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CHAPTER TWO
POLICING IN THE AMERICAN CONTEXT
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CHAPTER TWO LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After reading chapter two, students should be able to:
1. Describe the nature and characteristics of policing in a democracy and under federalism.
2. Identify various elements of the policing environment in America and discuss their influence
on the practice of policing.
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CHAPTER TWO SUMMARY:

Democracy and federalism have contributed to the unique nature of policing in America.
Democracy is the institutionalization of freedom. Among democracy’s implication for
policing is the need to balance due process against crime control. Federalism divides
government power and decision-making capabilities between levels of government, and
this has led to the creation of federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.

The environment of policing includes citizens, government officials, the media, and other
law enforcement agencies. Citizen support for police is affected by factors like race, age,
sex, and prior contact. Government influence over policing occurs through executive,
legislative, and judicial channels. The media can both help and hurt law enforcement
agencies, but skilled police administrators engage in impression management to ensure a
favorable public image. Two methods of promoting interagency communication are
participating in professional associations a keeping abreast of research.
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CHAPTER TWO OUTLINE:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Introduction
Policing in America
A.
Policing in a Democracy
1.
Consequences of Democracy for Police
2.
Balancing Due Process and Crime Control
B.
Policing and Federalism
1.
Features of Federalism
2.
Federalism and Policing
The Policing Environment
A.
Citizen Support
1.
Race and Support
2.
Age and Support
3.
Men vs. Women
4.
Prior Contact
5.
Other Factors Affecting Public Perceptions
6.
Sheriffs and the Electorate
B.
Government Officials
1.
Executive Influence
2.
Legislative Influence
3.
Judicial Influence
C.
The Media
1.
Media Portrayal of the Police
2.
Impression Management
3.
The Public Information Officer: An Asset?
D.
Interagency Communication
1.
Professional Associations
2.
Research Reports
Summary
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CHAPTER TWO LECTURE OUTLINE:
I.
II.
Introduction
Policing in America
A.
Policing in a Democracy
-Democracy is defined as a form of government that vests supreme authority in
the people, usually through their freely elected representatives
-In a democratic nation, the police force must balance the demands of enforcing
the law and respecting citizens’ rights
1.
Consequences of Democracy for Police
-Democracy makes some types of crime inevitable because of the
freedoms afforded to its citizens
-The Bill of Rights outlines the rights of American citizens and is essential
to American democracy
2.
Balancing Due Process and Crime Control
-Due process model
-Likened to an obstacle course
-Quality favored over quantity
-Formality favored
-Faith in court systems
-Crime control model
-Likened to an assembly line
-Quantity favored over quality
-Informality favored
-Faith in “street justice” and police discretion
-Prominent model in U.S.
B.
Policing and Federalism
-American government characterized by two components
-Democracy
-Federalism
1.
Features of Federalism
-Helps democracy through participation at all levels of government
-Laws crafted by both central and constituent powers
-Cooperative federalism is the U.S. model
2.
Federalism and Policing
-Federalism defines various levels of government and law
enforcement
-Federal government and state government are the main
divisions
-Both are still related
-Divided levels of government can create both tension and
cooperation
-Federal government can affect state government by
controlling budgets
III.
The Policing Environment
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A.
B.
Citizen Support
-Most significant environmental factor in policing
-Citizens vastly outnumber police
-Citizens can influence police through several methods
-Citizens elect some public officials who may then govern police
-Police rely on citizens for information.
-Perceptions of police vary across demographic groups
1.
Race and Support
-Most powerful predictor of support (or lack thereof) for police
-Caucasians view police more favorably than non-Caucasians
2.
Age and Support
-Young people are less supportive of police than the elderly
-Young people are more likely to have negative encounters with police,
such as traffic violations, than the elderly
3.
Men vs. Women
-The distinction in support levels for police by men and women is unclear
4.
Prior Contact
-The more involuntary contacts a person has with police, the less
supportive of them he or she will be
-If the encounters are regarded as favorable, the levels of support may
remain high
-Negative encounters lower the levels of support for police
5.
Other Factors Affecting Public Perceptions
-Income level studies show that the wealthy tend to be more supportive of
police than the poor
6.
Sheriffs and the Electorate
-Sheriffs are elected officials and hence rely on citizen support
-Sheriffs are accountable to county boards and the electorate
Government Officials
-Government officials are important environmental factors for policing
-There are three branches of government that influence policing
1.
Executive Influence
-There are two forms of city government.
-Council-manager form
-Most common in cities over 12, 000 people
-Elected city council is responsible for all policy decisions
-Mayors often lead the city council and act as ceremonial
figures.
-Mayor-council form
-Strong-mayor variation gives mayor virtually unlimited
authority over city operations, including hiring and firing
decisions.
-Weak-mayor variation uses the mayor in city council
operations.
-City councils
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C.
-Integral to police agencies because they enact policies and
determine certain funding decisions.
-Mayors
-Most mayors serve under a “checks and balances” system,
using authority with oversight from a city council.
-Police Commissions
-Determine some policies for police departments
-Oversee police department operations
2.
Legislative Influence
-Congress
-Passes federal policies that sometimes relate to law enforcement
-State legislatures
-Passes state laws that police officers must enforce
-Also sets important precedents which may apply to law
enforcement
-Financial grant institutions
-At the federal and state level, these entities provide financial
grants to police departments, but only if those departments agree to
use the grant money toward a specific cause.
3.
Judicial Influence
-Both U.S. and state Supreme Court decisions eventually trickle down to
all law enforcement.
The Media
-Constantly scrutinizes police
-Media can act as the “best friend and worst enemy” of every police organization
1.
Media Portrayal of the Police
-“If it bleeds, it leads”
-News broadcasts and television shows give priority to crimerelated events and plots.
-Racial aspect of media coverage
-Minorities often portrayed unfavorably in police-related media
-Media portrayals of the concept of “justice”
-Concept of “justice” typically unrealistic in crime shows
2.
Impression Management
-A media relations concept that involves controlling the presentation of
information to achieve a desired public perception.
-Dramaturgical discipline
-Achieving a balance between reporting facts, and putting a “spin”
on those facts to create a desired impression.
3.
The Public Information Officer: An Asset?
-Police department spokesperson. The media must go through the public
information officer to gather information about the department.
-Lovell conducted research related to police public relations
-Found the departments with a public information officer did not have a
more favorable image in the media.
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D.
-Asserted that police departments should have a media strategy
instead of media policies.
Interagency Communication
1.
Professional Associations
-International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP)
-Most well-known law enforcement agency
-Membership of 20,000+ police officers in 89 countries
-Founded in 1893
-Hosts annual meeting to facilitate interagency communication
-Membership not restricted to chiefs of police
-National Black Police Association
-Created a network of minority police officers
-Membership is not restricted to African Americans
-International Union of Police Associations (IUPA)
-Lobbyist organization
-Represents rank-and-file police officers and unions, nationwide
-International Police Association (IPA)
-Largest police professional association in the world
-Works to advance international police cooperation and social
bonds among police
2.
Research Reports
-The National Institute of Justice (NIJ)
-A research, development and evaluation agency within the Department of
Justice (DOJ)
-Research grants from NIJ are very difficult to get, but usually
produce high quality research.
-NIJ also provides an annual report to Congress about its research
-Police Executive Research Forum (PERF)
-Dedicated solely to police administration research
-Nonprofit rather than government entity
-Police Foundation
-Dedicated to all aspects of policing research
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IV.
Summary

Democracy and federalism have contributed to the unique nature of policing in America.
Democracy is the institutionalization of freedom. Among democracy’s implication for
policing is the need to balance due process against crime control. Federalism divides
government power and decision-making capabilities between levels of government, and
this has led to the creation of federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.

The environment of policing includes citizens, government officials, the media, and other
law enforcement agencies. Citizen support for police is affected by factors like race, age,
sex, and prior contact. Government influence over policing occurs through executive,
legislative, and judicial channels. The media can both help and hurt law enforcement
agencies, but skilled police administrators engage in impression management to ensure a
favorable public image. Two methods of promoting interagency communication are
participating in professional associations a keeping abreast of research.
24
CHAPTER TWO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Do you agree or disagree with electronic eavesdropping by federal investigators as part of
antiterrorism intelligence gathering? Why or why not?
2. How does democracy make some crime inevitable?
3. Figure 2-2 lists the Pillars of Democracy. Pick the top three that are most important to you.
Explain how you arrived at your decision.
4. Compare and contrast the Crime Control Model with the Due Process Model. Which do you
favor and why?
5. Why are young people typically unsupportive of police? Do you agree or disagree with this
research finding? Why or why not?
6. Why are people who feel excessive disorder in their own neighborhoods unsupportive of
police?
7. Compare and contrast the Council-manager form of city government with the Mayor-council
form of city government. Which do you support and why?
8. In your opinion, which branch of the government has more power over law enforcement?
Why?
9. List crime television shows that you watch regularly. Are you more likely to watch a news
broadcast if it includes crime-related headlines?
10. Do you think police agencies communicate effectively? Why or why not? How would you
improve interagency communication?
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CHAPTER TWO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
Q1. What are the distinguishing features of policing in a democracy? How has our system of
federalism affected policing in the United States?
A.
-First, democracy can actually make policing more challenging because of the freedoms afforded
to citizens. Citizens of democracies may even have certain rights provided to them, and these
rights govern and regulate policing. It is because police have to abide by these “rules” that the
job can be challenging in a democracy. Democracy may even make certain crime inevitable
because it typically prioritizes citizens’ rights.
-Policing in a democracy usually assumes one of two model choices. The first, the crime control
model, emphasizes quantity over quality in police work. It also favors informality and ascribes
faith to police decision-making. Also, this model illustrates a presumption of guilt and
controlling crime at all costs.
-The second model is the due process model. This viewpoint is the polar opposite of the crime
control model. It values quality of police work rather than quantity. It also prefers formality in
the justice system and ascribes faith to the court system. There is a presumption of innocence
and an emphasis on protecting people’s rights at all costs.
-Federalism uses a central governing authority and constituent authorities. This duality has
affected policing in the United States in two major ways. First, the passage of laws on both the
federal and state levels raised the volume and complexity of laws for police to enforce. Second,
federalism has increased both tension and cooperation between law enforcement agencies due to
the level of coordination that must occur between both levels of a federalist government.
Q2. What is the policing environment? Which aspect of the policing environment do you believe
is most important?
A.
-The policing environment consists of many different influencing factors. Citizen support is the
most significant environmental factor for policing. Citizens elect political officials who then
hold power over police departments. Also, citizens often inform police about crime concerns, as
well as provide investigative tips. Because citizens outnumber police, their support and
influence is vital.
-A second factor in the policing environment is race. Racial minorities typically don’t support
police efforts, and therefore can make the police environment a difficult one. This is also
dependent on the activity the police engage in with the minority. If the activity involves use-offorce, obviously this affects the policing environment differently than police-citizen interaction
in a town meeting.
-A third factor in the policing environment is age. Younger people tend to be less supportive of
police than the elderly. Usually, this is because younger people have more encounters,
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especially negative encounters, with police than the elderly. Even something as minor as a
traffic citation may make a negative impression of the police in a youngster’s mind.
-Gender seems to be a factor in the policing environment. Men tend to favor the police more
than women but the research is murky on the exact effects for either sex.
-Finally, prior contact is paramount in the policing environment. Individuals who have had more
encounters with police, especially negative encounters, typically favor the police less than
individuals who have had fewer encounters. However, if the encounters were positive, then the
individual may keep their original favorable impression of police.
-The government, both state and federal level, are both part of policing as well. Various
government bodies, such as city councils, judicial court systems, and even legislatures all affect
the policing environment by changing the laws to be enforced, controlling the monetary flow of
police departments, or creating regulatory policies.
-Finally, the media has a broad affect on the police environment. Perceptions of police have
been totally altered by popular television shows, and often these perceptions are unrealistic at
best. Some police departments have even taken to having a public information officer who
specializes in acting as a media liaison, though this position has proven ineffective in
establishing a positive police perception.
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CHAPTER TWO WEB PATROL LINKS AND DESCRIPTIONS:
2-1. Wikipedia, “Fajitagate”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fajitagate
This website offers an article segmented into summary and detailed sections about
“Fajitagate,” the series of scandals among San Francisco police officers.
2-2. Democratizing the Police Abroad: What To Do and How To Do It
http://www.justiestudies.com/pubs/democratizing.pdf
This file is a report from the Department of Justice branch, National Institute of Justice,
about International policing. The report is broken down into chapters with full references
at the end.
2-3. Public Opinions of the Police
http://www.justicestudies.com/pubs/publicopinions.pdf
This article reviews differences in perception levels about police among various
demographic groups within the American population. The Department of Justice report,
dated 2004, is provided in pdf format for student viewing.
2-4. Satisfaction With Police: What Matters?
http://www.justicestudies.com/pubs/satisfaction.pdf
This National Institute of Justice research article investigates the influences that cause
people to favor police. Specifically, the authors look at how people’s perceptions about
the quality of their own lives affects levels of support for police.
2-5. The Public Image of the Police
http://www.theiacp.org/profassist/ethics/public_image.htm
This is the homepage for the professional organization, the International Association of
Chiefs of Police. Links to various details about the IACP are included.
2-6. Police and the Media
http://tinyurl.com/35elvy
This is a link to a first-person account of a media expert participating in an internship
with police. This first-hand account provides students with a narrative perspective on the
relationship between police and the media.
2-7. Professional Associations in Law Enforcement
http://www.talkjustice.com/links.asp?453053931
This website provides an index of professional associations of law enforcement. Students
can peruse the index and select from more than 50 websites.
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