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HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: A REVIEW ARTICLE
Ali Emami*, Samaneh Taj Mohammadi Gonbad, Fatemeh Barkhodar and Nooshin Milanizadeh
Department of Architecture, Gonbad Kavoos Branch, Islamic Azad University, Gonbad Kavoos, Iran
*Corresponding Author
ABSTRACT
The present essay has been prepared to conduct historical analysis on concept of environmental psychology. Writing
of this article is aimed at exploring development and progress trend and decline in psychology of environment and
collection of all scientific and academic activities done within the field of environmental psychology. Consequently,
several tables have been prepared within various historical periods and based on fields of study in which the
discipline of environmental psychology has been implemented. Method of this study used in this article is of
documentary type and technique of research is of historical style. Findings from this historical research in the field of
environmental psychology have interpreted separation and analysis of several fields like privacy, distance,
environmental features, and place attachment (sense of place) etc. Similarly, over the time the conducted researches
in the field of psychology have been mainly become interpretation- oriented and relativity has drawn focus point of
attention in individuals‘ attitude toward environment based on individual and cultural characteristics.
KEYWORDS: Environmental psychology, History, Environment, Human, Behavior
INTRODUCTION
One could assume environmental psychology as the psychology of human and his/ her surrounding environment.
Various definitions have been proposed about this field by the researchers. Some of them argue that environmental
psychology is a branch of psychology that addresses the study and analysis of interactions, diversities, experiences, and
actions of human with different aspects of physical social settings (Canter, 1981). Some other ones assume
environmental psychology as fields of psychology that deal with providing systematic relations among person with
environment (Russell and Ward, 1982). In any case, it can be implied that environmental psychology explores common
relations among physical setting with human‘s behavior and experience (Holahan 1982). Of course Proshansky argues
that physical environment is also considered as social setting and sometime it is not possible to separate these two
aspects of environment as a result complexity of concept of environment is a repeated subject throughout the
environmental studies (Mc Andrew, 2008).
The environmental psychology studies on interaction between individuals with their surrounding physical environment.
In these interactions, when individuals change their environment behind them, their behavior and experiences are
subjected to change with respect to the environment. The environmental psychology includes purposeful theory,
research, and performance in creating a better environment for individuals as well as mechanism for improvement of
relations among the human and environment. With respect to development of capitalist community, a physical
environment (including park, buildings, streets, water and atmospheric conditions) and huge utilization from
environment form and here environmental psychology starts acting as a key part for two-way well- being and welfare
of human and environment (Stokols,1995). The environmental psychology arose as academic and scientific form since
the early 60s at twentieth century. Primarily during years 1960-1970 the first activity of environmental psychology was
to perceive the effects of physical and social environment on individuals, but since 1980s, it has also dealt with the role
of individuals on environment. This field of psychology is an interdisciplinary branch is closely related to architecture,
landscaping architecture, and urban design.
Generalities and history of environmental psychology
According to opinion of Gifford, environmental psychology differs from main branch of psychology since it deals with
everyday physical setting (Gifford, 2007). At the middle of twentieth century, the environmental psychology as a
certain and clear science has dealt with some issues including emotional isolation, privacy, and design of building.
Specific journals have been published in this regard. Inter alia, journals of psychology and environment and
environment and behavior were some of the most leading articles in this period. Many environmental psychologists
preferred to use this knowledge if they recognized the theoretical value and research. In contrast, many people enter
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into the field of counseling or public services in order to use helpfully the findings for sustainable policy and resolving
local problems. The ecologic designers and researchers in USA felt the motive for cooperation with each other in USA
in 60s. Lack of attention to physiologic requirements and public security and mental safety in design and construction
of residential spaces like Pruitt- Igoe that was led to demolishing of eleven- story building complexes in San Louis was
a serious and noticeable warning to them. The social and psychological anomalies of the inhabitants in residential
complexes had been addressed and explored by means of modern architectural models of design and implementation of
researchers in social sciences. However, it certainly seemed it necessary and requisite for our cooperation with
designers and researchers in psychology to remove the existing deficiencies in design for the people as users of
architectural and urban spaces, it became clear soon that designers and psychologists had different attitudes from each
other toward way of dealing with resolving the environmental problems. From the viewpoint of psychologists, the
problem was in that the architects further emphasized on aesthetic issues in the designed spaces compare to dealing
with their functional issues. Hence, the psychologists argued that the designer might sacrifice the real world and
everyday requirements to aesthetic and abstract requests of their own and for this reason they caused the people to
become more aliened to the given design setting more than ever. But in fact the difference among the created attitudes
between two groups might be due to different nature and essence of architecture profession and the mentioned
knowledge in study on interaction among human and environment and relationship among these sciences with design.
The necessity for a common language was felt to establish practical relationship. The need arose to new knowledge for
design and making effort to build and create new knowledge. Building of a model or a paradigm, if it exists, that could
cover the human‘s motives and requirements by resorting to the existing various fields in architecture, social sciences,
psychology, political sciences, and anthropology and possess multi- scientific and inter- scientific nature, draw their
attention. Many scientists in behavioral sciences challenged the experiences and researches based on employing
laboratory study method as the only way to identify human‘s behavior. They noticed research in behavior in real world
environment and daily habitat of the people. Paying attention to study on human and his/ her behaviors in ‗behavioral
settings‘, which were posited by Roger Barker in book of ‗Ecological psychology‘ at the same time it reflected this fact
that unlike traditional psychology in which the conducted studies overlooked our relations among human‘s behavior
and his/ her formal environment, in ecological psychology this concept (Human‘s relationship with his/ her
environment or colony) was going to be ever-increasingly noticed. Study on nature of environment was also addressed
as a social phenomenon by the psychologists and therefore exploration and review the quality of environmental role
and impact in building of social behavior of people were addressed by researchers. The environmental psychology is
the complex study among relationship among people with their surrounding environment. This science provides a
framework of viewpoints, researches, and hypotheses that could contribute us to have better perception from mutual
relations among human and surrounding environment. One could implement several evaluations before design and
construction by means of this knowledge that is considered as the best tool for professional designers (Motalebi, 2001)
History of environmental psychology concept
The origins of arising of environmental psychology in Europe and Britain are related to the end of 1940s during
reconstruction and revival of the environment that was demolished in World War II. Since the given date this field has
drawn attention by many researchers. Overall, it is always emphasized in this point in environmental psychology that
how human‘s behavior, emotions, and sense of health are influenced by physical environment (Mc Andrew, 2008).
During 60s and 70s, some investigations were devoted to study on effect of environment and human and they were
published under titles of specialized reviews on the fields of environmental psychology, ecologic psychology, and or
eco- behavioral sciences. Grumman assumes environmental psychology as complementary without environment and
implies that since the start of arising of this science, several technical disciplines may be seen like environmental
psychology for rediscovery and special attention to the forgotten dimension. Grumman concluded that in traditional
psychology, environmental- cultural dimensions have not been adequately noticed and this phenomenon has caused
arising of discipline of environmental or ecologic psychology.
Nature of environmental psychology
The nature of theory of environmental psychology is related to actions and reactions that form among human and
environment. The environmental psychology is a subset from behavioral sciences. In addition to psychology, the
behavioral sciences comprise of several other sciences like anthropology, sociology, and even political sciences and
economics. For this reason, a number of researchers prefer further to study of human in environment within the
framework of ecologic- behavior study, but in any case as a branch of psychology, environmental psychology deals
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with study on human‘s behaviors in relation to his/ her habitats and settings and it is known with other names including
human- environment relations, environmental sociology, and human ecology as well. According to view from Kleck,
environmental psychology is the psychological study of human‘s behavior in such a way that it is related to his/ her
everyday life in formal environment. As it inferred from this definition, environmental psychology explores typically
the human in relationship with his/ her formal environment to notice his/ her values, attitudes, and requirements and to
deal with the subjects, which play essential role in description of people‘s behaviors such as perception, recognition,
and spatial behaviors. Hence, environmental psychology is interested in study on personal and collective experiences of
people about the settings and relating to types of fundamental behaviors of human.
The environmental psychology development trend between years 1965 and 1995
One of the main axes in this article is to explore the development and progress trend and even decline of environmental
psychology during 1965-1995. As a result, although the historical kernel of environmental psychology returns to 1940s,
its main origin has referred to approximately 1960s. To review this subject, the related source of an essay from Daniel
Stokols has been utilized in which this trend is illustrated within a historical cycle. In 1960s, environmental psychology
created especial enthusiasm and eager and it was during this period when many coordination and collaborations were
done for scientific research and studies among scientists in various sciences including psychology, architecture,
geography, and urban sociology and hundreds of researchers have conducted many empirical studies such as density,
personal space, conservation and stress. The environmental psychologists mainly noticed the effects of environment on
human‘s behavior in this period. But since the mid 1960s, the personal spirits and characteristics in relation to
environment have been also taken into consideration so that the relativity of individuals‘ perception on a fixed
environment had been explored (Stokols, 1995). Some researchers like Gibson and Skinner have implemented
activities in this period. In this way, since 1966 and with emerging of studies of Barker, Hall, and Sommer, this topic
was also addressed about privacy, distances of humans, and also regulation of interaction among individuals ad their
surrounding environment. In this course, this trend was continued in 1970s up to 1980s and new textbooks as well as
scientific essays and journals were published about environment, behavior, and environmental psychology. Likewise, at
this period the professional and vocational organizations were established among of these organizations one can refer to
American Psychology Association and International Association of Applied Psychology. Of other achievements of
environmental psychology in this period is to teach this field at doctoral course (Stokols, 1995). Looking at today
developments signifies other paradox where with respect to this fact that many empirical and theoretical research and
studies have been carried out in the field of environmental psychology in 1960s by 1980s, but since 1990s the
environmental psychology has enjoyed slower progress and development compared to other disciplines including
health psychology and social psychology at present (Stokols, 1995). Generally, what it has been explored in this article
is that although environmental psychology conducts many activities in scientific and research fields, according to
Lakatos, this area of knowledge lacks a formulated and certain scientific plan to possess independent scientific identity
[1]. The scientific and applied cooperation and support in environmental psychology have formed in 6 following fields
during three decades from 1965 to 1995.
Table (1): The environmental psychology scientific and applied supporting fields (Source: author)
1- Developing methods and structures to analyze the relationship between humans and environment
2- Increased emphasis on realization of mutual paradigms
3- Exchange of environment and human model
4- Relations between groups and environment
5- Wide application of environmental- behavioral studies to solve public problems
6- Spreading international field for environmental psychology discipline
As it mentioned at the beginning, environmental psychology has been exposed to decline in addition to period of
progress. In his article, Stokols typically interprets this decline trend based on several conflicts and paradoxes.
Regarding paradox in the field of environmental psychology, it should be noted that one of the paradoxical
characteristics in environmental psychology is in that this field introduces its identity as an independent and transparent
discipline while on the other hand there is no certain limit and borders to interpret environmental and humanistic issues
in relation to other sciences and it is impossible to separate and to make them independent from other fields. If we
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intend to propose a total and historical conclusion about development of environmental psychology during recent years
(i.e. decades between years 1965 and 1995) it should be implied that this discipline has grown and developed in various
fields. These fields are as follows:
Table (2): Various fields of growth and development in environmental psychology (Source: author)
1- Developing the relevant concepts to relationship among human and environment
2- Conducting researches and proposing modern methods and using the given results in resolving human
problems
3- Transferring paradigms to cross- sectional studies
4- Developing Analysis trend regarding relationship among human and environment
5- Analysis on relationship among groups with their surrounding environment
6- Formation of psychological concerns in environment
*******
Table (2): Various fields of growth and development in environmental psychology (Source: author)
1960s
Mid 1960s- 1966
1966- 1970s
1970s – 1980s
Since 1990s
The main origin of environmental psychology was related approximately
since 1960s. It was at this period when several scientific researches and
studies have been carried out among scientists from various sciences
including psychology, architecture, geography, and urban sociology with
many cooperation and hundreds of researchers have conducted a lot of
empirical studies on subjects like density, private space, conservation, and
stress.
The personal spirits and characteristics in relation to environment were noticed
so that the relativity of individuals‘ perception from a fixed setting had been
explored (Stokols, 1995). The researchers like Gibson and Skinner have acted
in this period.
With arising of studies done by Barker, Hall, and Sommer, the topics about
privacy, distances of humans as well as regulation of interactions between
individuals with their surrounding environment were taken into consideration.
Following to this trend in 1966, new textbooks as well as scientific articles and
journals were published about environment, behavior, and environmental
psychology. Similarly, the professional and vocational organizations were also
established in this period of these organizations one could refer to American
Association of Psychology and International Association of Applied
Psychology. Of other achievements of environmental psychology in this period
is to teach this field at doctoral course of university (Stokols, 1995).
Compared to other disciplines such and health psychology and social
psychology at present, environmental psychology enjoys slower speed in
development and progress (Stokols, 1995).
Development trend of theoretical approaches in environmental psychology
The environmental psychology approach is reveal where there are some conflicts and problems among human and
environment. The environmental psychology approaches try to manage and or conserve as well as correct the behavior
of individuals versus environment by proposing a local and or global model. Similarly, the subject of environmental
effect on human‘s behavior is placed in the other side of environmental psychology approaches. For example, the
crowded and stressful settings may affect on mental health of people. As a result, at third place, a series of approaches
collectively deals with interpretation of issues and in these approaches; the effects on human interactions as well as
psychological and cultural features of persons in an environment are noticed.
Overall, the theoretical framework of environmental psychology defines the relationships among human and
environments in three areas; for this reason, environmental psychology has been characterized as a multidisciplinary
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paradigm in which it has borrowed from several fields including geography, architecture, politics, sociology, and
anthropology and other fields in analysis of mutual effect of human and environment (Gifford, 2007). The main axis of
development trend and formation of environmental psychology theories have been further related to the years since
1965. Consequently, the main core of psychological theories about effect of environment on human‘s behaviors has
returned to the early years of 1960s. Gibson and Skinner have acted in this period (Stokols, 1995). It was at this period
when theories like distance between humans (Edward Hall) flourished. Based on theoretical framework of Edward
Hall, the distance between humans might affect on type of relations among individuals. Similarly, the surrounding
environment and the needs of individuals to each other may determine the rate of distance among persons. Edward T.
Hall defines four types of distances among individuals at time of establishing the relations. Likewise since decade of
1995, environmental psychology approaches referred to new point in difference from the previous theories. The fact is
that the main point of their focus has been human‘s interaction and the existing culture and norms in a certain
environment. Of theorists in this period one can refer to Kiesler and Johnson (2001), Lgarashi (2005), Jing Xu (2011),
and Agnus (2012). Kiesler and Johnson imply that the proximity of individuals to each other causes the people to avoid
from iconoclasm. Similarly, Lgarashi and Agnus claim in their theory that the character type of individuals and cultural
features and community norms are determinant factors in determination of distances among humans. Following this
trend, Jing Xu argues that with respect to their psychological moods, the proximity among individuals may affect on
some aspects of their life including selection of consuming goods in a shop (Stokols, 1995).
Fig (1): Conceptual model from development trend in theoretical approaches of environmental psychology (Source:
Author)
In another classification, environmental psychology has been divided into 7 main branches.
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Fig (2): Conceptual model of environmental psychology branches (Source: Author)
Table (4): Various fields of environmental psychology (Source: Author)
Title of theoretical field
Educational environmental
psychology
Psychology of resource
management
Psychology of residential
environment
Psychology of urban settings
Psychology of environment &
change of behavior
Psychology of managing of
social space
Psychology of working
environment
Theorist
Barker & Gump
Year
1964
Hardin
1968
Michelson
1977
Ransberger
Grander & Stern
1978
2002
Gifford
2007
Hartgen
Ritzer
Levin & Lawyer
Stadenmond & Conner
Spencer & Tang
Gifford & Stage
1974
1980
1981
1982
1983
2007
The conducted studies in each of these fields are as follows:
1- Educational environmental psychology: According to viewpoint from these authors, the physical settings in schools
may highly effect on rate of learning and acquisition of experiences in students. One of these features is size and area of
schools which the studies have indicated that the students can learn and enjoy further in large schools than in smallsize schools. 2- Psychology of resources management: Conservation of energy, supply potable water and industrial
pollutions are some of daily problems, which are chosen with respect to human behaviors according to mental aspects.
According to attitude of the author, the main pint is that with encouraging and motivating sense of self- control in
individuals, it can be relatively effective in creating diligence in persons to protect from environment and saving
energy. 3- 3- Psychology of social space management: Although individuals continually and unconsciously try to
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determine complex rules and regulations to maintain their personal distance and space at the same time these rules can
also be changed due to dynamic character of individuals and importance of distance. 4- Psychology of environment and
change in behavior: Many environmental problems and its destruction stem from human behavior and consequently one
could protect from environment. 5- Psychology of urban settings: The world moves dramatically toward urbanism. As a
result, with change in urbanism status the psychological behavior and status are changed in individuals as well.
Consequently, the environmental psychologists in this field tend to study on spiritual and mental health state in persons
within public areas and urban settings (park, street, and the like). 6- Psychology of residential environment: The home
is one of the foremost residential environments for individuals. The people‘ satisfaction with housing place depends on
several factors including economic and social status, personal characteristics, future expectancy, values, and way of
relationships with neighbors and friends (Gifford, 2007). 7- Psychology of working environment: In this part, most of
the conducted studies were concerned with the problem of transportation and public transport in urban settings.
Similarly, the applied aspects of these investigations tend to propose a model to accelerate public transport and
reducing of costs and decrease in stressful factors at workplace as well as rising quality of life for the people (Gifford,
2007).
Acquaintance with the paramount theorists in the field of environmental psychology
Robert Gifford
Robert Gifford is the professor of psychology and environmental studies in UK, Colombia, and Canada Universities.
The main framework of his study is about environmental psychology, social psychology, and psychology of character
(personality). His activity is focused on analysis of non- verbal behaviors and behavioral barriers, and climatic changes.
Gifford wrote 4 versions of environmental psychology including several principles and practices, which have been
translated into Japanese language as well. Since 2002, he has been appointed as the editorial of journal of
environmental psychology. Likewise, he acts in board of directors of architectural drafting, critique, and analysis.
Following to this trend, he has served as the environmental agent in units of American Association of Psychology,
International Association of Applied Psychology, and Canada Association of Psychology. Some of honors of Gifford
include that he has won the professional award from association of environmental design studies in 2007. The
published books written by Gifford comprise of environmental psychology: principles and practices (In English and
Japanese) and applied psychology (Wikipedia).
Daniel Stokols
Daniel Stokols is a researcher and emeritus professor in the field of social ecology in group of psychology and social
behavior and planning policies. Similarly, he is founder of faculty of social environment in University of California.
Likewise, he was closely related to healthcare, epidemiology, and sciences, and nursing status in UCI institute. The
studies, which have been conducted by Dr. Stokols, have been known as important factor in achievement of studies and
trans-disciplinary courses. The activities of Dr. Stokols are as follows: Design and evaluation of social programs and
improvement of occupational health (OHSAS), evaluation of environmental effect (traffic and density) on health and
behavior and creating stress, and exploitation from the results of studies to increase urban facilities and planning.
Similarly, Stokols acts as the environmental agent in American association of psychology (APA) and association of
psychological sciences. The studies, which have been carried out by Stokols, mainly were concerning to environmental
framework and above all the environmental effect on individuals. For instance, his focus point was concentrated mainly
on environmental destructive and stressful factors so that in one of these studies his main concern is to evaluate the
effect of noise in airport on children at primary schools in the access route from Los Angeles International Airport.
(Wikipedia)
Enrick Pol
He is a Doctor of psychology and professor in the field of social applied psychology and active environment
psychology in Barcelona University of Psychology, Spain. Teaching backgrounds of Enrick Pol includes: Teaching
before graduation in 1987 in the field of social applied psychology and active environment psychology; Teaching in
Advanced Education (MA) comprising in management in environmental psychology since 1987; teaching in advanced
education course (PhD studies): environment, social behavior, and human resources, and organizational plans. His
investigations consist of 6-year study and evaluation in national commission with respect to Spain law; research and
study in the main office of this commission since 2000; review the social and environmental effects of train high speed,
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organizational effects of business on environmental changes, social tools for management advisors (AUMA) in
environment and energy, and review of social effects on park and green space (Wikipedia).
History of environmental psychology studies
The background of literature of human behavior regarding environmental system is still dramatically going to spread.
The rapid developing of environmental psychology in terms of variation and mere quantity was explored and revised
sine time of Kenneth Kleck in 1973. Only less than 10 books have been published by the aid of 6 authors for five years.
All of these works are concerned with the relationship among human behavior and social and physical environment. In
other words, likewise in this period many studies and environmental psychology analyses have been published in
sociological and geographic and also environmental psychology journals (Stokols, 1995). The origins of environmental
psychology studies and researches return to German authors at early years of the recent century. They were the first
researchers, who specifically called this field as a science. The transitional period of this knowledge to USA occurred
during these years although it was rarely noticed; a noticeable part of its theoretical bases was founded. Following this
trend, description and justification of time period of formation of psychology of architecture and crises after 1970 led to
pave the way for change in two aspects of it and each of them caused environmental psychology to be focused more on
stability and sustainability.
Fig (3): Conceptual model of origins of environmental psychology studies and researches (Source: Author)
Vitoria proposes a question that is: Have the research interests in environmental psychology changed over the years? If
it is so, in which direction they have changed. The main concern for Maria was in that how could the previous studies
contribute to researches in the future? This researcher has looked for a response to this question throughout the research
period. The articles, which have been collected by Maria at the beginning of environmental psychology field, are about
the following items:
1- Interaction between human and environment; 2- Type of regulation and performance of human; and 3- Analysis of
parameters;
The Maria‘s analyses have shown that over the time the psychological studies have been mainly focused on the
following cases: 1- Study on residential environment; 2- Identifying environmental features; and 3- Observation of real
behavior in environment. Similarly, the researches trend about value of regional environment has been changed
generally within these variations into global environment. Analysis of these studies suggests that primarily the studies
have been mainly based on observational researches as a subject and during the final years the studies have emphasized
on environmental protection as a global phenomenon.
Activity of environmental psychology journal
Works and writings, most popular electronic websites, and tables of list of contents in some journal (e.g. journal of
environmental psychology and journal of environment and behavior) with some headlines like environmental
dependence, spatial identity, and the relevant terms, which caused to publish about 400 articles in forty previous years
in different journals, were explored. All of them indicated branches of social sciences including environmental
psychology, sociology, physiography, cultural anthropology, gerontology, world knowledge, and reviews on rural
identity, recreational and touristic sciences, biology, forestry, architecture, design, and economics. Only a branch of
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social sciences, which is unfortunately going to be eliminated, is also mainly related to journals of social psychology.
There is an incremental growth in publishing the journals relating to location more than 60% of all of printed articles
during the recent decade. This trend can be observed as well in two leading journals of environmental psychology.
Before 1990, seven articles were published about location (place) and exactly 18 and 45 essays were published between
years 1991 and 2000 in previous decade in journal of environmental psychology.
Journals of environmental psychology and behavior and environment
Journal of environmental psychology has started activity since 1980. Gifford as chancellor of Victoria University was
appointed as editorial of this journal since 2002. This journal consists of a scientific research and study regarding
human‘s interaction with his/her natural environment. Likewise, this journal is mainly focused on analysis of small
groups and individuals and journal of applied psychology emphasizes on new perception of psychology relevant fields.
At first place, this journal looks for theoretical and empirical analysis of psychological, motivational, and emotional
perception and psychological- behavioral phenomena of individuals concerning to surrounding environment. The
scientific journal of behavior and environment is published every two months. This journal analyzes expertly the
mutual relationship among environment and behavior. At present, the head office of this journal is located in University
of Utah and Barbara Brawn is the current editorial of this journal. What it has been expressed in general introducing of
this journal and in journal of environmental psychology is that all of the printed researches and articles in this journal
have noticed the subject of gender and age groups of individuals. As it characterized in the following subjects in most
of studies which have been conducted in this journal, gender of individuals and age groups including childhood, teens,
adulthood, and old age in persons have been considered in relationship with environment. One of the other common
points, which can be seen in all series of environmental psychology journals and also as it defined from the beginning,
is related to subject of developing empirical researches in the field of environmental psychology. As a result, the main
theme of these journals is principally focused on empirical studies in certain statistical population and it mainly deals
with testing theoretical sciences existing in various social subjects instead of producing theoretical knowledge.
Consequently, this trend is the same in the relevant journals to the field of behavior and environment that theoretical
sciences have been explored within the environmental effects like reinforcement and punishment and the conditions
affecting on behavior of individuals, especially children and adults. Theory of exchange is the major point in theories,
which are shown in these journals. Theory of exchange (interaction) is one of the latest individualistic theories based on
behavioral psychology and at the same time it stems from scientific anthropological topics in 19 th century and early 20th
century.
Table (6): The relevant journals to field of psychology (Source: Author)
Title of journal
Behavior and
environment
Environmental
psychology
Current
editorial
Brown
Start
Notes
Publisher
1969
Siege
Gifford
1980
The scientific journal of behavior and environment is
published every two months. This journal analyzes
expertly the mutual relations among environment and
behavior. At present its head office is located in Utah
University and Barbara Brown is currently its editorial.
Journal of environmental psychology has started activity
since 1980. Since 2002, Gifford as chancellor of
University of Victoria was appointed as editorial of this
journal. This journal is a scientific research and study
type of magazine regarding human‘s interaction with
his/ her natural environment. Similarly, this journal is
mainly focused on analysis of small groups and
individual.
Elsevier
Development trend in environmental psychology articles
Since 1960s, with respect to several changes in the environmental psychology, many studies and researches have been
carried out. In this decade, a lot of cooperation was done among scientists of various sciences for scientific researches
and studies including psychology, architecture, geography, and urban sociology and hundreds of researchers have
conducted many empirical studies on several subjects including privacy, human distances, conservation, and stress.
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During years 1960-1970, it was for the first time that it was tried in environmental psychology to perceive the effects of
physical and social environment and in this course in 1970s to 1980s this trend was continued and new textbooks as
well as scientific articles and journals were published regarding environment and behavior as well as environmental
psychology. But since 1980s, the role of individuals has been explored in the environment (Pol, 2006). In this section,
it is explained about almost all of the various fields of environmental psychology mentioned in the important essays
and journals including privacy, distances of humans, environmental features, place attachment, Sense of Community,
and sense of place. Each of the environmental psychology fields are given separately and based on year of publication
in the following tables.
Table (7): Articles about privacy (Source: Author)
Name of
author
Sommer
Kleck
Date
Title of essay regarding privacy
Type of essay
1959
1968
Theoretical
Applied
Newman
1972
Tedesco
1974
Kopnecni
1975
Randle
Collins
Altman
1975
Hayduk
Barnes
Fried, M
Nasar
1981
1981
1982
1984
Hayduk
Cooper
Kaitilla
1985
1992
1993
Holman
1994
Potrisia
Altman
Adam Moor
Alpturer
1994
1997
2008
2010
Kilpi
Odd Inge
2011
2013
Anuar Talib
2013
O. Osman
2013
A study about privacy and social relations
Review of effect of conditions of labeling in individuals‘
privacy
Secure space: Prevention from crime with suitable technique
of urban design
Cooperation, competition and privacy, analysis of
community
Analysis the effect of violation from privacy in individuals‘
escape and reactions
Window and individual: Review of individuals‘ reactions in
environments with and / or without window
Environment and social behavior: Privacy, personal space,
personal domain and limit
Penetration and access to privacy
Freedom and control in environment
Sources of satisfaction in collective and housing regions
Cultural study about change in traffic and expansion of space
for individuals
Privacy: Evaluation concept derived from a structural model
Analysis of home as a symbol in design and environment
Behavior and environment: Satisfaction with public houses
in Papua new Guinea
Review the relationship between place attachment with
social relations at south California
Evaluation of a systemic model of privacy
Rule and regulation in privacy field
Definition of privacy
Evaluation of Turkish students from saving privacy in
academic counseling offices
Review the literature in privacy field
Comparative analysis on public and private access to littoral
regions
Concept of privacy and planning for building interior space
of houses in Malaya
Analysis of privacy dimensions
1975
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Articles in privacy field in environmental psychology
The essays, which have been written in privacy field during 55 recent years, are characterized according order of years
in Table 6. The present articles have been divided into theoretical and applied parts. In the written essay in this regard,
it primarily has explored the subject of privacy further in relation to other individuals. Similarly, we may observe
mainly the cultural environment at the middle of this period and afterward the attitudes of individuals have been
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addressed toward subject of privacy. As a result, in addition to developing its theoretical aspect, the subject of privacy
has mainly referred to individual and evaluation of individual from the environment than confirmation and emphasis on
the structures at the end of this period. Namely, environment does not define the privacy, but these are individuals, who
define the privacy.
The present essays have been divided into two parts: theoretical and applied. In the written essay in this regard, it
primarily has explored the subject of privacy further in relation to other individuals. Similarly, we may observe mainly
the cultural environment at the middle of this period and afterward the attitudes of individuals have been addressed
toward subject of privacy. As a result, in addition to developing its theoretical aspect, the subject of privacy has mainly
referred to individual and evaluation of individual from the environment than confirmation and emphasis on the
structures at the end of this period. Namely, environment does not define the privacy, but these are individuals, who
define the privacy.
Articles in the field of distances among humans in environmental psychology
The essays, which have been written in the field of distances among humans in environmental psychology during the
half of recent century, are given in Table (8). The newer researches are mainly based on individual‘s attitude and
evaluation from the environment. Several essays have been collected in the field of distances among humans in which
the common and major concern among all of them was to interpret the distances among humans from various
viewpoints.
Table (8): Articles about distances among humans (Source: Author)
Name of
author
Katz
Howard
Helson
Argyle
Date
Title of essay regarding distances among humans
Type of essay
1937
1948
1964
1965
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Cherlin
1972
Becker
Ross
1974
1975
Tuan
1977
Magel
1980
Smith
Hall
1981
1990
Montello
1997
Kiesler
Lgarashi
2001
2005
Jing Xu
2011
Agnus
Amaoka
2012
2013
Study on human and animals
Analysis of territory and life in birds
Theory of adjustment of different levels
Eye contact, distance and attachment and analysis
of community
Review of physical and social distance in
relationship between teacher and student
Personal distance and territory in environment
Analysis of individuals‘ behavior and perception
from unfamiliar environments
Concepts of space and place: An outlook of
experience
Remote analysis of individuals‘ perception in
environment
Review on territorial distances in beaches
Human behavior and conditions of internal
environment
Definition and recognition of environmental
distance
Review on distances in workgroups
Study on distance in public space (media
technology project)
Importance of distances impact on selection of
goods by customers
Study on space
Study on private space based on non- verbal
relationships
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Theoretical
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Theoretical
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Like in privacy, in discussion about distances among humans, the primary researches have been based on the existing
structure in the community and they referred to relational aspects. In any case, during the middle periods i.e. since
1975, term ‗perception‘ was mainly added to these essays. Namely, how the individuals may perceive distances. The
individuals may have different perceptions and insights toward the subject of distance based on cultural and social
conditions. Similarly, the recent articles have been formulated with respect to importance of distances regarding
working environments, selection of goods, and rate of satisfaction. As the studies trend has proceeded further, certainly
the importance of distances has become more tangible among the articles. In other words, this issue may highly affect
in most of life aspects of individuals even in work place and economic and production efficiency.
Articles in the field of environmental Affordance
The essays, which have been written about environmental features in environmental psychology during the half of
recent century, are shown in Tables 9-13. Whereas more than 50 essays have been gathered in this field thus they have
been codified in three different and separate tables according to historical periods. The selected time range about
environmental features is related to years 1942- 2012. Namely those articles have been collected, which have been
almost written during the 70 recent years.
Table (9): Separation of historical periods regarding environmental Affordance (Source: Author)
Period
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
From (year)
1942
1965
1975
1985
1995
To (year)
1964
1974
1984
1994
2012
Field of study
environmental features
environmental features
environmental features
environmental features
environmental features
**********
Table (10): Articles about environmental Affordance at first period (Source: Author)
Name of
Date
Title of essay regarding environmental
author
Affordance
1942
Empirical study in effects of color on
Goldstein
performance of organism
1943
Organic success in environmental
Brunswick
probabilities
1960
Paradox, stimulation, and search
Berlyne
1964
The effects of environmental beauties on
Maslow
receiving energy and individuals‘ face
***************
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Type of
essay
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Theoretical
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Table (11): Articles about environmental Affordance at second period (Source: Author)
Name of author
Ponomarenko
Beard
Barker
Swan
Appleyard
Date
1966
1967
1968
1970
1970
Jerkota
1970
Kryter
Poulton
Provins
Rosen
1970
1970
1970
1970
Breisacher
1971
Appleyard
Orleans
1972
1973
Sulman
1974
Lawson
1974
Title of essay regarding environmental Affordance
The sound effect with high frequency on adults‘ physiology
The impact of carbon monoxide on behavioral disorders
Concepts and principles of human praxeology in environment
Attitudes and reactions of adults to air pollution
Review on style and structure a city: study on landscape of
environment
The sound effect on public health among workers in engineering
factories
Noise effect on human
Human‘s productivity of environment
Thermal- environmental effect on human‘s performance
Noise, physiological effects of noise on cardiovascular conditions
in individuals
The study on air pollution effects on neural and psychological
aspects in humans
Inhabitants‘ attitude about quality of environment in city streets
The effect of social distance on perception of urban inhabitants
from recognition and environmental behavior
Effect of ionization of artificial air on human‘s
electroencephalogram
Review of the impacts of a new highway in residential region on
health of individuals
Type of essay
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Applied
Applied
Applied
Applied
***************
Table (12): Articles about environmental Affordance at third period (Source: Author)
Name of author
Rim
Date
1975
Seligman
Colman
1975
1976
Sommers
Sherrod
1976
1977
Cohen
Sidman
Evans
1977
1977
1978
C, Korte
Tromp
Sanctis
1980
1980
1981
Galster
Hawkins
1981
1981
Nasar
Geller
Rotton
Fletcher
Buckalew
1981
1982
1983
1983
1984
Title of essay regarding environmental Affordance
Review of desert wind effect on creation of stress according to
psychological tests
Study on environmental failure in San Francisco
Effects of fluorescent and light in filament lamp on behavior of
children with autism
Weather and human behavior
Review on individuals‘ reactions in a bad environment with respect to
personal control and perception
Environment and health (medical sociology)
The effect of ionized air on mouse avoidant behaviors
Geophysical variables and behavior: Climatic effects in prediction of
social parameters in non –urban zones
Traffic noise, behavior of pedestrians and environmental information
Effect of weather on health of Philadelphia inhabitants
Perfect ecologic outlook with respect air ionization effects and
electric field
Environment and residential satisfaction (well-being)
Effect of air ions, temperature and moisture on mental welfare and
comfort
Review on individuals‘ reaction to environmental settings
New strategies to change behavior for environmental protection
Emotional and cognitive consequences of pungent pollutants
Light effect on behavior of exceptional children in classrooms
The effects of air negative ion (anion) on physiologic conditions and
human performance
Type of essay
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Theoretical
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
***************
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Table (13): Articles about environmental Affordance at fourth period (Source: Author)
Name of
author
Baron
Date
Title of essay regarding environmental Affordance
Negative ion and behavior: effect on spirit, memory,
and aggression of individuals of character type- B
1985
The review on weather effect on hostility and crimes
Rotton
1986
Health, behavior, and stress in environment
Cohen
1987
Environmental psychology and analysis of applied
Geller
behavior
1990
Limitation of environmental stimulation
Turner
1990
Environment and behavior study: Emerging of
Barker
rational customs
1990
Outlook and spatial representation
Passini
1992
The effect of noise stress on performance of white
McCarthy
cell in mouse
1993
The effect weather and time variables on wasting
Cohen
rights of others
1993
The effect of traffic noise in creation of mental
Gallacher
disorders
1993
Psychology and environment
Evans
***************
Table (14): Articles about environmental Affordance at fifth period (Source: Author)
Name of
author
Richard
Montello
1985
Date
Title of essay regarding environmental Affordance
Type of essay
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Applied
Applied
Applied
Theoretical
Type of essay
Environment and resistance in high structures
Theoretical
Role of physical space in environmental psychology
Theoretical
approach
2008
Environmental features of working space: How are the
Applied
Vischer
individuals affected by working environment?
2010
Effect of nature and synthetic environment on human
Applied
Wells
health
2012
Review on way of environmental effect and space on
Applied
Greene
improving operational productivity in healthcare and
medical system
***************
The essays have been separated in the field of environmental features in 5 periods. This field of study was considered
very simply and naively at first period; for example, in this period other aspects of human‘s role and his/ her position in
this field has been mainly ignored. The nature was assumed as the main subject for living organism in first period while
human has been considered as passive and affected agent in this field. However, the effect of environment on human
has been taken into consideration; the studies in this period were based on identifying features of environments. As a
result, with respect to the studied subjects, the effect of environmental features in the field of noise (crowd) and air
temperature on physical health of individuals was addressed at next periods. As we approach closer to the next periods,
the subject of environmental effect on individuals‘ body is less noticed and at the final periods it has been characterized
that these articles have mainly dealt with definition of environmental effect on mental health among the individuals. In
this regard, some issues like environmental effect on aggression, stress, and mental disorders, hostility, and crimes were
taken into consideration. These studies have been typically sidetracked from analysis of environmental effect on
physical body to effect of environment on individuals‘ mind.
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Articles in the field of place attachment
Before 1970s, the place attachment has not been yet noticed in the studies regarding the subject of relationship among
human and place. During 25 years ago, some factors like private space, foot territory, density, sense of place and the
related subjects were among the subject of studies regarding relationship of human with the place. But the evergrowing increase in paying attention to effect of culture on place preferences, displacement of population in cities, and
necessity for adaption to new environment, ever-increasing interest in social outcomes of place like design for old
people, children, homeless persons, and various social groups caused the human‘s sense of place to become as subject
for many studies.
Table (15): Articles about place attachment, journal of environmental psychology (Source: Author)
Name of author
Mazumdar
Giuliani
Fuhrer
Harris
Hidalgo
Brown
Pretty
Date
1993
1993
1993
1996
2001
2003
2003
Kyle
2004
Brown
Mazumdar
Kyle
2004
2004
2004
Mazumdar
Lewicka
Hernandez
Lewicka
Chow
2005
2005
2007
2008
2008
Korpela
Boğaç
Lewicka
Mishra
Rollero
Halpenny
Brown
Wright
2009
2009
2010
2010
2010
2010
2010
2010
Hernandez
Gifford
Williams
2010
2010
2010
Lewicka
Raymond
2011
2011
Wright
Wynveen
Hung Lee
2011
2012
2013
LopezMosquera
Ruiz
2013
Zhang
2014
2014
Title of essay regarding environmental features
Sacred space and place attachment
Place attachment in a developmental and cultural context
Place attachment and mobility during leisure time
Privacy regulation and place attachment: Predicting attachments to a student family housing facility
Place attachment: Conceptual and empirical questions
Place attachment in a revitalizing neighborhood: Individual and block levels of analysis
Sense of place amongst adolescents and adults in two rural Australian towns: The discriminating
features of place attachment, sense of community and place dependence in relation to place identity
Effects of place attachment on users‘ perceptions of social and environmental conditions in a natural
setting
Incivilities, place attachment and crime: Block and individual effects
Religion and place attachment: A study of sacred places
Linking place preferences with place meaning: An examination of the relationship between place
motivation and place attachment
Religious place attachment, squatting, and ―qualitative‖ research: A commentary
Ways to make people active: The role of place attachment, cultural capital, and neighborhood ties
Place attachment and place identity in natives and non-natives
Place attachment, place identity, and place memory: Restoring the forgotten city past
Place attachment and place identity: First-year undergraduates making the transition from home to
university
Stability of self-reported favorite places and place attachment over a 10-month period
Place attachment in a foreign settlement
What makes neighborhood different from home and city? Effects of place scale on place attachment
Place attachment and flood preparedness
Place attachment, identification and environment perception: An empirical study
Pro-environmental behaviors and park visitors: The effect of place attachment
The measurement of place attachment: Personal, community, and environmental connections
Disruption to place attachment and the protection of restorative environments: A wind energy case
study
The role of place identity and place attachment in breaking environmental protection laws
The relations between natural and civic place attachment and pro-environmental behavior
Connectedness to nature, place attachment and conservation behavior: Testing connectedness theory
among farmers
Place attachment: How far have we come in the last 40 years?— Review
The influence of place attachment, and moral and normative concerns on the conservation of native
vegetation: A test of two behavioral models
Place attachment and public acceptance of renewable energy: A tidal energy case study
Natural area visitors' place meaning and place attachment ascribed to a marine setting
The influence of leisure involvement and place attachment on destination loyalty: Evidence from
recreationists walking their dogs in urban parks
Direct and indirect effects of received benefits and place attachment in willingness to pay and loyalty
in suburban natural areas
Emotions and coping strategies during an episode of volcanic activity and their relations to place
attachment
Predicting residents' pro-environmental behaviors at tourist sites: The role of awareness of disaster's
consequences, values, and place attachment
**********
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Currently, a lot of studies have been carried out regarding place attachment and in this regard several scales have been
investigated such as house, locality, city, country, and various locations like workplace, educational spaces, public and
recreational places. In addition, the experts in several fields of design, psychology, environmental psychology,
sociology, and communication knowledge have conducted many surveys and explored environmental and human
related dimensions in this emotional relationship. An enormous part of recent journals deals with sense of place or
attachment to seasonal and secondary houses, recreational places or temporary settlements for passengers. Now, no one
could consider difference among the studies and written articles in the field of place attachment because there is no
long time period from the beginning to the end point of them and for which the major activity has been done for
environmental psychology and collected in this regard from 1993 to 2013. In any case, discussion about place
attachment has been mainly interpreted in hermeneutic tradition. In other words, depending on their religious attitudes
etc the individuals try to display sense of attachment and after emerging this sense the main activity of these articles
was to explore effect of place attachment in various cultural and social fields ranging from offenses and crimes,
tourism, and environment to interpersonal relations.
Table (16): Articles about place attachment, journal of environment and behavior (Source: Author)
Name of
author
Sugihara
Date
2000
Vorkinn
2001
Gustafson
Brown
2014
Billig
2006
Hosking
2008
Lorenza
2010
Gifford
2013
DevineWright
2013
Title of essay regarding environmental features
Place Attachment and Social Support at Continuing Care Retirement
Communities
Environmental Concern in a Local Context: The Significance of Place
Attachment
Roots and Routes: Exploring the Relationship between Place
Attachment and Mobility
New Housing as Neighborhood Revitalization: Place Attachment and
Confidence Among Residents
Is My Home My Castle? Place Attachment, Risk Perception, and
Religious Faith
Nonpermanent Residents, Place Attachment, and ―Sea Change‖
Communities
Homesickness in University Students: The Role of Multiple Place
Attachment
Personally Relevant Climate Change: The Role of Place Attachment
and Local Versus Global Message Framing in Engagement
Explaining ―NIMBY‖ Objections to a Power Line: The Role of
Personal, Place Attachment and Project-Related Factors
With developing human communities and change in lifestyle and settlement of people, designers and planners
increased paying their attention to quality of the built spaces and environments and role of design became more
important as a tool to form life environment and to meet human‘s expectations and requirement and many studies have
been carried out about way of mutual effect of environment or the built space on human‘s mentalities and behaviors.
The conducted investigations indicate that in addition to formal elements, the environment includes messages,
concepts, and codes thereby the people and based on roles and expectations and about which may encode and perceive
and judge them about the motives and other factors.
Articles in the field of Sense of Community- and sense of place
In few essays, which have been collected about Sense of Community and the Sense of Community has been considered
as a dependent variable and it is acceptable in all aspects of life for the people. In all of the previous subjects based on
which the articles were collected, the concepts of place attachment, distances between humans, privacy, and
environmental features mainly played the role of independent and effective variables, but we may observe in most of
essays, which have been collected about Sense of Community (emotion), this Sense of Community is under the
influence of various factors including physical and mental factors and structure of streets.
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Table (17): Articles about Sense of Community (Source: Author)
Name of
author
Wilson
Date
Title of essay regarding Sense of Community
1996
Wilson
2000
Pretty
2003
Kim
2004
Mannarini
Devlin
2006
2008
Rocco
Pendola
Francis
Sarah
French
2008
Overall "Sense of Community" in a Suburban Region: The Effects of
Localism, Privacy, and Urbanization and fear of crime
An Exploration of Sense of Community and Fear of Crime in Gated
Communities
Sense of place amongst adolescents and adults in two rural Australian towns:
The discriminating features of place attachment, sense of community and place
dependence in relation to place identity
Physical and Psychological Factors in Sense of Community: New Urbanist
Kent lands and Nearby Orchard Village
Image of neighborhood, self-image and sense of community
Residence Hall Architecture and Sense of Community: Everything Old Is New
Again
Does ―Main Street‖ Promote Sense of Community? A Comparison of San
Francisco Neighborhoods
Creating sense of community: The role of public space
Sense of Community and Its Association With the Neighborhood Built
Environment
****************
2012
2013
Table (18): Articles about sense of place (Source: Author)
Name of
author
Fritz
Shmuel
David
John
Xu, Yan
Mazumdar
Yi- Fu
Jorgen
Derr
Pretty
Date
1981
1991
1992
1994
1995
2000
2001
2001
2002
2003
Lim
Junxi Qia
2010
2011
Venables
2012
Caskin
2009
Title of essay regarding sense of place
Sense of place
Sense of place: empirical measurement
Attachment association: Local tendencies and sense of place
Sense of place, sense of time
Sense of place and identity, studies in place and space
Creating a sense of place: The Vietnamese- Americans and Little Saigon
Space and place: a perspective of experience
Sense of place as an attitude: Lakeshore Owners attitudes toward properties
Children‘s sense of place in northern New Mexico
Sense of place amongst adolescents and adults in two rural Australian towns:
The discriminating features of place attachment, sense of community and
place dependence in relation to place identity
Exploring insideness in urban children‘s sense of place
Investigating urban migrants' sense of place through a multi- scalar
perspective
Living with nuclear power: Sense of place, proximity, and risk perceptions in
local host communities
Effect of Settlement Size and Religiosity on Sense of Place in Communal
Settlements
*************
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present essay looks for analysis on concept of environmental psychology within historical framework. Similarly,
almost all of the conducted activities in environmental psychology field have been collected in this essay. All of the
activities, which have been almost gathered in written from 1937 to 2013, have been collected in this study. Of course,
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Maria Vitoria generally carried out an investigation based on empirical study of environmental psychology in the past,
present, and future in which she has referred to psychological subjects and their changes over the time. And or Hartmut
has collected the conducted studies regarding environmental psychology field in his article and initially described one
of his goals and interpreted environmental behavior within environmental psychology according to the existing findings
that he has introduced. In any case, it has been referred to major theorists in the field of environmental psychology
including Gifford, Stokols, and Pol. Likewise, apart from theorists, the relevant fields about environmental psychology
have been explained and described within the framework of privacy, distance, environmental features, and place
attachment etc. with respect to the collected materials, it should be generally implied that as environmental psychology
moves forward, it becomes more human- centered and role of environmental effect may be revealed as more
downplayed. Concerning to this issue, in the article titled ‗Conversion of environmental psychology‘ David Uzzell
implies that environmental psychology notices the relationship among human and environment based on background in
which the person is located. This background mainly refers to social relations between individuals and their relations.
From early times, environmental psychology had been based on this point that physical environment has dominated
over human‘s moods and determined human‘s spirits. At the middle of this period, the environmental psychology
approach has been changed mainly toward this fact that human affects on environment. It has been referred to both
aspects in environmental psychology at third period. Third approach is based on this fact that human builds his/ her
surrounding environment and the environment affect on it. According to this approach, environmental psychology deals
with study on interaction between individuals and their physical environments surrounding them. When individuals
change their environment in these interactions thereby their behavior and experiences are subjected to change with
respect to the environment. The other point is that environmental psychology has further emphasized on cultural
conditions and relations between individuals and several elements like gender and social base of individuals during
recent years. Similarly, above all, unlike the previous studies, theory of identical reaction of individuals in the fixed
environment has been disproved and it has been referred to relative nature of individuals‘ attitude and reaction in the
fixed environment.
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