causes. Work people could not sustain their children. The maximal wages, annually, for a fit and healthy male labourer, was besides food and ordinary clothes, 60-120 ells,16) from the 14th to the The 16) In one valid cow, or cow equivalence, there Originally these were ells of vadmal (rough ell were 120 home—spun "ells". clothes), 47.7 cm (Magnfis Mar Larusson in Islenskar maeliei— ningar, Skirnir 1958). During the late Middle Ages "the ell" had become the basic abstract unit of the internal price system, without any neccessay Bfialogor relation to homespun cloth. (See Bfialog 1775, 1915-1933). one being Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 12. usually only earned their own According to the Bfialog of 1775 the cost clothes and food. of keeping a young pauper was usually 182 ells 18). In the record books of one commune in Iceland during the 19th century the cost for keeping paupers below the age of twelve for one year was invariably 120 ells for each pauper.1 9) 19th century. Female labourers 17) It is difficult fo find laws prohibiting the marriage of work people because the church could not officially accept such a prohibition. Marriage was a holy institution, officially open to all honest Christians. The problem was what should be done to the poor who were honest. (The well-to—do farmers had the tendency to maintain that poverty and dishonesty was the same thing but the Church could hardly accept that.) legal prohibition of the marriage of poor people is found in the oldest Icelandic law collection, the Gragas, much of which reflects the legal situation of the 12th century. There the possession of a certain property minimum was the prerequisite for marriage except when the woman was not in a fertile age. 20) The prohibition is not found in J6nsb6k, The Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 17) only clear and definate Thoroddsen, Thorvaldur has given a good account of the wages of workpeople in service in LYsing Islands vol. 4, Copenhagen 1922, p. 294—373. total cost in a good male labourer in service the different times estimated as 600—700 ells. Thus his direct wages were only 10-20% of this total cost. "history of wages" in Iceland is in good harmony Thoroddsen’s with the more extensive study of this problem for Medieval Iceland, — Thorkell Johannesson: Die Stellung der Freien Arbeiter in Island, especially pages 203-244. Some special categories of labourersenjoyed a somewhat higher pay, for The keeping whole year was at instance skilled labourers, managers. These were, 18) Bfialog edur Verdlag um Lausamenn boat captains and household however, relatively few in number. ... fornt Vinnumenn og nYtt item Albingissambykkt og Lausgangara. Hrappsey 1775, p 83. 19) Haraldsson, Hjalmar: Familj 20) Gragas Ib, collection och hushall i bland islandska En ostislandsk bygd under 1800—talet jamforande 1978, (A paper in ethnology at Lunds Universitet). p 38, i Gragas KL.5. II, p 167. b6nder. perspektiv. p 46. Definition of this law Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 13. the new lawbook introduced in 12802 1) which was the basis for Icelandic legislation until the 19th century.2 2) Probably the traditional restraints on population growth, administered through the commune and landowners’ control, were considered to be more flexible than legal stipulations in reacting to the fluctuating needs of population control and, besides, these restraints did not go against the religious conceptions in the An way as same law would have done. interesting dialogue views on marriage final is between found the religious in the chief court and economic of 1720.23) preceivable protests book with no from the clergy. It was stipulated that people should not be allowed to be married "unless they both by the sheriff and the The 21) was the economic<one, word Instead we find in J6nsb6k (p. 234) the stipulations for the establishment of own independant production unit which is not the same as the prohibition of marriage as porkell Johannesson in his work op.cit. p. 193-194. See in this for the discussion of the cottars' class. This comes clearly forward in the actual article in J6nsb6k where it was made explicitly clear that this law was also valid for wrongly assumed context note 13 married person. This minimum property stipulation was abolished in 1294 but reintrocuced in 1490 and existed thereafter in different forms the beginning of the 20th century. As for a definition of this law book introduced through the efforts of the Norwegian king, see KL 7. 22) In KL 20: 498 Sigurour Lindal writes that "the stipulations of the minimal property (for marriage) were abolished" and he gives as sources for this Jonsbok (1281) p. 75, and a law of 1314 (in J6nsb6k, p. 296). These two law articles, however, do not deal with any minimum property for marriage but with the mutual sustenance obligations of a married couple. The introduction of Jonsbok in 1281 was primarily due to the demand for legal changes following the Icelanders'acceptance of the sovereignity of the Norwegian crown in 1262 and conse— quently the introduction did not neccessarily or always bring about changes in civil law (concerning relations between private persons). (See here Olafur Larusson in Arbok Haskola Islands 1922). For instance the communal structure seems to have been left intact and the farmers were allowed to control the communal affairs, of which poor relief was the most important part, with out any interference from the new royal authority. (See Jonsbok, p. 109-110, to be compared with Gragas Ib, p. 171-172, II, p. 249-250). The stipulation of minimum property as a prerequsite for marriage was basically a policy of poor relief administra a Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 till tion. the more cautious formulation in my text above regarding J6nsb6k and the property stipulations for marriage is to be prefer— red to Lindal's somewhat misleading formulation regarding this Hence matter 23) in KL 20. Alpingisbaakur Islands vol. x, p. 557-573, Reykjavik 1969. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 14. clergyman are considered their children in their own labours This verdict But was was if it neccessary a to Christian and not able to sustain themselves and be way fear of through God that of others". never formally was and by the to serve ratified all by the king which was the formal functions of a law. in a handbook for farmers printed 1775 the verdict of included with all the appearances of a law.24) for 1720 in 18th century Iceland once wrote that the hunger created by the disastrous economic situation "was the reason for the general preventive measures by the clergy and the lay authorities against the marri— age of the poor until 1760".25) But then, according to this author, measures were taken to stimulate marriage instead of preventing it. This was just after the great "positive check" of 1756—1759 when the country's population had decreased by 11.3%. After this catastrophe there obviously was a shortage of tenant farmers and therefore recently married people were exempted from taxation for a period of time if they established households on farms which were without a habitation at the The most famous spokesman economic reforms moment.26) The new situation, however, obviously did not last long and Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 preventive measures were soon introduced again. (we may assume that the landlords had by then rented out more or less all the farms). In 1778 one Icelandic writer lamented the habit then prevailing of both lay authorities and the clergy in prohibiting the marri— age of poor people, which according to the author "was caused by an exaggerated fear that the communes would be burdenend with poor relief".27) ... 24) Bfialog 25) Magnusson, 26) Ibid. 27) . Hrappsey 1775, op.cit. til Skfili: Forsog en kort Beskrivelse (1786), published in Copenhagen 1944, p.32. af Island Olavius, Olavur: Afhandling om de islandske Fiskerier, 1778. This article exists only in manuscripts. The manuscript used here is J. S. 34 £01., National Library of Iceland. Preventive checks were the obvious ideal societal response. But quite often these had to be "supplemented" by great hunger catstrophes in 18th century Iceland. Then the unproductive persons among the poor sections of the people were mainly dying. This at least was nothing negative according to some spokesmen of the societal upper strata. While lamenting periods of hunger in general, they nevertheless emphasized its economically beneficial effects. (See for instance, Hannes Finnsson: Mannfazkkun af Hallaarum, in Rit Laerdomslistar félagsins no 14, 1793). Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 15. conclusion of this study about the The 1703 census Undoubtedly in registering marriage some is reliability of the nominal marriages were not the following: registered, but this only lowered the nuptiality rate insignificantly. But all functional marriages were registered (when husband and wife were living together). Thus the census regulations made by the crown officials were followed in practice. The myth of sexualgpermissiveness in Old Iceland brought various legal penalties. To these the punitive pressure from the farmers' community may be added. In view of the economic difficulties of the workpeople in sutaining children, it is not difficult to imagine what was the attitude of the communal authorities towards the poor who were procuring illegitimate children. Illegitimacy author, Richard F. Tomasson, has specialized in trying to find evidence for a high rate of illegitimacy in Iceland from the beginning of the country's history until the present day.28) One writes frequently about "Ancient Scandinavian marriage patterns". For instance "the Ancient Scandinavians accorded women high status and along with thiswentliberal attitudes towards premarital sex relations, illegitimacy and divorce".29) According to his thesis the Icelanders in their great isolation in the North Atlantic, preserved this liberal attitude to sex through the ages, irrespective of all socio—economic changes in the society, and the 20th century high illegitimacy ratio in Iceland is a clear evidence of this remarkable continuity. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Tomasson 28) Tomasson, Richard F: 1. Premarital Sexual Permissiveness and Nordic Countries. Comparative Studies no. 2, 1976. Illegitimacy in the in Society and History Millenium of Misery: The Demography of the Icelanders, Population Studies, No. 3, 1977. (op.cit. no. 4). 2. A 29) Tomasson, 1976, p. 253-254. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 16. in matters relating to sex is contrary to the actual knowledge of But Tomasson's idea of "ancient Scandinavian" liberalism30) If look at very old laws (not selected parts of the old Sagas), women in Medieval Scandinavia had very limited freedom, especially when it came to sex.31) these people. we In Gragas, the oldest Icelandic laws, there was death penalty for a man who committed the crime of having sexual intercourse with a maiden, regardless if the maiden had wanted to participate in the act or not, if the maiden's male guardians had not pre viously accepted a marriage. 32) The maiden‘s role in the case was similar to that of a horse during the trial of a horsethief, her virginity was the property of her family and the theft of such Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 30) By a value was punishable with death. Apart fom widows, women "Ancient Scandinavian" moral codes Tomasson, following an old tradition, means "Pre—Christian" or "pagan" conceptions. What is not Christian is found out through studies in the official teachings of the Church. If reality is in contrast with these teachings (as these are understood by the author), it must be explained by the persistance of pagan conceptions. It is for gotten in this context that the Catholic Church made a very fine distinction between the sinfulness of human society (errare hu manum est)and the holynessof the Christian faith. Sin, repentanceh and absolution were the three neccessary ingredients in the contacts between Man and God. The term "Ancient Scandinavian" implies that there were some pagan moral codes common to all Scandinavians. This is a bold assumption. Our knowledge of pagan beliefs in Scandinavia is solely based on the writings of Christians and most frequently these writings are two or three centuries closer to our time than the paganism they claim to describe. The sad truth is that we know very little about the old nordic pagan religion(s) and nothing about "the pagan moral codes". 31) Even such a sholarly writer as S.F. Hartley in one instance falls into the same trap of romantic historicism when she calls the North—European bundling practice "a pre—Christian tradition". (Hartle , S.F.: Illegetimacy. University of California Press, 1975, 32) Gragas p. I 108). b, p. 48, 57-58, II, p. 177, 188-189. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 17. did not have anything to say about their marriage could be married agains their will.33) other sources we know that during this period.34) From many rich men "liberal" attitude in Catholic Iceland to summarized in this way: A rich man could have The and they kept harems sex may be manychildren with as many women as he wanted to as long as he could sustain them (andpay the fines for the illegitimate ones to the Church).But if he could not sustain the newborn child, he really was in trouble, regardless if he had the child with his wife or not. Women’s adultery or fornication was not accepted except when they were the concubines or whores of rich and powerful men and there were no male relatives of the women in high social positions protesting against these conditions. as Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 For proving "the sexual permissiveness" of Old Iceland, Tomas— son chooses to ignore the severe legislation regarding adultery and related matters which was introduced in Iceland 1564, follow ing the establishment of Lutheranism in the country.35) For the wealthy the severity of the new legislation was great, especial— ly the parts dealing with adultery. The fines of the Catholic 33) In this context the great pioneer work of Lizzie Carlsson might studied: "Jag giver dig min dotter", Vol 1, Stockholm 1965, vol 2, Stockholm 1972. A summary of her most important points may be found in her article: Aktenskapets ingaende enligt aldre be ratt, Her sex Fataburen 1969. legal aspects of marriage and relations in Medieval Scandinavia, with a special emphasis study deals with the various she makes frequent references to on Sweden. Nevertheless, Iceland. She summarizes the position of the "Ancient Scandi— navian" women in this way: "The women was legally incompetent and her guardian, as a rule her father, appeared on behalf of her". (Fataburen 1969, p. 23) 34) has made a very impressive compilation of the sexual behaviour of rich libertines in Medieval Iceland. Most Tomasson, 1976, of his evidence can mistake is to apply be classified the behavior as historical facts. Tomasson's of rich males to both sexes and to all classes in society. 35) This was combined with the establishment of the strong central authority of the Danish-Norwegian crown in internal Icelandic affairs for the first time in the history of the country. Consequently the power of the indigenous upper classes was greatly reduced. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 18. era were largely substituted with whipping and death penalties. There are numerous court verdicts to prove that the law was carried out quite thoroughly, often with a logical absurdity, or to quote the words of a writer describing the situation in another country: "Partners could be brought under ecclestical discipline for an offence somewhat grotesquely described as ’fornication before marriage with his own wife".36) It is reasonable guess that the high number of unmarried female servants and paupers were mainly responsible for pro curing the illegitimate children. It is very probable that some female vagrants who travelled from one place to another with their very young children in 1703 were not widows but unwed mothers. In the commune of Stokkseyrir in Iceland’s south there were three such women at that time.37) a Illegitimacy may here been seen in the context of economic 'subgroups".In Old Iceland there was the persistant rule "once a pauper, always a pauper". The label of pauperization in youth tended to linger on through the life time of the individual, both through social and socio—cultural sanctions of the commune, not allowing a person to marry until the debt collected during a pauperized child— hood had been paid. and the economic demands Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 ill This looks rather like "the defined subsociety" which according to Laslett was mainly responsible for the main— tainance of English bastardy in a historical perspective.38) In the Icelandic context, however, this "subsociety" becomes well defined. "The illegitimacy prone subsocity" was no separate cultural trend but people carrying economic poverty, involving social sanctions, from one generation to anothter. previous explanations: People having children out of wedlock in the old Icelandic society were met by The summarize 36) Laslett, op.cit. p. 128. In 1735 the Danish—Norwegian king issued the following regulation for Iceland: "We, Christian the sixth .... hereby declare that those who marry after having committed fornication together, may be absolved from the obliga— tion of public confession,but as for the fines, these shall be in accordance with the law (of 1564) dealing with fornication". (Lovsamling for Island, vol. 2, 37) Manntalio 1703, op. cit. p. 38) p. 107, 151. Laslett, op.cit. 518. Copenhagen 1853, p. 226-227). Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 19. sanctions on two levels. crown. 2. The social, 1. The legal punishments of the economic and, in a wide meaning, the "cultural" sanctions of the farmers' community. Malinowski's "principle of legitimacy" has always been valid in Iceland: "The woman has to be married before she is allowed legitimately to conceive. Roughly speaking, an unmarried mother is under a ban, a fatherless child is a bastard. This is by no .... The most means only a European or Christian prejudice important moral and legal rule concerning the physiological side of kinship is that no child should be brought into the world without a man — and one man at that — assuming the role of sociological father, that is, guardian and protector, the ... male link between the child and the rest of the community the father is indispensable for the full sociological status of the child as well as of its mother ..." 39) The miscomprehension Other historical regarding "implicit" marriages. evidence collected by Tomasson for supporting sexual permissiveness in Iceland tends to be equally misleading as his example of "ancient liberalism" his thesis of premarital 120 sex a maintains that the low number of married woman in the census 1703 per se is another evidence for sexual permissiv— ness. "One of the inadequacies of this census was that couples Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Tomasson who were cohabiting, a situation common in Iceland, were not This presumption is based on the very low proportion on the population enumerated as married and on a partial census taken in 1729 which does give data on cohabiting 0) couples .... (My emphasis).4 Tomasson's comment on the 1729 enumerated as such. census is based on misunderstanding. author of the aggregates of the 1729 census, H.O. Hansen, complains that in one district out of the three, the census was badly carried out, especially when it came to the registration The 39) Bronislaw Malinowski: The Principle of Legitimacy, p. 38—39 in Kinship, Penguin Modern Sociology Readings, edited by Jack Goody, 40) 1971. 1977, p. 418. For Tomasson the low nuptiality ratio Tomasson ls both an evidence for the existance of sexual permissiveness and a consequence from it. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 20. of marriage and frequently the nuptiality status did not 1) Consequently, for show come clearly forward in the text.4 ing his critical evaluation of the sources, Hansen, in his specification regarding the nuptiality status, used two categories: 1. In Icelandic "considered married although it does not clearly in the census lists". The English translation "persons implicitly registered as married". come out In Icelandic "registered married in the census lists". English translation "persons explicitly registered as The married".42) Tomasson's married is that implicitly registered as cohabiting.4 3) This is indeed a very bold inter— interpretation means pretation but it his purpose, to show that "the Icelan ders ... never fully accepted Christian conceptions of marriage" and "that many (most?) rural Icelandic adults lived in de facto sexual unions for some time in their lives, just as many Ice— serves landers do to—day. ll 44) registration of nuptiality in one of the three districts in 1729 is in fact exactly the same kind of registra tion as the one which was practised in all the Icelandic Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 The "imperfect" districts during the countrywide census of 1703. 45) If Hansen's criterium for nuptiality in the 1729 census is used for the 1703 census, all the marriages 1703 would be of an "implicit" nature. This would through Tomasson's misunderstanding mean that no Icelanders were married in 1703 while quite a lot of them were cohabiting at the time. 42) Statistics of Iceland, Ibid, p. 18. 43) Tomasson, 1977, 41) 44) 45) p. II, 59, op.cit., p. 10. 422. Ibid, p. 424. By linguistic standards this registration first, is sufficiently clear. followed by that of his wife, thereafter the names of their children came. This was the order stipulated in the census regulations. Usually, but not always, the words "his wife" and "their children", followed the respec The name tive of the husband came names. "perfect" registration of the two districts in 1729 followed a new pattern. After the names of both the husband and the wife the specification "married couple" always followed. Only people with this specification were counted as explicitly married in the aggregates of Hans Olof Hansen. The more Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 21. Tomasson's fundamental mistake is that he to the most too limited material comes general conclusions on the basis of much and without ever seriously studying the socio—economic rela— tionships in his research area. This mistake may largely be explained by the influence of the romantic tradition in Ice landic historiography in seeing contemporarylceland as a logical continuation of of the vikings Was an idealized version of "the Iceland and the Sagas". illegitimacy the "Nordic" ratio unique? of his articles in this way: "The Nordic countries differ from other Western societies in their long histories of premarital sexualpermissiveness". 47) The author's evidence for this "sexual permissiveness" is primarily the high illegitimacy ratio in certain Nordic regions during the 19th and the 20th centuries, with Iceland usually having the highest one, or in Tomasson's words: "(Iceland's) uniquely high level of illegitimacy that has always characterized this most isolated of Western societies".48) Tomasson4 6) starts one Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 It is of course quite unacceptable to assume that high illegiti— macy ratios are some kind of a function of sexual permissiveness in 19th century societies. On the contrary there is much evi— dence to support the thesis that a high degree of illegitimacy may best be explained by various kinds of oppression of the poor and especially of the poor women. For instance increase in the prohibition on the marriage of the poor led frequently to an increase in theillegitimacy ratio, at least during the 19th 46) 47) 48) Tomasson, 1976, Ibid, Ibid, op.cit. p. 252. p. 253-254. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 22. Figure 2. The illegitimacy ratio in Iceland 1770—1978. Illegitimate ratio 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 N70 80 _90 1800 1830 “LG 50 60 7O 80 90 1900 10 20 30. 40 1950 60 Sources: For the 18th century, Skyrslur um landshagi, vol I, p. 338, Copenhagen 1858. For 1827-1974, Statistics of Iceland, 63, Reykjavik, 1976. As fortjuamost recent years (1975-1978) I rely on reports from the Statistical Bureau of Iceland which have been published in newspapers. II, Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 70 18th century data only applied to the southern bishopric of Iceland. There lived, however, during the 18th century 74.1 to 76.5% of the country's population and data existing for the northern bishopric 1791-1796 indicates clearly that then the The illegitimacy ratio was virtually the same in both of the bishoprics. The series include all births, i.e. also still births. This is because we do not have access to long term series of illegiti country's mate still births, only the total number. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 23. Table 5 Long term changes 1845 ~50 in the illegitimacy ratio in 1865 1876 1887 1901 —69 —80 —91 1896 1900 -10 European some 1911 -20 1921 —30 1931 -40 9.5 7.7 7.5 8.6 12.1 9.4 7.3 5.9 5.2 4.8 5.0 5.5 7.2 14.5 13.8 14.7 14.3 12.7 24.1 23.3 20.5 20.6 12.9 14.0 13.7 12.5 7.5 8.1 7.5 7.8 7.7 7.4 8.6 10.8 11.5 Hungary Italy Austria Bavaria Prussia Germany West—Germany Portugal France England and Wales 7.4 7.6 7.2 8.4 12.1 9.1 countries. 1941 1951 —50 —60 1961 -68 7.0 5.2 4.0 3.1 2.1 19.2 14.7 11.7 11.5 1) 7.8 12.8 10.8 8.1 6.4 10.9 12.9 13.5 9.0 10.4 8.6 4.9 8.3 6.0 6.7 4.9 4.4 6.2 4.9 7.6 6.0 4.8 4.5 4.1 3.9 9.5 10.2 13.7 8.8 9.8 10.0 10.2 11.4 12.7 15.0 15.4 13.9 13.9 16.6 20.7 19.9 15.6 13.5 13.2 14.0 20.9 25.6 26.0 27.7 Sweden Iceland Only the years 1945-1950 Sources: For Sweden Historical 1) Statistics of Iceland II, Statistics, Population. 63. For Iceland all other countries: 1) 1845-1850, Zeitschrift des Koniglich Bayerischen Statistichen Bureaus, Munich, 1879. 2) 1865-1891, Bulletin For L’Institut International de Statistique, vol. 7, 2nd and 3rd part, vol. 20, 2nd part, Vienna, 1915. 3) 1896—1968, S.F. Hartley: Illegitimacy, University of California Press, 1975. de 1894, Rome Table 6 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Long term averages Iceland 1830—1870 1871-1900 1901-1930 1931-19602) 1960—1974 1 2 In Iceland till ‘ 10.9 10.1 11.0 8.3 10.5 29.1 1771—1800 till In Iceland 1972. Norway Denmark 9.61) 14.5 19.0 13.6 24.2 1771-1800 ratio in of the illegitimacy 1974, in for countries. Sweden 4.5 8.0 7.9 6.9 5.5 5.7 only statistics the Nordic 3.9 8.5 10.6 14.4 11.2 16.9 70—75% Sweden and Norway till of the population. 1973, in Denmark Sources: Sources are the national statistics of each country, published statistical bureaus, with the exception of 18th cen— by the respective tury Iceland where the source is SkYrslur um landshagi, vol. 1. Copenhagen 1858. it is interesting to note Laslett's estimation of the ratio in 18th century England (for 1771-1800), but it For comparison illegitimacy was and 5.8%. trends in bastardy in England, In Family life love in earlier generations, Cambridge 1977, p 116-117.) (Long-term illicit Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 24. century. 49) To this we may add the sexual exploitation of 50,51) women servants by their masters. illegitimacy ratio of the Nordic countries. Was it really as exceptionally high as Tomasson has claimed? Was Iceland unique in this respect? But going back to the 49) 50) This is discussed in some detail here above. Jonas Frykman has discussed the various aspects of sexual oppression in the old peasant society. In some southern regions in 51) found Sweden he clear positive relation a between the degree of social oppression and the illegitimacy ratio. Horan i bonde— samhallet, 1977, op.cit. Sexual Intercourse and Social Norms. A Study of Illegitimate Births in Sweden 1831-1933. Ethnologia Scandinavia, A Journal for Nordic Ethnology 1975. There is statistics from Prussia for the years 1877—1886 showing the social background of 1) the fathers of legitimate children, 2) the mothers of illegitimate children. These statistics very clearly show that it was the poor who mainly procured the ille gitimate children. There is every reason to think that the situa— tion was similar in other European countries, including Iceland. - Illegitimacy social groups in Prussia 1877—1886. Occupational groups. Social groups Percentage of the Illegitimate children's guar- fertility rate dians for different Fathersof Motherssocial groups legitimate of ille- per 100 women children gitiaged 15—50. Table A, and Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 mate children 1. Farm and domestic sevants 2. Unspecified occupation1) 3. Textile and unskilled urban 4. 5. 3.3 0.8 labourers Engaged in 1 and All in farming, not included 2 other occupations Total percentage guardians Illegitimacy aged 1. As 15-50 for rate for women: "haustochter", Source: of children's groups per Unspecified "daughters Zeitschrift Bureaus, all des Berlin 44.8 11.5 3.6 0.9 16.2 19.1 4.3 36.9 42.8 21.7 2.9 3.3 1.3 100.0 100.0 100 " women 2.6 occupation consists mainly of at home". Koniglich Preussischen Statistischen 1889, p. 193—194. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 25. gives a definite answer There were certainly great differences in Data from most European countries in the negative. the European illegitimacy ratio, but the top is not in the Nordic countries but in the German speaking areas of Central Europe. If we make an illegitimacy map of 19th century Europe "the center of illegitimacy" would seem to start in the Roman Catholic Carinthia (Karnten) in Austria, dramatically decreasing as we enter the Italian and especially the Slovene speaking areas in the south and the east and the Tirol region and especially the Swiss cantons in the west. To the north of Caranthia the level of illegitimacy was high, but it decreased further one came to the north or from the top of ca. 40% in Carinthia to ca. 25% in Upper Austria to ca. 14% in Bohemia, Bavaria and Saxony, to ca. 10% in East Prussia. 52) Both to the east and to the west of this "belt", illegitimacy was much lower, however, a new height was in Wallonia and North—Eastern France, where the illegitimacy ratio was slightly above 10% which is the same as the late 19th century national aggregates for Sweden and Denmark. But in these last two countries there were great regional differences and in the South Swedish regions of Skéne and Blekinge the illegitimacy ratio was comparatively high throughout the 19th century.53) Two isolated phenomena were outside this belt, Iceland with an illegitimacy ratio of Portugal with a ratio of 12% during the 18905. By contrast, in Russia the illegitimacy ratio was ca. 2%, in Greece 1.2%, in the French Alpine regions 2—3%, in Ireland 2.8%. and Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 19% In table timacy 5 we can ratio, or see some examples of long term European the development illegi from the 19th century to the 20th century for various countries. But it must be emphasized late that chronological comparison may be very misleading. The fac— tors behind the illegitimacy ratio of a 20th century urbanized society are of course not the same as the causes for illegiti— macy in an agrarian society although some continuity may exist. such 52) a period studied for analysing the "illegitimacy belt" in Europe was mainly the 18905. The regions in Austria cover the period 1895-1898, in France 1890—1892, in Prussia 1875—1907. The The source: Bulletin de LInstitut International de Statistique, p.20, Rome 1894, vol XX, part 2, p. 461— 2 & 3, vol. VII, parts 476, 53) Vienna Frykman, 1915. 1975, op.cit. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 26. If consider the 20th century evidence the assumed "uniqueness" of the Nordic countries loses all its meaning. Also during both centuries the trend divergency between the different countries are great and is indeed impossible to find any single cause for the changes in the trends. Thus in some countries urbaniza— tion was accompanied by a lower illegitimacy ratio, in other countries it was accompanied by a higher ratio. In the case of Austria after 1918 the increase in the illegitimacy ratio was probably only the consequence of new political boundaries. we Icelandic illegitimacy The ratio was always relatively high. But the great divergency compared to other European countries in this trend was after 1930 when it began to increase in Iceland while becoming lower elsewhere. But prior to 1930 at least it is easy to explain the high ratio in Iceland. The fluc— tuations in illegitimacy were then primarily the function of the changing nuptiality ratio. An analysis of the general illegiti mate fertility rate shows this clearly, but it remained almost constant until ca 1925 while the illegitimacy ratio fluctuated very much during the same period. See in this context tables 1, 5 & 7. Also in 19th century Iceland there were some regional differen in the illegitimacy ratio and the nuptiality ratio. It is of special interest to note that there was a good correlation between nuptiality and legitimacy. The higher the percentage of district, married women in the the higher the degree of legiti macy. There is one exception to this rule: The greater the region was involved in fishing and the more it was subject to changes in the occupational structure, the higher the illegitimacy ratio and the rate tended to become. In figure 3 the correlation between nuptiality and legitimacy in Iceland 1860-1870 is shown. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 ces both Four districts representing tion (in +0.74. tion) If 1860) the are not included. four districts are included, nuptiality rates All this 14.6% and the total popula— correlation coefficient is of the country's The (with fishing as the main occupa correlation coefficient between the legitimacy ratio would be +0.625. the fact that the illegitimacy ratio in 19th closely followed the general European pattern. century Iceland The uniqueness in the Icelandic illegitimacy ratio is a 20th emphasizes Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 27. Figure 3 covariation (and the correlation coefficient) between the percentage of married women in the age group 15—50 and the legitimacy ratio in fifteen Icelandic districts 1860/1870. The Percentage ————————————————— —— Legitimacy Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 ratio of 15—50 women married Legitimacy ratio Percentage of married women 90 46 88 44 86 42 84 40 82 38 80 36 78 34 76 32 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 8 10 11 12 13 14 Four Icelandic districts are not included in this comparison. Reykjavik, Gullbring These are the districts of Vestmannaeyjar, SnaefellsnessYsla, fishing as the most all and areas with usYsla important occupation instead of farming which predominated in the rest of the country. The fishing areas were in a state of relative decline 1860-1870. See text for further explanation. of two years, 1860 and Skyrslur um landshagi, vol. The average Source: p. 584-585. 1870, 3, p. is shown 215—216 in the figure. and vol.5, 15 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 28. starting around explanation for this phenomena are many, but none of them has anything to do with Old Iceland. century phenomena, 1930. The The "sexual revolution" in Iceland The rise in illegitimacy in Iceland during the 19th century is Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 of course no isolated phenomena. It may be described as a part of a European process, old constraints were not as effective as before in preventing unmarried people from cohabiting while they were effective in preventing the marriage of the poor. In Iceland, as in Continental Europe, the learned observers were very well aware of the socio—political implications of the rising illegitimacy ratio. The author Arnljotur Olafsson wrote the following words in a book published 1858: "After 1787 illegitimacy began to rise as the trade became freeer. Early during this century Magnfis Stephensen (a crown official in Iceland, in 1808) noticed this and he discussed (in this context) the increasing "vigour" among the people and the shortage of land for new farmsteads".54) The author then compares, in the article quoted here, illegitimacy in Iceland and in other countries and he shows that while the illegitimacy ratio was high in Iceland, the illegitimacy rate was not particularily high in the country.5 5) His conclusion was that the low nuptiality ratio in Iceland explained the high illegiti— macy ratio and he stated with some indignation: "Those who know the situation in Iceland and in other countries, they see clearly that the number of children born out of wedlock in Iceland is not the consequence of any promiscuity or immo rality among the people".56) Here the author obviously has in mind that "increased vigour" during the early 19th century was no 54) 56) phenomena. Olafsson, A., in SkYrslur um landshagi, vol. 1, op.cit. p. 373. Olafsson is here quoting the book of Magnfis Stephensen, Island i 55) isolated Icelandic det attende Aarhundrade. Ibid, p. 337. See also tables 7—8 for further explanation the rate and the ratio of illegitimacy. Ibid, p. 374. of Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 29. Magnfis Stephensen' observations s Arnljotur Olafsson in in from 1808 and the ideas of with the thesis put forward by E. Shorter regarding the socalled sexual revo lution in Modern Europe.57) All three agree on the timing for the increased vigour (or the sexual revolution) all three relate it to the increased conception of personal freedom and all see that this increased vigour must lead to increased illegitimacy if the authorites would not become more tolerant in allowing poor people to marry. The toleration of the authorities regarding the marriage 1858 of the poor are good harmony was dependent on the situation on the labour and the land market. Shorter's general outline of the "sexual revolution" be well applicable to 19th century Iceland. Law, J. marriage Knodel marriage illegitimacy and has found and a low a good seems to in Nineteenth Century Iceland. correlation between restrictions nuptiality rate on one hand and a on high illegitimacy ratio on the other for 19th century Germany.58) My findings about 19th century Iceland are in good harmony with Knodel's thesis. Laslett, however, has found that when the total fertility rahewentdown in England, the illegitimacy ratio went 59) down as well. contradicting the general yglpg of Knodel's observations? I do not think so. Laslett and Knodel are dealing with different periods, with different sets of values and social constraints. Secondly: The question of the total fertility rate is important in this aspect. In a society accepting population increase there is obviously Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Are 57) 58) 59) Laslett's findings for Shorter, Edward: Illegitimacy, in Modern Europe. History, Autumn 1971. Knodel.J.: Law, Marriage Change England The Sexual Revolution and Social Journal of Interdisciplinary and Illegitimacy in Nineteenth— Population Studies, vol. XX, No. 3 1967. Laslett: Long term trends in bastardy in England, published love in earlier generations", in "Family life and Century op.cit. Germany, illicit Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 30. attitude to bastardy than in restraints on population growth.60) another a society with great society where the traditional restraints on extramarital relations had been weakened to such a degree that new legal restraints had to be introduced. Laslett's study of a simultaneously declining illegitimacy and decli ning fertility dealt with English regions during the 17th century when traditional restraints still were intact. Knodel was studying a Icelandic evidence from the 18th century shows that during years of great hunger and demographic crisis general fertility illegitimate fertility declined more legitimate fertility. This is not surprising. When child declined very much,61) than bearing was considered illegitimate births but a social evil. the COnstraints preventing became stronger than ever. When the opposite situation arose, when childbearing was considered a love would be social benefit, the toleration towards expected to increase. This can operate quite independantly of the nuptiality rate because increased toleration of love does not neccessarily bring about increased toleration regarding the marriage of the poor. This has often been over— looked. illicit illicit Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 60) The "concateneated in this respect. theory" of S.F. Hartley is of some interest states that while high nuptiality will She inevitably lead to a low illegitimacy ratio, low nuptiality "does not neccessarily lead to a large proportion of births out of wedlock". The degree of social sanctions decides how close is between a low nuptiality ratio and a high illegitimacy ratio. "Other things being equal, restrictions on marriage would be expected to produce increased proportions of births out of wedlock". (Hartley, op.cit. p. 121). But the connection quite often other things were not equal. 61) causal link between starvation and decreased fertility is obviously both of a social and a biological nature. Here I deal only with the social aspects. solvi Sogner, op.cit., has discussed the causal link between starvation and low fertility and has stated that "the two sets of explanations (the social and the biological) do not exclude but supplement one another" (p.119). As for the societal response, I avoid the use of such words The individual active participation in limiting nuptial fertility during years of starvation. Usually no "free will" or "individual as choice" consciously made was involved here. For instance, during economic crisis poor couples were frequently seperated, either through the efforts of the communal authorities (the usual the societal control broke down, pauperization procedure) or illegal vagrancy. through the cruel fate of if Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 31. The classical authorities in the communes or the administration of poor relief. From their was safer to tolerate illegitimate children problem of the the parishes was point of view it than to allow poor people to be married. The most common individual fecundity was one child although examples may easily In marriage the expected fecundity could be given of more. hardly be less than four or five children. illicit This does not timacy. had disliked it but as into relation to other evils. Of course to put Relative it liked illegi— practical men they that the communal authorities mean they illegitimacy. thing, the illegitimacy ratio is another and there need not be any logical connection between the two. In a society favouring high fertility while fearing the childbearing of the poor, we might expect a high legitimate fertility rate, a low nuptiality ratio and, perhaps, a high illegitimacy ratio while the illegitimacy fertility rate is not neccessarily high. This was the situation in 19th century Ice— Sexual permissiveness one all kinds of combinations of these different demographic variables. A very low nuptiality ratio would probably lead to a dramatic decline in the size of the population if other factors would not neutralize its effects. The most logical one would be a very high legitimacy fertility rate. Laslett has observed the combination of these two phenomena, stating that "there actually were more children to a marriage when fertility was low than when fertility was high".62) But it would a priori fertility rate be very difficult to estimate the illegitimacy in these circumstances. It would vary very much from one period to another, from one country to another, being dependant on the strength of social sanctions and various cultural factors. While a low nuptiality rate would, other things being equal, tend to raise the relative number of illegitimate children, the high legitimacy fertility rate wouldtendto lower it. land. There are Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 is 62) Laslett, op.cit. p. 131. By fertility he means here, of course, the total fertility in society, not within the individual families. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 32. Table 7 legitimate and the illegitimate in Iceland in differentpperiods. The fertility rate per year of births/Number of women in fertile age - 100 (illegitimate births/unmarried women) (legitimate births/married Number women). Fertile age is here defined as the age group 15—44. In the third column there is shown the relative illegitimacy rate, that is the illegitimacy rate divided with the legitimate rate (~100). Period fertility 1966—70 1971 1972 1973 Source: Statistics of Iceland, 1876—85 1886—95 1897-1906 1906-15 1916-25 1926-35 1936-45 1946—55 1956-60 1961-65 II Illegitimate 38.0 32.4 34.7 31.9 29.6 28.7 27.3 22.8 18.8 19.6 19.0 16.7 13.0 12.0 12.7 12.0 1865-65 1866-75 Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 I Legitimate fertility rate % rate % 3.7 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.1 2.6 2.6 3.0 4.2 6.7 8.1 7.9 7.6 7.6 8.3 8.3 II, 63, Reykjavik II/I III 100 - 9.7 13.0 11.0 11.0 10.5 9.1 9.5 13.2 22.3 34.2 42.6 47.3 58.5 63.3 65.4 69.2 1976. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 33. Table 8 Legitimate and illegitimate fertility rates in different countries in different periods. I: Legitimate of married fertility rate aged women II: Illegitimate fertility 15—50 rate births/no. of unmarried 100, = no. of women The aged illegitimate 15—50 100, - in IV: The relative illegitimate fertility rate = The illegitimate fertility rate/the legitimate fertility rate 100, in 1896—1905. relative illegitimate 1896—1905 Legitimate fertility rate Austria— Hungary) Italy Switzerland France Belgium Neatherlands EnglandZ) Imperial Ger many Denmark Sweden Finland Norwa Japan ) Australia3) Iceland4) fertile are 1897-1906 III IV 1896—1905 fertility legitimate legitimate rate rate 1874—1891 Illegitimate Relative rate 1.9 0.9 1.8 1.7 0.6 0.8 25.3 21.7 21.9 24.5 24.7 21.0 21.0 (29.6) il— Relative 2.6 2.3 2.3 1.7 1.5 2.9 1.2 16.9 8.2 4.0 12.9 8.0 2.2 3.9 17.8 9.8 4.3 10.2 7.5 10.3 11.4 10.5 6.9 9.8 4.8 6.1 13.8 5.7 10.5 (3.1) 11.0 only called Austria. 1874—1891 called England 1874-1891 age of women is here and 1876-1895. 15-44 and Wales. and the periods Sorces: For Iceland Statistics of Iceland II, 63. For all other countries Bulletin de L’Institut International de Statistigue, 1874-1891: vol VII, dieuxieme livraison et derniere, p. 18-19. For 1896—1905: '____'__" vol. XX, livraison, dieuxieme il— fertility fertility 4.1 Only the years 1901-1905. The rate 1874—1891. 1896-1905 24.2 23.2 22.4 14.0 21.3 27.2 20.3 In the source for In the source for fertility II I Country Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 legitimate births/no. in 1896-1905. - 1896—1905. III: 1. 2. 3. 4. no. of = p. 292—296. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 34. that the illegitimacy ratio in Iceland before 1800 was around 10%. This was a society with an extremely low nuptiality ratio, only 28 to 45% of women in fertile age were married. This means that 55 to 72 % of the women gave birth to 10 % of the children. If the illegitimacy We have seen ratio in 1703 was 10 the %, relative illegitimacy fertility rate would then have been 4.3 %.63) But due to the increase in social sanctions during demographic and economic crises in "subsistance" economies, we might expect a lower illegiti— macy ratio in 1703, perhaps as low as existed in some years of hunger during the late 18th century which was 6 to 7%. That ratio would be very low indeed considering how many women were not married. in table 1 the percentage of married women became lower in Iceland during the period 1850—1870, while there was some increase in the illegitimacy ratio. Still in 1901 there were relatively fewer married women than in 1850. The illegitimacy ratio was highest 1876—1891. As we can If see consider the regional differences we find that the rela— tively greatest nuptiality was in the farming areas in the north and the east while it was lowest in the south and the west. Both fertility and total population increase shows the same pattern. This is indeed remarkable. The areas with the we Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 most traditional farming economy expanded more than the areas in the occupational structure. We ) may find some answer in the available statistics64 which decline, indicate a relative stagnation, if not sometimes a during the period in the growth of the economic sector most mainly affected by changes likely to encourage new economic development, but this was the cod fisheries in the south and the west while better communications and trade decreased the vulnerability of old farming 63) 64) See here areas of terms. to hunger during years of hardship. tables 7—8 for comparison and available statistics used here of for the definition two kinds: 1. The number 1850—1900. (Source: Gils Guomundsson, Skutuél— din, vol. 4, p. 35—44, Reykjavik 1977). These declined in abso— lute number 1850—1880. 2. The export statistics. (Source: 63, op.cit,) The importance of pro— Statistics of Iceland, ducts from the cod fisheries in the total value of exports in relation to the products from the was constant 1880—1900 farming sextor, although there was during this period some increase in the number of decked vessels which was used in the cod fisheries. Mechanization in the fishering fleet did not The of decked vessels II, start until the 20th century. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 35. In the Icelandic society 1850—1870 there are clear indicators supporting the thesis that production was lagging behind the population increase. There was a remarkable increase in the number of paupers during this period, in 1850 paupers were 1.9 % of the total population, 1860 the percentage was 2.7, in 1870 it was 5.6.65) The total number of households decreased while the population incrased. 66) In 1870 the legal punishment for simple fornication 67) and adultery were abolished. 68) This, together with the very low nuptiality ratio at the time may explain the rapidly rising illegitimacy ratio. Also the illegitimacy fertility rate in creased, although far less than the ratio. history of the late 19th century Iceland thus example of the general pattern evident in the The demographic gives a good crisis nuptiality rate less fertility. probably, we may add, a higher degree of illegitimacy. Here, however, the question of the strength of the traditional and judicial sanctions enter and it is reason— able to assume that these were more effective in 1703 than during the late 19th century. 1703 census: Economic Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 69) And 65) Skyrslur 66) p. Ibid, um landshagi, > low op.cit. vol. V, p. > 340-342. 313. 67) Simple fornication: When both delinquents were unmarried they were not related to each other through family. 68) Skyrslur 69) um landshagi, The prominent op.cit. vol.V, Icelandic writer p. and 600—601. on economic affairs, Arnljotur Olafsson was in 1858 quite certain that the low nuptiality ratio in the country was caused by the low productivity in farming and fishing, making it impossible for the labourers to earn daily wages instead of being in annual service in the farmers’ household. (See Skyrslur um landshagi, vol. 1, p. 379). Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 36. Table 9 factors changing the illegitimacy ratio in Iceland The 1790—1977. of married women (the nuptiality ratio) and the legitimacy fertility rate are negatively related to the illegi timacy ratio while the illegitimacy fertility rate is positively related to it. The percentage Percentage married of women Legitimate fertility rate Illegitimate Illegitimacy ratio Increase from 9% to 14% Increase to 17% Increase to 20% fertility rate 1790—1850 Increase? Constant? Sharp increase 1850—1870 Decline Constant for Constant Constant Constant Decline Decline Decline Sharp increase Increase 1870-1895 Decline 20+ 1896-1930 1930-1940 1940—1965 1965-1970 1971-1973 1974—1977 Slow increase Constant Increase Slow increase Slow increase Constant Sharp decline Constant Sharp decline Constant Constant Sharp increase Constant Decrease to Increase to Constant Increase to Increase to Increase to is selected as a suitable date with respect to after the demographic catastrophe of 1784—1786. For periods prior to 1930 the annual average of the illegiti macy ratio is shown, thereafter the rise to the last year of the period. As for further explanations, see text, and tables The year 1790 1, 7 the recovery 5 and Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 found. Fertility also the neccessary source references are where and nuptiality in modern Iceland. illegitimacy ratio reflects various other demographic phenomena, mainly the percentage of married women in fertile The legitimate age and both the of women. Table 9 is factors led to ratio in Iceland. which and illegitimate fertility rates of tables 1, 5 and 7. It shows rise or a decline in the illegitimacy a summary a in table of married women in exceptions, mainly 1850— 1870 when the nuptiality ratio declined due to a shortage of available land for the establishment of separate production units in an agrarian society. The 1930s were also an excep— tion because of the economic depression, also the period from 1974 onwards when the increase in divorces neutralized any increase in the number of new marriages. As we can creased see most 1 the percentage of the period with some 14% 25% 30% 34% 36% Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 37. legitimacy fertility rate has been declining in Iceland as in other countries in Europe. This decline started rela— tively late in Iceland (1866—1875) and synchronized with a (relativly late) fall in the infant death rate. The Icelandic "baby boom"70) started as elsewhere during the 1940s but it lasted in Iceland for a relatively long period, or ca. fertility 1965. During this period the legitimate rate was constant, in some years it even went up. The till fluctuations in the illegitimacy The well with the European experience itthereafter.The prolonged fertility till Icelandic 1930 "baby rate harmonize but diverge from boom" 1940-1965 was in fact both the function of the rising illegitimacy fer— tility rate and the rapidly rising nuptiality ratio. The two factors neutralized each other with respect to the illegiti— macy ratio. of the present illegitimacy ratio shows that it primarily may be explained by first births and an increase in the illegitimacy rate and ratio among young women, especially below the ages of 20 and 25. 46.5 % of all illegitimate births 1966—1970 was given by women under the age of 20. During the 19th century "high illegitimacy period" in Iceland, the female age group below twenty only gave birth to 3% of all the illegitimate children.71) Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Another type of decomposition of the parents of children who were born out of wedlock 1966—1970 were living in the same home during this period. Undoubtedly many of the remaining 61.1 % who were registered in separate homes intended to establish together own house— holds later. But de facto unions with children constituted only 3 % of all family nuclei for the period 1964—1970. 72) 38.9 70) 71) 72) % in this context is of course the sudden increase which started in most western societies during the second world war. See here, for instance, Easterlin: "The American baby boom in historical perspective", National Bureau of Economic Research. Occasional Paper no. 79, New York 1962. The in "baby boom" fertility The sources 61 and 63. for these calculations are Statistics of Iceland Statistics of Iceland, people aged 16+ II, II, 61, p. 15. In these statistics all counted as "families", separate from their regardless they were living in the home were parents' families, of their parents or not. if Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 38. noticing postponements in the marriages of the parents of illegitimate children. It needs to be reemphasized We are obviously that these are 20th century phenomena in Iceland. of nuptiality is indeed the only explanation which until now has been given regarding the present high ille gitimate rate and ratio in Iceland. But no serious analysis has been made for studying the reason for this postponement nor for any other plausible causes for the high illegitimate The postponement rate. it No attempt will would be beyond be made the scope essay and anyway the neccessary It is sufficient here to do such an analysis as of this paper as an historical for this purpose is lacking. of the elements usually fertility rate in modern data to state that most connected with a high illegitimate western society are present in Iceland today. 73) For instance very rapid urbanization, a high percentage of young people, the disapperance of old traditional values, improved possibi lities of the young to earn their living combined with a great housing shortage. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 It is to emphasize that these objective factors belong to the very young largely urban community known as modern Iceland and these did not exist in the present form in the rural Iceland of the old days. This clearly indicates the danger in— volved in the application of the mechanistic evolutionism which has characterized some studies of Iceland's development. 73) neccessary In this context see Hartley, op.cit. and Easterlin, op.cit. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 39. BIBLIOGRAPHY Islands (Acta Comitorum Generalium vol. 1—11, Reykjavik 1912-1969. Albingisbaekur = Albb. . Icelendie), Annalar Islandici Posteriorum (Annales 1400—1800 Reykjavik I—, ... 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Lysing Islands, vol. 4, Copenhagen Richard F.: Premarital Sexual Permissiveness and Illegitimacy Comparative 1922. in the Nordic Countries, Studies in Society and History, No.2. 1976. Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Tomasson, Richard F.: Zeitschrift des Millennium of Misery: The Demography of the Icelanders. Population Studies No.3 1977. A Kdniglich Bgyerischen Statistischen Bureaus, Mfinich 1879. Zeitschrift Berlin des 1889. K6niglich Preussischen Statistischen Bureaus, Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 Skrifter utgivna Ekonomisk-historiska föreningen. av Bjurling, Våldgästning Oscar till Kreuger. Från Fugger Lennart Jörberg, och frälse. Lund 1952. Lund 1957. of Swedish Growth and Fluctuations Lund 1961. Industry 1869-1912. IV. Oscar Bjurling, Lund 1962. XIII. Steuerbuch König Eriks Das Gert Tiderius, Lantbruksnämndernas medverkan i jord brukets strukturrationalisering. Lund 196%. VI. Jörn Svensson, Jordbruk och depression 1870-1900. Lund 1965. VII. Björn Lárusson, Lund 1967. VIII. IX. Old Icelandic Land Registers. The Torun Hedlund-Nyström, Svenska konjunkturer. Lund 1970. och internationella Sven Nordengren, Economic and Social Targets for Post-war France. Lund 1971. Martin Järnek, Studier i hushållens inkomstförhållanden 1925-1964. Lund 1971. XI. Carl-Axel Nilsson, Järn 1885-1912. Lund 1972. XII. Olle Krantz, Studier XIII. kriser efter i 1920. Lund 1972. Carl-Axel Olsson, till Om stål och svensk i svensk ekonomi godstransportutveckling jordbrukssektorns ekonomi med särskild Sverige under det andra världskriget. Lund 1924. XIV. Göran Ahlström, Studier i svensk ekonomisk politik hänsyn och prisutveckling Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 XV. Bassey Ndoma-Egba, Transformation 1776-1802. Foreign Lund 1974. Investment and Economic in West Africa 1870-1930 with Emphasis Nigeria. Lund 1974. XVI. Rolf Ohlsson, Invandrarna på arbetsmarknaden. Lund 1975. XVII. Per Gunnar Edebalk, Arbetslöshetsförsäkringsdebatten. En studie i svensk socialpolitik. Lund 1975. XVIII. Gunnar Ekholm, Det svenska jordbruket och folkförsörj on ningen under andra världskriget. Lund 1976. XIX. Neelambar Hatti, American Assistance and the Indian Economy 1951-69/70. Lund 1977. XX. Oscar Bjurling, Karl VIII:s jordebok över Färingö. Lund 1977. XXI. Rune Bunte, Fiskesamhällen i Sydsverige 1876-1960. Statistisk översikt. Lund 1977. XXII. Gert Tiderius, Effekten av den statliga rationalise ringspolitiken. Lund 1977. XXIII. Christer Gunnarsson, The Gold Coast Cocoa 1900-1939. Lund 1978. XXIV. Vidar Svensson, Lund 1979. XXV. Lennart Schön, Essays on the EEG-African Från hantverk textiltillverkning 1820-1870. till Industry, Association. fabriksindustri. Kristianstad 1979. Svensk FRÅN EKONOMISK-HISTORISKA MEDDELANDE Lunds INSTITUTIONEN Universitet 1978 1. Tommy turer 2. Bengtsson i Rolf Ohlsson, Befolkning och och konjunk Sverige 1749-1914. strukturgränser i svensk ekonomi 1861-1975. En metod att använda national produktserier i analys av ekonomisk-historisk förändring. Olle Krantz och Carl-Axel Nilsson, Om 3. Lennart Jörberg och Tommy Bengtsson, Regional Wages in Sweden during the 19th Century. 4. Lennart Jörberg och Olle Krantz, politik i Sverige 1850-1939. Ekonomisk och social 1979 5. Anders Nilsson och Lars Pettersson, Nationalekonomi och historia. 6. svenskt Exemplet Christer Gunnarsson, trettiotal. Malaysian Rubber Production. Of GrOWth 7. Olle Krantz, Struktur och strukturförändring historiska Christer Lundh, Svensk löntagarfondsdebatt 9. Björn Lárusson, 10. till . ekonomisk Några synpunkter. 8. nisation Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 begrepp. som Patterns under 1970-talet. Carl-Axel Nilsson, Lennart Schön, Från kolo internationella investeringar. Lennart Jörberg, En översikt över den svenska ekonomiska utvecklingen 1870-1979. 1980 11. Carl-Axel Olsson, Teknikhistoria som vetenskaplig disciplin. Några kommentarer. 12. Gisli Gunnarsson, Demographic Fertility History. and Nuptiality in Iceland‘s Generated on 2015-04-29 10:10 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924008609194 Creative Commons Attribution / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#cc-by-3.0 D AT E D U E i GAYLOID m 'IINTIO INU.S.A. 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