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Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
Vol. 4, No. 2, September 2011, 89103
The ‘how-to’ of health behaviour change brought to life: a theoretical
analysis of the Co-Active coaching model and its underpinnings in
self-determination theory
Erin S. Pearson*
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The University of Western Ontario, Faculty of Health Sciences, London, ON, Canada
(Received 30 March 2011; ﬁnal version received 16 June 2011)
Self-determination theory (SDT) and Co-Active life coaching (CALC) serve in a
complementary capacity whereby both are concerned with investigating the
natural growth tendencies of individuals with respect to self-motivation. SDT
provides a framework for examining the processes that regulate health behaviours,
while the Co-Active model provides the tools necessary to bring desired changes
to fruition. Although an increasing amount of empirical support for CALC exists,
its motivation-specific underpinnings have yet to be examined theoretically. Given
that motivation has been linked to the behaviour change process, the purpose of
present paper was to explore the motivational foundations of CALC as they relate
to SDT in order to provide theory-based evidence for its effectiveness and validate
further, its utility as a viable health behaviour change method. Through
deconstructing the techniques inherent in CALC and analysing its three key
principles (i.e. fulfilment, balance and process coaching), a protocol for increasing
motivation and enhancing self-determination as a function of satisfying SDT’s
needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness was uncovered. This exploratory
analysis provides an important first step in positioning CALC as a theoretically
grounded behaviour change method from a motivational perspective. Empirical
research is now warranted to confirm these mechanisms with respect to the
behaviour change process and treatment outcomes.
Keywords: Co-Active life coaching; self-determination theory; motivation;
behaviour change; health
It has been well established in the literature that interventions targeting health
behaviour change should be planned based upon proven theories (e.g. Brug,
Oenema, & Ferreira, 2005; Elder, Ayala, & Harris, 1999; Fishbein & Yzer, 2003).
Health behaviour theories provide explicit, valuable insights into the psychological
and structural processes that are hypothesised to guide and regulate behaviour
(Rothman, 2004). Specifically, these types of theories delineate the various
determinants that influence health (e.g. the facilitators and barriers to engaging
in health-promoting behaviours) with a view towards providing a justification for
the design and implementation of interventions aimed at eliciting behaviour
change. Moreover, researchers can articulate important assumptions that underlie
*Email: [email protected]
ISSN 1752-1882 print/ISSN 1752-1890 online
# 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17521882.2011.598461
http://www.informaworld.com
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90 E.S. Pearson
intervention protocols and evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention based on the
framework provided by an a priori set of theoretical constructs (Rothman, 2004).
A position paper by Brug et al. (2005) examined the utility of theoretical
applications in dietary and physical activity-based behaviour change interventions.
These two behaviours are frequent foci in the health field given their amenable nature
and correlational relationships with a myriad of preventable conditions and diseases
(World Health Organization [WHO], 2010). In light of the fact that behaviour theory
is reflective of the compiled evidence-base of behavioural research, the authors
concluded that applying theory should, in fact, improve the likelihood that these
types of interventions will elicit desired changes effectively (Brug et al., 2005).
However, it was also noted that despite the ability of many theories to establish
‘what’ needs to be changed in order to promote healthy behaviours, the mechanisms
or ‘how to’ for effecting these changes are often lacking (Brug et al., 2005; Rothman,
2004). Theories have been described as systematic arrangements of fundamental
principles that provide a basis for explaining certain occurrences while models, on
the other hand, provide researchers with a plan for investigating phenomena
(McKenzie & Smeltzer, 2001). Thus, when taking into account both the ‘what’
and the ‘how to’ of the behaviour change process, incorporating a model or tool that
has been grounded in a theoretical framework is an important consideration.
Health-related coaching is a proliferating area of research that has been utilised
effectively to mitigate several conditions and diseases, including but not limited to:
obesity, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, cancer, asthma, diabetes
and poor cardiovascular health (Newnham-Kanas, Gorczynski, Irwin, & Morrow,
2009). Given that there are a number of different coach-training schools and
subsequent conceptualisations about the nature of coaching, it is important to be
explicit regarding the method being applied when targeting behavioural change
(Irwin & Morrow, 2005). One particular style of life coaching founded empirically in
practical application, that is being employed increasingly to effectuate improvements
in health and health behaviours is Co-Active life coaching (CALC; Irwin & Morrow,
2005; Whitworth, Kimsey-House, Kimsey-House, & Sandahl, 2007). The Co-Active
model involves a collaborative alliance between a certified coach and client that is
created to meet the client’s needs, and established through fluid, ongoing dialogue. In
order to reach enhanced levels of performance, learning, growth or fulfilment, goals
and aspirations are explored through this relationship and set by the client
(Whitworth et al., 2007). To facilitate CALC’s validation as an evidence-based
practice, the Co-Active model has been grounded previously in several wellestablished behavioural theories including: Social Cognitive Theory; the Theory of
Reasoned Action; and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Irwin & Morrow, 2005).
These particular theories address multiple elements inherent within this model (e.g.
expectations, self-efficacy and reinforcement) and provide a substantial framework
for behaviour change through the application of various CALC tools and strategies.
However, despite this evolving theoretical foundation and an increasing amount of
empirical support for CALC and health behaviour change (Mantler, Irwin, &
Morrow, 2010; Newnham-Kanas, Irwin, & Morrow, 2008; van Zandvoort, Irwin, &
Morrow, 2008, 2009), its motivational underpinnings have not yet been examined
from a theoretical perspective.
Failure to adhere to recommended health-promoting protocols (e.g. regular
exercise, a balanced diet and smoking abstinence) is a major public health concern,
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Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
91
and origins of attrition are often motivationally related (Silva et al., 2008). Several
studies have demonstrated the important function of motivated behaviours with
respect to the preservation of health in areas such as physical activity (Ingledew &
Markland, 2008; Wilson, Rodgers, Blanchard, & Gessell, 2003) and smoking
cessation (Williams et al., 2006). In many cases, those individuals at risk do, in
fact, have the capacity to make positive changes, assuming they are willing to take
action (Silva et al., 2008). Given that motivation has been linked inextricably to the
behaviour change process (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and the fact that health behaviour
theories provide important insights into why people are (or are not) engaging in
various health behaviours (Irwin & Morrow, 2005), a theory-based exploration of the
Co-Active model is now warranted from a motivational perspective. Moreover,
positioning the Co-Active model within one theory (as opposed to several) is
essential in order to develop a streamlined process for eliciting health behaviour
change through the application of CALC tools and strategies.
Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000,
2001) is an approach to examining human motivation and personality that focuses
on the causes and processes through which individuals acquire motivation for
not only initiating, but also maintaining new health-related behaviours over time
(Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan, Patrick, Deci, & Williams, 2008). Through considering
the reasons that move individuals to act, SDT posits a continuum of distinct types of
motivation, each of which elicits explicit consequences for performance, learning,
personal experience and overall well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Additionally, SDT
focuses on goal-directed behaviour with respect to the fulfilment of three basic
psychological needs (i.e. autonomy, competence and relatedness) which are
considered imperative for comprehending the content and processes of goal pursuits
(Deci & Ryan, 2000).
In light of SDT’s fundamental pertinence to Co-Active coaching (i.e. both are
concerned with the role that motivation plays with respect to bringing healthy
behaviour change to fruition (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Whitworth et al., 2007), the
purpose of the present paper is to deconstruct the CALC model in order to ascertain
which constructs can be grounded in this theory. More specifically, this process will
entail an exploration of SDT’s motivational continuum and psychological needs as
they relate to the skills and strategies involved in the Co-Active method. Once
established, these elements will be positioned to provide theory-based evidence for
the efficacy of this health behaviour change model from a motivational perspective.
The method of Co-Active life coaching and its foundational premises
The field of life coaching is vast and complex as evidenced by its various training
schools, styles and methodologies (Irwin & Morrow, 2005). Thus, when implementing coaching as a tool for behaviour change, it is important to be explicit regarding
its foundational premises and applications. According to the Co-Active model,
clients are not broken or in need of fixing, but are considered experts in their lives
and recognised as having the answers to their own questions (Irwin & Morrow, 2005;
Whitworth et al., 2007). The client is in control of the coachclient relationship. That
is, he or she is responsible for establishing the agenda or discussion topics of
each coaching session (Whitworth et al., 2007). The coaching process itself begins
with a personal interview which is conducted in order to: ascertain the scope of the
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92 E.S. Pearson
coachclient relationship (i.e. how the coach and client will work together); identify
any opportunities or challenges the client is facing; and establish, if possible, specific
desired outcomes. Subsequent sessions are usually conducted over the telephone for
a pre-determined length of time. The client may be asked to complete specific actions
or assignments between scheduled coaching sessions in service of achieving
previously identified personal goals. The duration of the coachclient relationship
is not pre-determined, but dependent on the needs and preferences of the client
(Whitworth et al., 2007).
Within the coachclient relationship, the roles of the coach are to: act in a
supportive, thought provoking manner to elicit answers which emanate from the
client; facilitate the exploration of what he or she wants to achieve; and help to
develop and implement solutions towards goal attainment. Responsibilities of the
coach involve listening, asking questions and empowering the client as opposed to
providing instruction or advising (Whitworth et al., 2007). Co-Active coaches are
trained in using skills such as intuition, active-listening and curiosity. The types of
coaching skills and techniques employed are dependent upon the individual needs of
the client being coached, and the context of each particular session (Whitworth et al.,
2007). When interacting with clients, coaches are taught to self-manage; that is, the
coach does not share any personal thoughts, beliefs or feelings on a particular
subject. This aims to ensure that the coach remains engaged and able to determine
what is true based on the client’s perspective. Ultimately, the CALC method works to
deepen the client’s learning and/or forward the client towards some action of his or
her choosing (Whitworth et al., 2007). In essence, this is accomplished through
addressing the client’s agenda which is featured at the centre of the Co-Active model,
and encapsulates three key principles or styles of coaching (i.e. fulfilment, balance
and process). These principles, depicted in Figure 1, are used to guide and enrich the
behaviour change process circumstantially within each coaching session. Fulfilment
coaching involves exploring the client’s values with a view towards helping him or her
to experience a purposeful life and reach his or her self-defined potential. In balance
coaching, clients are assisted with exploring the multiple compartments of their lives,
while they work to identify a widened range of perspectives for viewing particular
issues and situations. The purpose of examining these different viewpoints is to allow
for the development of multiple options or choices from which the client may draw
when making decisions. Through process coaching clients work with the coach to
‘stay in the moment’ of where they are in their lives (e.g. a particular experience or
emotion). This principle focuses on the journey of behaviour change as opposed to a
destination or end point. According to Whitworth et al. (2007), these three principles
are fundamental to living a full, lively life, and are therefore, an essential feature of
the coaching method (for a more in-depth account of the CALC method, please refer
to Whitworth et al., 2007).
Self-determination theory and health behaviour change
Self-determination theory is grounded on the assumption that all individuals possess
‘natural, innate, and constructive tendencies to develop an ever more elaborated and
unified sense of self’ (Deci & Ryan, 2002, p. 5). Essentially, SDT highlights people’s
inherent need to evolve and be integrated socially (Palmeira et al., 2007). From a
health behaviour perspective, this suggests that careful attention be paid to the
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Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
93
patient/participant experience and motivation (Ryan et al., 2008). In the context of
SDT, motivation concerns all aspects of intention and activation (e.g. energy,
direction, persistence; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Specifically, behavioural regulation of a
particular activity can be amotivated, extrinsically motivated or intrinsically
motivated. Expressed on a continuum (see Figure 1), these classifications are
differentiated by the extent to which they are self-determined or autonomous; each
classification represents a varying degree of external goal and value internalisation
and integration. Within this theory, internalisation involves taking in a regulation or
value; integration refers to transforming the regulation further as one’s own so that,
ultimately, it emerges from a sense of self (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Thøgersen-Ntoumani
& Ntoumanis, 2006). According to SDT, internalising and integrating values and
skills for change and experiencing self-determination are important requirements for
maintaining behaviours over time.
Amotivation is found at the left end of the continuum and represents a state of
lacking the intention to act or engage in a behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When
amotivated, individuals generally do not value an activity or the outcomes that it
might yield, resulting subsequently in their acting without intent, or not acting at all
(Ryan, 1995; Ryan & Deci, 2000). To the right of amotivation are four dimensions of
extrinsically motivated behaviours (i.e. induced by elements found outside the
individual such as rewards or social pressure) which range in their degree of
autonomous regulation: external regulation, introjected regulation, identified
regulation and integrated regulation. External regulation, the least self-determined
dimension, refers to one’s engagement in a behaviour for the purposes of satisfying
some form of external demand, or to obtain a separable outcome such as a reward or
to avoid punishment. Behaviours that are externally regulated emanate from an
external perceived locus of causality and are often experienced as controlled.
Therefore, minimal effort and poor performance quality are likely, and behavioural
compliance occurs generally in the presence of the control only (Markland, Ryan,
Tobin, & Rollnick, 2005). The second dimension, introjected regulation, arises from
self-imposed feelings of pressure to perform a particular behaviour that is contingent
on aspects of self-esteem (e.g. guilt, anxiety, shame and pride). Thus, the regulation is
taken in, but not accepted fully as one’s own. Identified regulation, the third
dimension, is also guided externally and is derived from a sense of motivation
towards attaining personal goals; the action is accepted as personally important and
valued consciously although it may not be inherently enjoyable. As these actions are
personally endorsed, they are accompanied by an increased level of perceived
autonomy. The most highly self-determined dimension along the extrinsic motivational continuum is integrated regulation which refers to a need to confirm one’s
sense of self by performing a particular behaviour. Integrated regulations are
indicative of actions that are performed by choice or for instrumental reasons,
and have therefore been brought into congruence with an individual’s other core
values and needs. Finally, to the far right of the motivation continuum is intrinsic
motivation which represents the only true form of behavioural regulation that is
fully self-determined. The most desirable form of motivation when considering
health behaviour change, intrinsic motivation is achieved when an individual derives
genuine internal pleasure, enjoyment or satisfaction as a result of engaging in
a particular behaviour (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000; ThøgersenNtoumani & Ntoumanis, 2006).
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94 E.S. Pearson
Research has examined extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation. In exercise for
example, Ryan and Deci (2000) found that when compared with individuals who
were externally controlled for an action (e.g. by a bribe or to please others), those
who possessed authentic, intrinsic motivation to complete the action had greater
interest and confidence resulting in enhanced performance, persistence, self-esteem
and general well-being. Moreover, a considerable body of research (Ryan & Deci,
2000) has demonstrated that greater regulatory internalisation is related to a myriad
of improved outcomes with respect to health such as: increased medication
adherence within chronically ill populations; improved maintenance of weight loss
among the morbidly obese; and improved glucose self-management among diabetics.
A basic premise of SDT is that individuals have three innate psychosocial needs
which support self-determined motivation: autonomy, competence and relatedness
(Ryan & Deci, 2000; Williams, 2002). Autonomy is defined as the degree to which an
individual feels a sense of personal agency and responsibility, such that his or her
behaviour is perceived to come from an internal locus of causality as opposed to a
coercive or controlled origin. Within SDT, to be autonomous entails acting with a
sense of volition and choice because an activity or behaviour is appealing, or holds
personal importance (Williams, 2002). Competence involves interacting effectively
with one’s environment and mastering challenging tasks, while considering one’s
ability to achieve desired goals and outcomes. Relatedness is feeling a sense of
meaningful connection in one’s social milieu. The social environment has been
identified as a key predictor of whether or not individuals will display vitality, and
the extent to which surroundings elicit favourable conditions is indicative of an
individual’s ability to develop the necessary personal resources for engaging in
behaviours autonomously (Deci & Ryan, 2000). According to SDT, by satisfying all
of these basic needs through the social environment, enhancements to psychological
growth and adaptability will occur, leading to improvements in physical and mental
health, in addition to overall well being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan et al., 2008;
Williams, 2002).
Co-Active coaching and self-determination theory
It is clear that the Co-Active model and SDT share complementary tenets and
underlying assumptions. Most importantly, both aim to enhance human growth and
potential through exploring and regulating goal pursuits as they relate to health
behaviours or actions (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Irwin & Morrow, 2005; Ryan et al., 2008;
Whitworth et al., 2007). Based on this common principle, it could be asserted that by
applying the Co-Active model, the coach aims to move the client through the
motivational continuum towards internalisation and integration, such that behaviours become more self-determined and performed autonomously. Essentially, this
is accomplished through supporting and facilitating the development of the client’s
basic psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000) as a function of applying various
coaching tools and techniques (Whitworth et al., 2007), thereby helping him or her to
live true to personal values. This collaborative health behaviour change process is
depicted in Figure 1 and will be the focus of the ensuing discussion.
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
95
The Co-Active Coaching Relationship
Fulfilment Coaching
Balance Coaching
Process Coaching
Naturally creative, resourceful, whole
Client’s agenda
Powerful questions
Acknowledgement
Articulating
Brainstorming
Goal setting
Championing
Challenging
Accountabilities
Designed alliance
Active listening
Self-management
Autonomy
Satisfied
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Needs = Less Satisfied
Non Self-Determined
Relatedness
Satisfied
Needs = More Satisfied
Self-Determined
BEHAVIOUR
Amotivation
Non
Regulation
Competence
Satisfied
Extrinsic Motivation
External
Regulation
Introjected
Regulation
Identified
Regulation
Intrinsic Motivation
Integrated
Regulation
Intrinsic
Regulation
Figure 1. Co-Active coaching and self-determination theory: protocol for health behaviour
change.
Note: Many of these coaching concepts can be applied to satisfy one or more of SDT’s psychological
needs. However, they have been placed strategically in the present ﬁgure under the assumption that
the chosen position will elicit optimal behaviour change outcomes. Information pertaining to the
SDT continuum showing types of motivation was adapted from Ryan and Deci (2000).
Facilitating autonomy through the Co-Active model
A fundamental cornerstone of the Co-Active model states that clients are naturally
creative, resourceful and whole (NCRW), and therefore capable of finding the
answers that they need themselves with the assistance of a coach (Whitworth et al.,
2007). This pre-established assumption connotes a sense of personal agency and
ownership on the part of the client with respect to decision making. As a result, he or
she will be more apt to develop efficacious solutions with a greater propensity for
behavioural follow-through (Whitworth et al., 2007). In the realm of health
behaviour change, this has obvious important implications. In addition, the CoActive model focuses entirely on the agenda of the client and obtaining desired
outcomes based on his or her unique needs: a notion that supports SDT’s contention
that individuals benefit from experiencing a sense of authorship with respect to
performing actions and behaviours (Vansteenkiste & Sheldon, 2006).
From a practical perspective, increasing autonomy as conceptualised in SDT can
occur through the integration of fulfilment coaching, a key principle found within the
Co-Active model. As noted previously, being autonomous within SDT entails acting
with a sense of volition because a behaviour holds personal importance. If
behaviours are to be maintained beyond a controlled environment or treatment
setting successfully, it is imperative that individuals come to place value on the
behaviours and endorse their importance. This is especially the case for behaviours
that may not be inherently enjoyable, such as quitting smoking, or increasing
physical activity frequency (Ryan et al., 2008). An emotive and deeply personal
technique, fulfilment coaching involves evoking discovery, insight and commitment
by tapping into a client’s personal values and life purposes. This is accomplished,
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96 E.S. Pearson
in part, through the use of open-ended, powerful questions. As the coach makes these
thought provoking inquiries, clients explore and gain clarification into their values
with the aim of uncovering what is truly essential to their lives. In turn, this helps
clients to take a stand and make autonomous choices based on what is considered
fulfilling to them (Whitworth et al., 2007). For example, when making a decision
regarding a behaviour change, clients might be asked: ‘How will this action move you
closer to honouring your values?’. According to Whitworth et al. (2007), a decision
that is made based on important values will be a fulfilling decision. Therefore, the
likelihood that the behaviour will become more self-determined increases.
An additional concept inherent within SDT which bears resemblance to the
premises of Co-Active coaching is autonomy support (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan &
Deci, 2000; Williams, 2002). In a health-promoting context, a climate is considered
autonomy supportive when authority figures (e.g. a physician or researcher):
consider the perspectives of the patients or participants; encourage these individuals
to take responsibility for their health behaviours; elicit meaningful interactions by
listening and asking about goals and aspirations; and suspend judgement while
making inquiries (Williams, 2002). Previous research has demonstrated the causal
role that autonomy support plays in increasing the internalisation of more
autonomous regulations (e.g. Williams et al., 2006; Wilson & Rodgers, 2004).
A study by Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, and Leone (1994) examined the elements that
constitute autonomy support and isolated two important facilitators that lead to
greater internalisation and integration of relevant regulations, namely: applying an
interpersonal communication style which promotes choice and minimises control
and pressure, and acknowledging the feelings and perspectives of the patient/client
so that he or she feels understood. These elements are also consistent with the
Co-Active method. The container of the coaching relationship is a dynamic one.
That is, the coach and client act in a collaborative and co-creative fashion where the
client is empowered to make decisions, thus minimising barriers such as control and
pressure (Whitworth et al., 2007).
Coaches also employ the tools of acknowledgement and articulating to assist in
creating an environment that is safe, autonomy supportive and thereby conducive to
enabling clients to take risks, clarify choices and make changes (Whitworth et al.,
2007). Acknowledgement involves the coach openly recognising clients for who they
are, and who they had to be in order to accomplish an action or make an attempt to
move forward. Through being acknowledged, a client is able to reflect on how
performing that action honoured his or her values. This, in turn, allows that client
greater access to those values and his or her inner character which can facilitate
internalisation and integration of the behaviour (Irwin & Morrow, 2005; Whitworth
et al., 2007).
Additionally, coaches use the skill of articulating what’s going on which is
associated with listening, and works to increase the client’s feelings of being
understood. When clients are immersed in the bustle of their lives, it may be
difficult for them to see what they are doing or saying. Articulating ‘helps clients to
connect the dots so they can see the picture they are creating by their action, or
sometimes, lack of action’ (Whitworth et al., 2007, p. 41). Utilising this skill allows
the coach to share succinct observations without judgement, and provide an
alternate view of what is going on with the client, thus increasing his or her selfawareness. The cumulative impact of these skills, facilitated through the application
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
97
of fulfilment coaching, can contribute to enhancing the client’s autonomy and ability
to make decisions that will assist with moving him or her towards the intrinsic
regulation of behaviours.
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Enhancing competence through the Co-Active model
With respect to engaging in health behaviours, it is important that individuals
understand how to go about attaining their goals and feel confident that they can
carry out the necessary actions efficaciously (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Silva et al., 2008).
Competence is considered a requirement of internalisation and, within SDT, is
facilitated when patients or participants are: provided with positive, relevant
feedback on progress; helped to develop achievable goals; provided with pertinent
tools and skills; encouraged to believe that they possess the capacities necessary for
change; and supported accordingly when barriers to behaviour change emerge
(Markland et al., 2005; Ryan et al., 2008). One method within the Co-Active model
that is congruent with these tenets is the principle of balance coaching. In CALC, the
concept of balance is viewed as fundamental to quality of life; this type of coaching is
applied when the client is facing a barrier to change or is ‘stuck’ in a perspective or
way of looking at a particular situation (Whitworth et al., 2007). According to Irwin
and Morrow (2005), balance coaching applies seven methodological steps. First of
all, the coach works with the client to identify the perspective and acquaint him or
her with the experience of being ‘stuck.’ Secondly, the coach and client work
collaboratively to explore additional perspectives, some of which may be considered
outrageous to the client. The third step involves the client viewing the issue by ‘trying
on’ or experiencing the various perspectives. Clients are then asked to choose a
perspective (step 4) and subsequently develop a plan to address the issue based on
that new viewpoint or lens (step 5). In step 6, clients commit to the plan and finally in
step 7, take appropriate action which generally occurs outside of the coaching
session. Throughout this process, the coach acts as a guide and sounding board,
encouraging clients to think in alternative and often unnatural ways with a view
towards increasing their confidence and ability to address the issue or situation in
question. Inherent in the balance formula is the skill of brainstorming: a ‘how to,’
creative collaboration between coach and client whereby ideas are generated to assist
in goal development, and ultimately enable behaviour change as a function of
viewing the situation through the chosen perspective. The role of the coach in this
instance is to push the client beyond familiarity, and expand the net of possibility by
making a wide variety of suggestions including some which may be viewed as ‘out of
the box.’ Clients are encouraged to ruminate all of the brainstorming options and
choose those which have the most appeal to them (Whitworth et al., 2007). In
essence, balance coaching empowers the client to make choices based on his or her
natural resources and abilities, a process which contributes to satisfying the need for
competence.
Within SDT, the more competent individuals perceive themselves to be at a
particular activity, the more likely it is that they will become intrinsically motivated
(Ryan & Deci, 2000). The Co-Active model promotes the use of several tools which
augment the coaching experience, and promote competence simultaneously.
Championing, accountabilities and challenging highlight the client’s capacities and
serve to support his or her efforts with respect to invoking health behaviour change.
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98 E.S. Pearson
According to Whitworth et al. (2007), championing clients mean standing up for
them when they question or doubt their abilities. Acting in a supportive capacity, the
coach reminds the client of past achievements, while pointing out his or her strengths
and abilities. Throughout this process, the coach reflects on why the client can
absolutely succeed and works to forward him or her into action, or deeper selflearning (Irwin & Morrow, 2005). An additional coaching tool that supports
competence as a function of providing tangible evidence of progress is
accountabilities. According to the Co-Active model, an accountability is a measuring
tool for action and learning; clients make commitments through considering what
they will do, when they will do it and how will they let the coach, or someone else of
their own choosing, know about their progress (Whitworth et al., 2007). Accountabilities can take multiple forms (e.g. personal journals, daily e-mails and homework
assignments) and hold the client accountable to his or her self-chosen action or
behaviour. Additionally, accountabilities allow the client to view his or her progress
and measure success which can assist in facilitating self-esteem, an important concept
to consider when seeking endorsement of this psychological need.
Given that competence focuses on the inherent need of individuals to experience
themselves as effective through their interactions with the social and physical
environments (Skinner & Edge, 2002), it stands to reason that promoting mastery
through extending challenges would elicit salient advancements in this construct. In
the CALC method, a challenge is a request that extends clients beyond their selfimposed limits and alters the way they view themselves. A coach’s perception of the
client’s potential is larger than that which he or she would hold. Thus, a challenge
extended by a coach is often near the edge of improbability which may elicit feelings
of exasperation on the part of the client. However, empowerment often ensues due to
the fact that the coach believes in the client and his or her abilities that much.
Generally, the client reacts to the challenge with a counter offer which is often greater
than the concession or action that he or she intended to make originally (Whitworth
et al., 2007). This self-authored, revised challenge is evidence of the ongoing role that
autonomy plays within the Co-Active method with respect to constructing goals and
making choices. In the realm of health behaviour change, SDT contends that a
developed sense of autonomy and competence are imperative to the processes of
internalisation and integration (Ryan et al., 2008). According to Ryan et al. (2008),
competence alone is not sufficient to promote optimal motivation and adherence to a
behaviour; it must be accompanied by autonomy (see Figure 1). Once individuals are
engaged in a behaviour volitionally and feel inclined to act, they are more likely to
take risks and apply new strategies which are essential features of promoting
competence (Markland et al., 2005). As a result of applying these tools and
procedures collectively, the Co-Active model enforces the client’s skills and abilities
while enhancing the likelihood of goal attainment, thus contributing to the
satisfaction of competence as conceptualised in SDT.
Promoting relatedness through the Co-Active model
According to SDT, satisfying the need for relatedness, to feel connectedness and
belongingness with others (Ryan & Deci, 2000), is considered imperative for the
process of internalisation and is facilitated through supportive, interpersonal
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Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
99
contexts (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In health care, the relationship formed between a
provider and patient/client is paramount when implementing change (Ryan et al.,
2008). Individuals needing assistance are often in a vulnerable position and reliant on
the expertise and guidance of a professional to bring their goals to fruition. Within
this relationship, feelings of being respected, cared for and understood are essential
for establishing a sense of connection and trust. Experiencing relatedness can thereby
increase a patients’ openness to information and likelihood of treatment compliance
(Ryan et al., 2008). Similarly, the coaching process emphasises the importance of
these variables through the coachclient relationship.
In the Co-Active model, the environment plays a crucial role in helping the client
to clarify choices and make decisions (Whitworth et al., 2007). Consisting of both
physical surroundings and the coaching relationship, the environment is made up of
collaboratively constructed ground rules, expectations and agreements. Through the
designed alliance, the coach and client determine what conditions need to be in place
to work together effectively while indentifying potential obstacles that could impede
this process (Whitworth et al., 2007). Designed alliances are revisted regularly in
order to ensure that the coaching relationship is beneficial to the client. Certain
qualities are emphasised between a coach and client from the inception of the
relationship including a clear commitment to maintaining confidentiality, and the
notion that the coaching climate is ‘safe’ and enveloped by a cloak of non-judgement.
Under these assumptions, clients are encouraged to take risks and be courageous in
their approach to their lives and the choices they make. As stated previously, the
coaching relationship is based on the premise that clients are naturally creative,
resourceful and whole and therefore capable of making the decisions that are best
suited for them. This sentiment automatically instils a sense of trust in the client’s
integrity and capacities which, in turn, contributes to satisfying the need for
relatedness (Whitworth et al., 2007).
A key principle of the Co-Active model that is used to facilitate the client’s
experience of living in the moment is process coaching. This empathic technique
allows the coach to provide clients with ample support and companionship, while
enabling them to live more fully and deeply within the compartments of their lives
(Whitworth et al., 2007). In opposition to fulfilment and balance coaching which
focus on moving forward, process coaching stays in the present to target the
emotions that individuals are experiencing both overtly, and beneath the surface.
Through exploring and purposefully experiencing the positive and negative feelings
that surround a particular situation or issue, the coach is able to ‘be with’ the client.
‘To be with is to be present and fully engaged, attentive, open, even interacting, but
with no goal other than simply being together with that person in the experience’
(Whitworth et al., 2007, p. 167). When making an important health behaviour
change, it is often the case that clients need to talk out, and experience what they are
feeling emotionally. Process coaching allows this to occur through the interpersonal,
safe environment provided by the coaching relationship, while also enabling a sense
of connectedness.
Active-listening and self-management are two skills in the Co-Active method that
are applied readily in all coaching sessions regardless of the principle being utilised.
However, these particular skills play an especially useful role in enhancing feelings of
relatedness within the coaching relationship. Active listening involves taking in
100 E.S. Pearson
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information, not only through the ears, but with all of the senses. When coaches are
listening actively, their attention is on the client entirely with a focus on what is, and
what is not being said in relation to the client’s agenda and goals. Moreover, an
essential component of active listening in the Co-Active model is self-management
whereby the coach refrains from imparting his or her personal agenda about a
particular topic or issue (Irwin & Morrow, 2005). In order for the coach to truly ‘be
with’ the client, it is imperative that his or her opinions, preferences, personal
experiences, judgements and beliefs be put aside in service of moving clients forward
or deepening their learning (Whitworth et al., 2007). By doing so, distractions within
the environment are minimised, thus enabling favourable conditions for internalisation and satisfaction of the need for relatedness as the client feels truly seen and
heard.
Conclusions and future directions
In order to provide theory-based evidence for its effectiveness with respect to eliciting
health behaviour change, the purpose of the present paper was to explore the
motivational underpinnings of Co-Active coaching as they relate to SDT. Through
deconstructing the tools and techniques inherent in the CALC method, a process for
increasing motivation and enhancing self-determination was uncovered as a function
of satisfying SDT’s needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. This involved a
comparative analysis of three key principles applied within the CALC model: namely
fulfilment, balance and process coaching.
Self-determination theory and Co-Active coaching serve in a complementary
capacity whereby both are concerned with investigating the natural growth
tendencies of individuals with respect to self-motivation, personal resources and
behavioural regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Whitworth et al., 2007). SDT provides a
useful framework for examining the psychological and structural processes that
regulate health behaviours (Rothman, 2004), while the Co-Active model provides the
mechanisms and tools necessary to bring desired changes to fruition. In accordance
with the recommendations made by Brug et al. (2005), the cumulative impact of this
motivation-based theory and intervention model satisfy both the ‘what’ and ‘how to’
of the health behaviour change process. Building on the work of Irwin and Morrow
(2005), this exploratory analysis provides an important first step in positioning CoActive coaching as a theoretically grounded, viable health behaviour change method
from a motivational perspective.
Research on SDT suggests that health professionals can enhance treatment
efficacy and patient/client outcomes through supporting these psychological needs in
accordance with this theory; a process which serves to promote autonomy and
responsibility in health care decision-making (Ryan et al., 2008). It is clear that the
Co-Active model reflects a tangible method to facilitate this process. However, it is
important to note that although the present analysis builds a theoretical case for the
underpinnings of SDT in the Co-Active method, further empirical research is needed
in order to confirm how the techniques used in CALC increase satisfaction of the
basic psychological needs and self-determined motivation (e.g. intrinsic motivation);
specifically, what the behaviour change process involves in practice, and how a
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
101
Co-Active coaching-based intervention grounded in SDT can impact treatment
outcomes. Further, comparing CALC in this manner to other types of coaching, or
incorporating a control group could also be useful for isolating the precise
components of the model responsible for effecting health behaviour change.
Empirical research of this nature will assist in validating further, the utility of
CALC as a viable health behaviour change tool and evidence-based practice.
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Notes on contributor
Erin Pearson is a Ph.D. Candidate in the Health and Rehabilitation
Sciences Program at the University of Western Ontario. Her
research interests include health promotion, exercise psychology,
interventions for populations with obesity, and the impact of
Co-Active life coaching on health-related behaviours.
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