1. society
2. crime
3. personal offense
4. assault

Measuring subgoals of the sexual
behavioral system: What is sex
good for?
Gurit E. Birnbaum
Bar-Ilan University
Omri Gillath
University of California, Davis
ABSTRACT
In five studies, we created and validated a self-report measure
of individual differences in sex behaviors and beliefs related
to the pursuit of various subgoals of the sexual system. In a
pilot study, we created an initial version, in Hebrew, of the
Sexual Behavioral System Subgoals (SBSS) scale and determined its 4-factor structure. Study 1 confirmed the 4-factor
structure of the SBSS: Relationship initiation; relationship
maintenance; promoting frequent sexual activity; and a
negative factor reflecting interference with the sexual system.
Studies 2 and 3 provided additional evidence for the reliability
and validity of the SBSS. In Study 4, American students
completed an English translation of the SBSS. Confirmatory
factor analysis provided cross-national evidence for the structure of the SBSS.
KEY WORDS:
attachment • evolutionary psychology • gender
differences • romantic relationships • sex
From an evolutionary perspective, the major function of the sexual behavioral system is to pass one’s genes to the next generation. However, impregnation is not sufficient for the survival of human offspring, who are
vulnerable throughout an exceptionally prolonged development. Hence, it
The authors wish to thank Phillip Shaver and Mario Mikulincer for their helpful comments.
All correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Gurit E. Birnbaum, PhD,
Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 52900, Israel [e-mail:
[email protected]].
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships Copyright © 2006 SAGE Publications
(www.sagepublications.com), Vol. 23(5): 675–701. DOI: 10.1177/0265407506065992
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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
is generally beneficial for sexual partners to stay together long enough to
maintain the pregnancy and care for offspring, thereby increasing the
children’s chances of survival and eventual reproduction (H. E. Fisher,
1998; Hazan & Zeifman, 1994; Mellen, 1981). Accordingly, in the course of
human evolution, selection pressures produced subordinate functional
behaviors and psychological mechanisms regulated by the higher-order
goal of reproduction (Buss & Kenrick, 1998). In line with Buss and
Kenrick’s (1998) conceptualization of functionally adaptive psychological
mechanisms, the subordinate goals of the sexual behavioral system should
motivate functional emotions, cognitions, and behaviors, such as those that
foster commitment between sexual partners.
Research and theory in evolutionary psychology have focused mainly on
species-typical adaptations, which have become an integral part of the
neural hardware of all humans, but investigators have largely ignored individual differences in the emphasis placed on particular sexual-system
subgoals and their associated psychological mechanisms (Buss, 2004). Still,
individual differences in adaptive mechanisms and their manifestations can
emerge from a variety of heritable and environmental sources (e.g., viable
genetic subtypes whose relative frequency is maintained by dynamic equilibrium within a gene pool and cultural variations, within-family norms, and
unique developmental experiences; Bailey, 1998; Buss & Greiling, 1999).
Specifically, individual differences in the subgoals of the sexual behavioral
system, which can stem from a combination of heritable and nonheritable
sources, might be translated into corresponding individual differences in
behavioral intentions and actual sexual behavior. The primary goal of these
investigations is to devise a measurement of these individual differences.
Most previous studies of individual differences in sexuality have
examined one of four domains: Differences in sexual attitudes, such as the
tendency to respond to sexual stimuli along a negative (erotophobia) to
positive (erotophilia) dimension of affect and evaluation (e.g., Fisher,
Byrne, White, & Kelley, 1988); differences in physiological aspects of sexuality, such as individual differences in sexual arousal (e.g., Chambless &
Lifshitz, 1984); differences in sexual behavior, such as individual differences
in the willingness to engage in sexual intercourse without relational
commitment (e.g., Simpson & Gangestad, 1991); and differences in cognitive representations of sexuality, such as individual differences in sexual selfconcept (e.g., Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994; Andersen, Cyranowski, &
Espindle, 1999) or conceptions of sexual intercourse and its implications
(Birnbaum, 2003; Birnbaum, Glaubman, & Mikulincer, 2001; Birnbaum &
Laser-Brandt, 2002). Although measures of these domains are reliable,
valid, and predict diverse sexual phenomena, they do not tap an evolutionarily based functional analysis of sexual goals and subgoals that may have
evolved to solve specific problems of survival and reproduction.
Birnbaum and Reis (in press) developed a self-report scale measuring
women’s mental representations of the sexual aspect of romantic relationships. This scale was based on a functional-evolutionary analysis of the
sexual behavioral system and included questions about the sexual
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
677
experiences, feelings, expectations, and beliefs about the self, the sexual
partner, and sexual activity with the partner. Although this scale was
designed to tap theoretically distinct components of women’s mental representations of the sexual domain, it is not suitable for men and does not
include an essential motivational aspect of these representations – a
person’s beliefs about the possible impact of sexual activity on personal and
interpersonal well being. Specifically, the original scale assesses beliefs
about the partner’s responsiveness to one’s sexual needs; level of excitement and arousal during sexual activities; one’s cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral tendencies during these activities (e.g., sex-related shame,
distancing from a partner); and beliefs about the extent to which sex
contributes to relationship maintenance. Even though this last factor
assesses the perceived relational impact of sexual activities, there are other
potential personal and interpersonal consequences of sexual activities that
are not assessed by the scale. Measuring a person’s beliefs about these
rewards of sexual activities may be extremely important for understanding
ambiguous findings in the literature concerning the link between sexual
activities and relationship satisfaction (e.g., Hassebrauck & Fehr, 2002;
Henderson-King & Veroff, 1994) and specifying the place occupied by sexuality in a person’s goal system. For example, a person who believes that sex
contributes to relationship maintenance will be more satisfied in his or her
relationship following sexual activity with a romantic partner than a person
who believes that sex is irrelevant for relationship maintenance. The
present research was designed to provide a research tool, suitable for both
men and women, that assesses a person’s beliefs about the various personal
and interpersonal rewards and costs of sexual activity and related behaviors from an evolutionary perspective. Based on a comprehensive review of
the literature on the sexual behavioral system, we propose to assess four
major subgoals of the sexual behavior system that may play a role in both
men’s and women’s reproductive success in the context of long-term adult
romantic relationships.
The first subgoal is to bring partners together and establish a relationship
by means of sexual activity. Sexual attraction presumably evolved to
motivate individuals to have sex with available partners. Although sexual
relations may occur without affectional bonding (Buss, 2004; Diamond,
2003; Fisher, Aron, Mashek, Li, & Brown, 2002), sexual activity may be one
means of establishing a relationship which, if extended in time, might have
benefits for both partners and, most importantly, for the survival of their
offspring (Hazan & Zeifman, 1994). That is, successful human mating often
depends, and depended during human evolution, on relationship formation,
because without a relationship between the parents, their offspring might
be much less likely to survive to reproductive age. Thus, one goal of sexual
activity can be to create a relationship with someone that extends beyond
a single sexual episode.
The second subgoal of the sexual system is to keep partners attached to
each other for an extended period of time. Several unusual characteristics of
human reproductive physiology, anatomy, and behavior imply that the
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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
sexual system fosters not only the formation of an emotional bond between
sexual partners but also its maintenance. For example, female ovulation is
concealed, whereas most mammalian species confine mating to a brief
estrous period around the advertised time of ovulation. Humans may have
sex on any day of the menstrual cycle and they generally do not know when
the likelihood of pregnancy is greatest. A widely accepted explanation for
the evolution of concealed ovulation (but not the only feasible one) is the
‘keep daddy-at-home’ hypothesis (Alexander & Noonan, 1979). This
hypothesis argues that concealed ovulation increases the probability of
offspring survival by inducing the male partner to stay ‘at home’ for at least
two reasons: To have frequent sex with his partner, thereby increasing the
chances of fertilization, and to guard against her impregnation by other
males. In addition, the vaginal angle in human females has shifted in such
a way as to make penetration easier in the mutually ventral position (Ford
& Beach, 1951), which allows belly-to-belly contact and mutual gaze, as well
as increasing the chances of female orgasm (Short, 1979). This most prevalent and preferred copulatory position, along with humans’ tendencies to
have sex in private and to sleep together after intercourse (Ford & Beach,
1951), may have evolved because they also contributed to emotional
bonding between sexual partners. This is consistent with empirical work
showing an increase in serum oxytocin levels in both men and women
during sexual intercourse and in the moments preceding orgasm. The
hormone oxytocin, which is also secreted during lactation, was found to
enhance maternal bonding in animal models, and is assumed to promote
tactile contact, which itself contributes to attachment, as well as intensifying the pleasure of sexual arousal and orgasm (Carter, 1998).
A third subgoal of the sexual system is to promote frequent sexual activity
through increasing positive affect and sexual motivation. Sexual desire is
among the strongest forces that motivate human behavior, and sexual gratification is one of the greatest human pleasures (Shaver, Hazan, &
Bradshaw, 1988). This contention raises a key question: Why might sex have
such potential for joy and pleasure? The likely explanation is that repeated
sexual intercourse is often required for reproduction, and frequent intercourse is much more likely if it is highly pleasurable. That is, in a species
with no overt cues that signal ovulation, neuroendocrine capacity enabling
hedonic pleasure and sexual desire presumably evolved to reinforce and
motivate sexual intercourse, thereby maximizing the probability of conception (Diamond, 1997; Gallup, 1986).
The three subgoals of the sexual system mentioned earlier focus on the
possible personal and interpersonal rewards of sexual activity that contribute to one’s reproductive success through the formation and/or maintenance of an emotional bond between sexual partners. Nevertheless, along
with the potential for gratification and delight, human sexuality may sometimes be a source of negative feelings (e.g., Goldenberg, Pyszczynski,
McCoy, Greenberg, & Solomon, 1999), manifested in the form of erotophobic attitudes (Fisher et al., 1988) or negative themes in both men’s and
women’s sexual experience (Birnbaum & Laser-Brandt, 2002). Why might
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
679
sex, with its key role in reproduction, sometimes create distress that may
hamper sexual functioning? Aversive sexuality can be a dysfunctional
consequence of negative sexual experience associating sexual thoughts and
behavior with negative feelings such as pain, fear, and guilt. In addition, the
potential for aversive sexuality may be an integral part of humans’ sexual
behavioral system that has been formed over human evolutionary history
by selection pressures geared to solve specific problems of survival and
reproduction. The existence of pervasive cultural and religious norms,
mores, restrictions, and taboos that surround sexuality, implies that regulated sexuality may be functionally adaptive, promoting humans’ reproductive success. We suggest that aversive sexuality may be functional as long
as it regulates sexuality in the sense that it minimizes the negative consequences of unrestricted sexual expressions.
Accordingly, the fourth subgoal of the sexual system is to restrict the
expressions of sexuality when sexual activity is viewed as aversive and
incompatible with other important personal and interpersonal goals.
Perceiving sexuality as aversive may be linked to individual differences in
mating strategies: Some individuals prefer to engage in uncommitted sexual
relations, whereas others adopt a more monogamous sexual strategy
(Rowe, 1995; Simpson & Gangestad, 1991). This evolved variability is
retained by dynamic equilibrium among the various mating strategies, in
which the relative costs and benefits of each strategy are stabilized (Buss
& Kenrick, 1998; Dawkins, 1976), depending upon the nature of the local
environments in which individuals are raised (Gangestad & Simpson,
2000). Perceiving sexuality in negative terms might have been evolved to
maximize reproductive benefits of the monogamous sexual strategy
through restraining sexual desire and its behavioral manifestations (Goldenberg et al., 1999), and signifying a faithful, trustworthy, and valuable longterm mate in the eyes of potential partners (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Hence,
for some people experiencing sexuality aversively may be their optimal
means of attracting and retaining desirable and valuable mates (Gangestad
& Simpson, 2000).
Alternatively, distress and other negative emotions (e.g., frustration, pain,
indifference, and boredom) may be provoked when a potential partner
violates sexual goals and desires. This follows from the definition of
emotion as a function of environmental events that have consequences for
personal well being (Mandler, 1975, 1984). Indeed, sexual distress and difficulties are an important index of disrupted relational harmony (e.g.,
Kaplan, 1974; Snyder & Berg, 1983). Hence, perceiving sexuality as aversive
may alert individuals to interference with their sexual and relational goals,
thereby guiding attention to the source of distress and motivating them to
prevent similar future interference (Buss, 1989).
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The current research
The current studies describe the construction of a measure capable of
assessing individual differences in behaviors and beliefs related to the
pursuit of various subgoals of the sexual behavioral system as they function
in the context of long-term adult romantic relationships. In constructing this
measure, we also take into account sex differences in sexual desires, attitudes, and behaviors (e.g., Buss & Schmitt, 1993; DeLamater, 1987; Gagnon
& Simon, 1973). Hence, although the sexual system subgoals might be
applicable to both men and women, we investigate whether gender differences exist along its dimensions in the context of romantic relationships. In
a pilot study, we developed a self-report questionnaire of the Sexual Behavioral System Subgoals (SBSS). Study 1 evaluated the structure of this
measure, and provided initial evidence for its convergent and incremental
validity. Studies 2 and 3 provided additional evidence for the reliability and
validity of the scale. In Study 4, we present cross-national evidence for the
generalizability of the measure’s underlying factor structure.
Pilot study
Method
Participants. Participants were 398 Israeli undergraduate university students
(219 women and 179 men ranging from 18 to 50 years of age, Mdn = 25) who
volunteered for the study without compensation. Of the participants, 62.5%
were single/never married and 37.5% were married or cohabiting. All participants had experienced heterosexual intercourse, either in a current or past
relationship.
Measures and procedure. We identified four major subgoals of the sexual
behavior system that are relevant to both men’s and women’s reproductive
success within long-term romantic relationships: (1) Bringing partners together
in a relationship; (2) keeping them attached to each other; (3) promoting
frequent sexual activity; and (4) interference with the sexual system – viewing
sex as aversive and incompatible with other goals.
We then developed 26 questionnaire items from three sources. Some items
were selected from the Experience of Heterosexual Intercourse Scale (EHIS)
(Birnbaum & Laser-Brandt, 2002), an atheoretical comprehensive profile of the
emotional, cognitive, and motivational aspects of men’s and women’s sexual
experience. Additional items were written by the investigators and focused on
unrepresented aspects. Finally, 8 graduate psychology students were asked to
comment on each item’s relevance to the proposed dimensions and to suggest
other items. In all, 68 items were generated for the initial item pool. We then
eliminated 42 items judged to be unrepresentative (or ambiguous) of the
proposed dimension.
Participants were approached individually by the authors and were told that
the study dealt with feelings, expectations, and beliefs about sexual activity with
a partner. After agreeing to participate in the study (more than 90% of the
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
681
approached students agreed to participate in the study), participants were
asked to ‘indicate the extent to which the following items describe your feelings,
expectations, and beliefs about sexual activity with a partner.’ Participants
responded to each item using a 9-point scale, ranging from ‘not at all
characteristic’ (1) to ‘very characteristic’ (9). The 26 items (see sample items in
Table 1) were presented in random order (the same order for all participants).
Completion took most participants about 10 minutes.
TABLE 1
Factor structure of the SBSS
Item
Relationship initiation
I have sometimes initiated romantic relationships by
having sex
I have gotten involved in relationships in order to
have sex
Having sex is a way to begin romantic relationships
I’ve had no difficulty using sex to establish romantic
relationships
In my experience, sexual intercourse has been a
good foundation on which to build a relationship
I
II
III
.94
.77
.49
.41
.36
Negative reactions
Having sex often leaves me frustrated, both physically
and emotionally
I feel indifferent or apathetic during sexual activity
It’s difficult for me to enjoy sexual intercourse
I feel bored while having sex
.89
.73
.71
.67
Maintaining the bond
Sexual intercourse maintains partners’ interest in their
relationship
Having sex helps me feel secure in a relationship
Having sex helps me maintain a romantic relationship
Without adequate sex, a romantic relationship is likely
to deteriorate
Sexual attraction is a necessity for maintaining a
long-term relationship
.75
.67
.62
.49
.36
Sexual pleasure and motivation
Sex is a major source of pleasure in my life
Many people feel intense sexual need or desire almost
all the time
Having sex can bring me to a state of ecstasy
Sexual intercourse is great fun
Cronbach’s alpha
IV
.75
.57
.56
.50
.82
.84
.76
.68
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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
Results and discussion
We examined the underlying structure of the 26 items through a series of
exploratory factor analyses with Varimax rotation. Six items that cross-loaded
(> .40) on more than one factor were eliminated, as were 2 items with loadings
smaller than .50 on the proposed factor, resulting in an 18-item scale. A final
factor analysis yielded 4 factors, corresponding to the dimensions described
earlier, accounting for 54.0% of the total variance (23.1%, 16.8%, 8.3%, 5.8%,
respectively). We also examined the underlying structure of the SBSS items
through a series of factor analyses with oblimin rotation. Comparison with the
results of the Varimax rotation revealed a very similar structure and pattern of
loadings. Cronbach alpha coefficients for the four SBSS subscales ranged from
.78 to .85, implying adequate internal consistency. On this basis, scale scores
were computed for each participant by averaging the items loading on each
factor. The magnitude of the correlations among these four scores was small to
moderate, ranging from .06 to .40, and indicating that the SBSS dimensions
assess relatively unique information.
To insure that the underlying structure of the SBSS was the same for both
men and women, we performed a factor analysis on each sex. Comparison of
the factor analyses revealed that the internal structure and the loadings
patterns of the SBSS were very similar in the men’s and women’s sample (the
4 factors accounted for 61.9% of the total variance for men and for 58.0% of
the total variance for women; Cronbach alpha coefficients for the 4 SBSS
subscales ranged from .74 to .85 for men and from .78 to .87 for women).
Study 1
Study 1 was designed to evaluate the structure, reliability, and validity of
the measure developed in the pilot study. We administered a questionnaire
packet that included the revised version of the SBSS to a confirmatory
sample of 128 participants.
Method
Participants. Participants were 128 Israeli undergraduate university students
(66 women and 62 men ranging from 19 to 50 years of age, Mdn = 24) who
volunteered for the study without compensation. Of the participants, 57.8%
were single/never married and 42.2% were married or cohabiting. All participants had experienced heterosexual intercourse, either in a current or past
relationship.
Measures and procedure. We administered a questionnaire packet, which
included the revised 18-item version of the SBSS (see Table 1). The instructions
and rating scale were identical to those described above. Participants also
completed several additional measures.
The Israeli Sexual Behavior Inventory (ISBI; Kravetz, Drory, & Shaked,
1999) was used and participants answered a 13-item version of ISBI tapping
four areas of sexual functioning: Sexual satisfaction (3 items, e.g., ‘I feel satisfied with my sexual life’), sexual arousal (2 items, e.g., ‘I feel aroused during
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
683
sexual intercourse’), orgasmic responsivity (3 items, e.g., ‘how frequently your
sexual activities with your partner resulted in orgasm’), and intimacy during
sexual intercourse (5 items, e.g., ‘My partner and I display signs of affection
during sexual intercourse’). Participants rated the extent to which they agreed
with each item on a 5-point scale, ranging from ‘not at all’ (1) to ‘very much’
(5). Coefficient alpha reliabilities and inter-item correlations were adequate
for the four categories of sexual functioning (.59 for sexual satisfaction items,
.77 for orgasmic responsivity items, .62 for intimacy items, and r = .30, p < .001
for the two sexual arousal items). On this basis, we computed four scores by
averaging items in each category.
The Expanded Sexual Arousability Index (SAI-E; Chambless & Lifshitz,
1984), translated into Hebrew by Birnbaum and Reis (in press), was used to
measure perceived sexual anxiety. Items describe 28 sexual experiences and
situations, which are rated along a 7-point Likert scale according to how
anxious the respondent feels, or would feel, when engaged in the described
activity (e.g., ‘when a loved one undresses you’). Response options range from
0 ‘pleasant/relaxing’ to 6 ‘extremely anxiety provoking.’ The SAI-E obtained an
internal consistency estimate of .91 (Cronbach’s alpha). Higher scores represented greater sexual anxiety.
Participants also completed the Hebrew version of the Women’s Sexual Selfschema Scale (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994) which was translated into
Hebrew by Birnbaum and Reis (in press), while a team of four bilingual
psychologists translated the Men’s Sexual Self-schema Scale (Andersen et al.,
1999) into Hebrew, using the back-translation technique. Participants rated 50
trait adjectives for women (26 scored and 24 fillers) and 45 trait adjectives for
men (27 scored and 18 fillers), respectively, reflecting a range of cognitive representations of sexual self-schema (e.g., ‘romantic,’ ‘embarrassed,’ or ‘direct’).
Participants rated each item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘not at all
descriptive of me’ (0) to ‘very much descriptive of me’ (6). Both the men’s and
women’s scales are composed of three factors: The women’s scale contains two
positive aspects (romantic/passionate and open/direct self-views) including 10
and 9 items, respectively, and a negative aspect (embarrassment/conservatism)
including 7 items (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994). For the men’s scale, passionate/loving included 10 items, powerful/aggressive 13 items, and openminded/liberal traits 4 items (Andersen et al., 1999).
In the present study, factor analysis with Varimax rotation replicated
Andersen and her colleagues’ (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994; Andersen et al.,
1999) three factors for both men and women, excluding several items that
loaded less than .40, and were dropped from subsequent analyses. Cronbach
alphas indicated an adequate internal consistency for the three factors for both
men and women (for women, .82 for the romantic/passionate; .75 for the
open/direct; .66 for the embarrassment/conservatism, and .63 for the total scale;
for men, .81 for the passionate/loving, .71 for the powerful/aggressive, and .58
for the open-minded/liberal traits, and .74 for the total scale). Following
Andersen and her colleagues’ suggestion, we calculated a single total sexual
self-schema score by summing items for the two positive factors and subtracting values for the negative factor items for women, and by summing items for
the three factors for men. Higher scores reflected more positive sexual selfschema.
A version of the Sexual Opinion Survey (SOS; Fisher et al., 1988), translated
into Hebrew by W. A. Fisher (1998), was also used. This is a 21-item self-report
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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
measure of erotophobia–erotophilia (evaluation of sexual cues along a
negative–positive dimension). Participants rated their affective responses to a
variety of autosexual (e.g., ‘masturbation can be an exciting experience’),
heterosexual (e.g., ‘I personally find that thinking about engaging in sexual
intercourse is arousing’), and homosexual situations (e.g., ‘If I found out that a
close friend of mine was a homosexual, it would annoy me’) on a 7-point Likert
scale ranging from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (7) ‘strongly agree.’ The reliability
of the SOS was acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = .85). Higher scores represented
a greater erotophilic tendency.
A version of the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI; Simpson &
Gangestad, 1991), translated into Hebrew by Birnbaum and Reis (in press), is
a self-report scale that measures the willingness to engage in uncommitted
sexual relations. Items assess both overt sexual behavior (e.g., ‘with how many
different partners have you had sex on one and only one occasion?’), and attitudes toward casual, uncommitted sexual relations (e.g., ‘I can imagine myself
being comfortable and enjoying “casual” sex with different partners’). Attitudinal items were rated on a 9-point scale ranging from (1) ‘strongly disagree’
to (9) ‘strongly agree.’ To create a unit-weighted index, responses to each item
were standardized through z-scores. The SOI is factorally unidimensional, and
obtained an adequate Cronbach’s alpha of .86 in the current sample. Higher
scores reflect a greater likelihood of engaging in casual, uncommitted sexual
relations.
Demographic questions tapped age, current relationship status, and length of
current relationship.
Results and discussion
Confirmatory factor analysis, using the AMOS program (Arbuckle, 1999),
determined the fit between the 18-item version of the SBSS and our theoretical model. The chi-square test of goodness-of-fit was significant, χ2(117) =
159.76, p < .01, indicating significant deviation of the data from the proposed
model. This is likely attributable to the study’s sample size. Other model fit
statistics less sensitive to sample size yielded acceptably high values (Bentler,
1995): GFI = .90 and CFI = .95, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was .05. Therefore, we viewed the model as an acceptably good
fit to the data. All items loaded significantly on their respective factors, p < .05
(see Table 1).
We tested and compared the hypothesized four-factor model to two alternative models. In the first model, we treated the 18 items as unidimensional, and
in the second, we treated the items as loading either a positivity or negativity
dimension. Neither alternative models provided an adequate fit to the data
(detailed information is available from the first author). Furthermore, all
indices indicated that the four-factor model was a substantial improvement in
fit over both the single- and two-factor models.
To insure that the underlying structure of the SBSS was the same for both
men and women, we split our sample by gender, and performed an independent confirmatory factor analysis on each sample. Once again the overall chisquare test was significant for both men and women, χ2(114) = 151.33, p < .05
and χ2(117) = 160.97, p < .01, respectively, likely reflecting the sample size.
Model fit indices that adjust for sample size indicated good fit (GFI = .90 and
CFI = .96 for men and GFI = .92 and CFI = .96 for women) and low RMSEA
of .05 for men and of .04 for women. As these values are within recommended
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
685
levels (Bentler, 1995), the model represents good fit to the data for both men
and women.
These analyses support our claim that the SBSS consists of four dimensions
concerning one’s beliefs about the various personal and interpersonal rewards
and costs of sexual activity from an evolutionary perspective. Cronbach alpha
coefficients for the four SBSS subscales ranged from .68 to .84, implying
adequate internal consistency. On this basis, scores were computed for each
participant by averaging the items loading on each factor. The magnitude of the
correlations among these four scores was small to moderate, ranging from .04
to .46, indicating that the SBSS dimensions assess relatively unique information.
Correlations relevant to the convergent validity of the SBSS are presented
in Table 2. The sexuality measures manifested somewhat different patterns of
associations across the SBSS factors, indicating that the four factors represent
unique aspects of the perceived contribution of the sexual behavioral system.
Importantly, although the SBSS factors were significantly associated with attitudinal, emotional, and behavioral aspects of sexuality, the strength of the
correlations is mostly small to moderate, implying considerable unshared
variance. Interestingly, men and women showed a similar pattern of associations between the SBSS factors and sexuality measures, with the exception of
the associations between Pleasure and Motivation and the willingness to
engage in uncommitted sexual relations (i.e., the SOI), and between Negative
Reaction and sexual anxiety (i.e., SAI-E), which were significant only for men,
as well as the association between Pleasure and Motivation and orgasmic
responsivity, which was significant only for women. These sex-specific findings
imply that men’s sex-related affect and cognitions may be a manifestation of
short-term mating strategy preference (Buss & Schmitt, 1993), combined with
self-enhancing motivation (e.g., prestige among peers, sexual ‘performance’),
whereas women’s sex-related affect and cognitions may be more complex and
less affected by relationship-irrelevant motives (e.g., Birnbaum & LaserBrandt, 2002). In addition, smaller variability in men’s orgasmic responsivity
TABLE 2
Correlations between SBSS factors and other sexual measures (N = 128)
All
SBSS factors
Relationship
initiation
Sexual
measure
M
W
SAI-E
–.13 –.15
SOI
.57*** .56***
SOS
.37** .40***
Sexual self-schema
.39** .32**
Orgasmic responsivity .20 –.02
Sexual intimacy
.08
.03
Sexual arousal
.23
.16
Sexual satisfaction
–.17
.06
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Negative
reactions
Maintain
the bond
M
M
W
.36** .16
.14 .00
–.07 –.04
–.07 –.11
–.25* –.53***
–.28* –.27*
–.18 –.12
–.25* –.29*
W
–.15 –.19
.13
.11
.24* .14
.24* .19
.18
.23*
–.00
.14
.09
.19
–.09
.07
Pleasure and
motivation
M
W
–.30* –.32*
.48*** .08
.51*** .30*
.14
.17
.17
.32**
.02
.19
.29*
.46***
.05
.21
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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
(e.g., Spector & Carey, 1990) may explain the relative disconnection between
Pleasure and Motivation and orgasmic responsivity among men.
To assess the incremental validity of the SBSS over existing sexual measures,
we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses. Specifically, we
examined four areas of sexual functioning (orgasmic responsivity, intimacy
during sexual intercourse, sexual arousal, and sexual satisfaction), as tapped by
the ISBI (Kravetz et al., 1999). In each analysis, the sexual measures (SAI-E,
SOI, SOS, Sexual Self-schema) were entered as the first set of predictor variables, followed by the set of four SBSS scores. As shown in Table 3, the SBSS
predicted three sexual functioning scales, over and above the other sexuality
measures; that is, the series of hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated
that the SBSS exhibited significant incremental validity in predicting orgasmic
responsivity, sexual arousal, and sexual satisfaction. Negative Reactions (β =
–.27, p < .001) and Sexual Pleasure and Motivation (β = .16, p < .05) were
associated with orgasmic responsivity; Sexual Pleasure and Motivation (β = .33,
p < .001) was associated with sexual arousal; and Negative Reactions (β = –.25,
p < .01) was associated with sexual satisfaction.
In summary, these analyses supported the four-dimensional conceptualization of the various personal and interpersonal rewards and costs of sexual
activity from an evolutionary perspective. Findings showed that the SBSS was
TABLE 3
Regression of ISBI on SBSS factors and sexual measures scores (SAI-E, SOI,
SOS, Sexual Self-schema)
R2 change
F change
Orgasmic responsivity
Step 1: Sexual measures
.47***
Step 2: SBSS
.08***
27.23***
(4, 121)
5.53***
(4, 117)
Sexual intimacy
Step 1: Sexual measures
.09*
Step 2: SBSS
.04
Sexual arousal
Step 1: Sexual measures
.22***
Step 2: SBSS
.09**
Sexual satisfaction
Step 1: Sexual measures
.05
Step 2: SBSS
.08*
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
2.92*
(4, 121)
1.44
(4, 117)
8.51***
(4, 121)
3.58**
(4, 117)
1.71
(4, 121)
2.57*
(4, 117)
Adjusted R2
of full equation
.46***
.53***
.05*
.07*
.19***
.26***
.02
.07*
F
27.23***
(4, 121)
18.42***
(8, 117)
2.92*
(4, 121)
2.20*
(8, 117)
8.51***
(4, 121)
6.41***
(8, 117)
1.71
(4, 121)
2.18*
(8, 117)
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
687
a reliable and valid instrument, which applied equally well to both men and
women, even though each of the scales is deliberately short. The SBSS also
demonstrated convergent validity with attitudinal, emotional, and behavioral
aspects of sexuality and incremental validity in predicting sexual functioning
beyond variance explained by existing sexual measures.
Finally, to discover whether gender differences existed along the SBSS
dimensions, a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for
gender was performed on the four factors of the SBSS. This MANOVA yielded
a significant gender difference F(4,123) = 23.52, p < .001, η2 = .14. Univariate
analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that this effect was significant for
two of the four factors: Relationship Initiation, F(1,126) = 16.58, p < .001, η2 =
.12, and Pleasure and Motivation, F(1,126) = 4.98, p < .05, η2 = .04, with men
scoring higher on both factors (M = 4.42, SD = 2.15 and M = 6.59, SD = 1.37,
respectively) than women (M = 3.03, SD = 1.68 and M = 6.03, SD = 1.43, respectively).
Overall, it seems that men, in comparison with women, reported greater
usage of sex as a means of initiating romantic relationships. Furthermore, men
were more likely to perceive sex as a strong motivator and as a source of
pleasure and joy than women. Taken together, Study 1’s findings are in line with
theoretical approaches to human sexuality and empirical evidence suggesting
that women adopt a more emotional-interpersonal orientation to sexuality and
place a greater emphasis on interpersonal aspects during sexual intercourse.
Men, on the other hand, develop a more recreational orientation toward their
sexuality and place a greater emphasis on expressing their sexual needs (e.g.,
Buss & Schmitt, 1993; DeLamater, 1987; Gagnon & Simon, 1973) and on taking
the initiative and dominant role of courting (e.g., Byers & Heinlein, 1989;
O’Sullivan & Byers, 1992).
Study 2
Study 2 was designed to examine the associations between the SBSS and
measures of theoretically related constructs. We also sought to distinguish
this measure from a potentially relevant, nonsexual domain, personality.
Finally, we sought to determine whether the sexual behavioral system
accounted for variance in sexual outcomes beyond that explained by the
attachment behavioral system.
Method
Participants. Participants were 130 Israeli undergraduate university students
(80 women and 50 men ranging from 18 to 64 years of age, Mdn = 24) who
volunteered for the study without compensation. Of the participants, 59.4%
were single/never married, and 40.6% were married or cohabiting. All participants had experienced heterosexual intercourse, either in a current or past
relationship.
Measures and procedure. Participants individually completed the final 18-item
version of the SBSS. Instructions and rating scales were identical to those
688
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
described in the pilot study. Cronbach alpha coefficients for the four SBSS
subscales ranged from .75 to .85. Factor intercorrelations ranged from .00 to .48.
In addition, participants were given the following measures: (i) Response bias
(social desirability; Crowne & Marlowe, 1964) and personality domains which
have been associated with sexuality measures – self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1979),
neuroticism (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1967), extraversion, and openness to experience (Costa & McCrae, 1985); and (ii) relational measures. This consisted of
converging measures of relationship satisfaction (Hendrick, 1988) and adult
attachment (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). The measures were presented in
random order.
A Hebrew version of Rosenberg’s (1979) Self-esteem Scale (SES) was
used, consisting of 10 statements responded to on a scale ranging from (1)
‘strongly disagree’ to (4) ‘strongly agree.’ The scale measures general selfesteem (e.g., ‘I feel I have a number of good qualities’). We obtained an internal
consistency estimate of .86 (Cronbach’s alpha). Higher scores reflected greater
self-esteem.
A Hebrew version of the 33-item Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale
(Crowne & Marlowe, 1964) was used. Participants rated whether or not each
item was self-descriptive. Cronbach’s alpha was .78. Higher scores represented
more socially desirable responding.
A brief Hebrew version of the Neuroticism Subscale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1967) was used. This 12-item scale
measures tendencies to experience anxiety, distress, and emotional lability (e.g.,
‘I am easily bothered by things’). Participants rated items on a 5-point scale,
ranging from ‘not at all’ (1) to ‘very much’ (5). Cronbach’s alpha was .91. Higher
scores indicated greater neuroticism.
A Hebrew version of the Extraversion Subscale from the NEO Personality
Inventory – Revised (Costa & McCrae, 1985) was used. This scale measures
sociability and the tendency to seek out stimulation as well as tendencies to react
impulsively without deliberation (e.g., ‘I know how to captivate people’). Participants rated whether or not each of the items was self-descriptive. Cronbach’s
alpha for the 23 items was .85. Higher scores reflected greater extraversion.
The Hebrew version of the Openness to Experience Subscale from the NEO
Personality Inventory – Revised (Costa & McCrae, 1985) measures open-mindedness and interest in culture (e.g., ‘I am interested in abstract ideas’). Participants rated the extent to which each of 48 items were self-descriptive on a
5-point scale, ranging from ‘not at all’ (1) to ‘very much’ (5). Cronbach’s alpha
was .78. Higher scores indicated greater openness to experience.
A Hebrew version of the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS; Hendrick,
1988) was used to measure relationship satisfaction only for those participants
who were currently involved in a romantic relationship. This scale consists of 7
items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (e.g., ‘In general, how satisfied are you with
your relationship?’). The RAS is unidimensional, and we obtained an internal
consistency estimate of .89 (Cronbach’s alpha). Higher scores represented
greater relationship satisfaction.
A Hebrew version of the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR;
Brennan et al., 1998) translated into Hebrew by Mikulincer and Florian (2000),
assesses attachment orientations. This 36-item scale taps dimensions of attachment anxiety and avoidance. Participants rated the extent to which each item
was descriptive of their feelings in close relationships on a 7-point scale ranging
from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (7). Eighteen items tapped
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
689
attachment anxiety (e.g., ‘I worry about being abandoned’), and 18 items
tapped attachment avoidance (e.g., ‘I get uncomfortable when a romantic
partner wants to be very close’). Cronbach’s alphas were high for the anxiety
(.91) and avoidance dimensions (.88). Higher scores indicated greater attachment-related avoidance or anxiety.
A series of demographic questions included age, current relationship status,
length of current relationship, and number of lifetime sexual partners. In
addition, participants rated their general view of their sexuality (‘Rate yourself
as a sexual man/woman’) on a 5-point scale, with 1 being ‘not at all’ and 5 being
‘extremely.’
Results and discussion
Data relevant to the convergent and discriminant validity of the SBSS are
presented in Table 4. Social desirability and the potentially relevant, nonsexual,
personality domains were chosen as discriminant measures because they represent variance associated with volunteer bias in sex research (Catania, Gibson,
Chitwood, & Coates, 1990). The correlations between the SBSS and social
desirability response set (Crowne & Marlowe, 1964) were not significantly
different from zero. In addition, the precise pattern of associations between the
SBSS factors and personality variables varied slightly between the sexes:
‘Relationship initiation’ and ‘Maintaining the bond’ are relatively uncorrelated
with personality domains. ‘Negative reactions’ correlates negatively with selfesteem, extraversion, and openness to experience (although the last two correlations were significant only for women) and correlates positively with
neuroticism (mainly among men). ‘Sexual pleasure and motivation’ exhibits
small to moderate relationships with extraversion, self-esteem, and openness to
experience but only among women.
Overall, this pattern of associations between personality domains and
negative and positive sex-related affect is in line with Andersen and Cyranowski’s (1995) contention that the role of personality in women’s sexuality
TABLE 4
Correlations between SBSS factors and measures used for assessment of
response bias, convergent, and discriminant validity (N = 130)
All
Dimension
Measure
RAS
Anxiety
Avoidance
Self-esteem
Social desirability
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
SBSS factors
Relationship
initiation
M
W
–.10
.22
–.21
–.06
.08
.09
.30*
.14
–.13
.17
–.21
.06
.11
.19
.08
.28*
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Negative
reactions
Maintain
the bond
M
M
W
M
W
–.02
.09
–.04
–.01
.10
.01
.04
–.08
–.07
.09
–.21
.13
–.06
.13
.05
.28*
–.25
.08
–.10
.03
.20
–.01
.24
.15
.09
–.09
–.24*
.41***
–.19
–.08
.40***
.41***
W
–.03
–.33*
.45*** .28*
.21
.38**
–.35* –.46***
.18
.12
.41** .19
–.10
–.36**
.15
–.27*
Pleasure and
motivation
690
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
may operate differently depending upon the developmental stage in a woman’s
sexual life. Given that our sample consisted mostly of young men and women,
it is quite likely that characteristics of self esteem, extraversion, and openness
to experience, which are associated with excitement seeking, dominance, and
higher levels of sexual information and sexual activity (Costa & McCrae, 1985),
will be relatively sexual facilitative. In contrast, scoring low on these personality domains may be relatively sexually inhibitory, particularly as women begin
sexual interactions with others and are more expected to restrict their sexual
expressions, compared with men (e.g., Buss & Schmitt, 1993; DeLamater, 1987;
Gagnon & Simon, 1973).
Importantly, although two of the SBSS factors are significantly associated
with the relevant personality dimensions, the strength of the significant correlations is mostly small to moderate, implying that they cannot be equated with
these measures. Hence, SBSS factors are differentiated from these personality
measures. The somewhat higher, though nonoverlapping, relationships of
‘Negative reactions’ and ‘Sexual pleasure and motivation’ with the personality
measures are consistent with prior findings showing that neuroticism is associated with low sexual satisfaction as well as high degrees of worry and guilt
feelings about sex, and seeing sexual behavior as disgusting (Eysenck, 1971). In
addition, extraversion is associated with intensified sexual behavior (e.g.,
Schenk & Pfrang, 1986).
Because of the hypothesized contribution of the sexual behavioral system to
the formation and maintenance of intimate romantic relationships, we expected
the SBSS factors to be correlated with various more general relationship qualities. The tendency to experience negative reactions in sexuality was positively
correlated with attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety and negatively
associated with relationship satisfaction, although the last correlation was
significant only for women. Importantly, although the SBSS factors were significantly associated with romantic relationship qualities, these correlations do not
suggest that the scales measure the same domain.
To test how much of the variance in one’s general view of his/her sexuality,
and sexual behavior, as indicated by the number of lifetime sexual partners,
could be explained by SBSS over and above other personality constructs and
relational measures, two hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. In
each of the analyses, the personality constructs, relational measures, and social
desirability score were entered in Step 1, followed by SBSS scores in Step 2.
SBSS scores accounted for significant increments in explained variance beyond
personality, relational, and social desirability scores in predicting global rating
of self as a sexual man/woman (22.3%, p < .001), and the number of lifetime
sexual partners, 36.8%, p < .001.
Study 3
Study 3 was designed to provide a test-retest reliability estimate for the
SBSS. In addition, we sought to determine whether the SBSS accounted for
variance in sexual functioning beyond that explained by the attachment
behavioral system.
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
691
Method
Participants. Participants were 58 Israeli undergraduate university students (40
women and 18 men ranging from 19 to 40 years of age, Mdn = 25) who volunteered for the study without compensation. Of the participants, 94.8% were
currently involved in a romantic relationship and 5.2% were not currently
involved in a romantic relationship. All participants had experienced heterosexual intercourse, either in a current or past relationship.
Measures and procedure. Participants individually completed the final version
of the SBSS consisting of 18 items twice, with an 8-week interval. Instructions
and rating scales were identical to those described in the pilot study. In
addition, participants were given a questionnaire packet which included: (i) The
Israeli Sexual Behavior Inventory (ISBI; Kravetz et al., 1999); and Hebrew
versions of the following measures: (ii) Neuroticism (Eysenck & Eysenck,
1967); (iii) relationship satisfaction (RAS; Hendrick, 1988); and (iv) adult
attachment (ECR; Brennan et al., 1998), which were described in Studies 1 and
2. The measures were presented in random order.
Results and discussion
Test–retest reliability of the SBSS was obtained for an 8-week interval. Coefficients for each factor were Relationship Initiation, .92; Negative Reactions, .84;
Maintaining the Bond, .83; and Sexual Pleasure and Motivation, .93. These
test–retest reliabilities are high and suggest that the SBSS is stable over this
particular period of time.
To further assess the incremental validity of the SBSS over models of attachment, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses. Specifically, we
examined four areas of sexual functioning (orgasmic responsivity, intimacy
during sexual intercourse, sexual arousal, and sexual satisfaction), as tapped by
the ISBI (Kravetz et al., 1999). In each analysis, we entered attachment (avoidance and anxiety) scores and RAS score (Hendrick, 1988; to rule out a sentiment override explanation) in Step 1, followed by neuroticism (Eysenck, 1971)
in Step 2. Incremental validity of the SBSS was then established by entering all
four subscales at the next step. The contribution of the sexual behavioral system
accounted for significant increments in explained variance beyond neuroticism,
attachment, and RAS scores in predicting orgasmic responsivity, sexual arousal,
and sexual satisfaction (see Table 5). Relationship Initiation (β = .36, p < .05)
and Negative Reactions (β = –.59, p < .001) were associated with orgasmic
responsivity, Negative Reactions (β = –.44, p < .01) and Sexual Pleasure and
Motivation (β = .29, p < .06) were associated with sexual arousal, and Negative
Reactions (β = –.73, p < .001) was associated with sexual satisfaction. The SBSS
scales did not add significant incremental variance for intimacy during sexual
intercourse.
Study 4
Study 4 was designed to provide cross-national evidence for the generalizability of the underlying factor structure of the SBSS in another western
culture. That is, in Study 4, we administered this 18-item scale to a sample
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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
TABLE 5
Regression of ISBI on SBSS, neuroticism, RAS, and attachment scores
All
R2 change
Orgasmic responsivity
Step 1: Attachment and RAS
.13
Step 2: Neuroticism
.00
Step 3: SBSS scores
.31***
Sexual intimacy
Step 1: Attachment and RAS
.13
Step 2: Neuroticism
.00
Step 3: SBSS scores
.07
Sexual arousal
Step 1: Attachment and RAS
.07
Step 2: Neuroticism
.00
Step 3: SBSS scores
.36***
Sexual satisfaction
Step 1: Attachment and RAS
.26**
Step 2: Neuroticism
.03
Step 3: SBSS scores
.38***
F change
Adjusted R2
of full equation
2.32
(3, 48)
.14
(1, 47)
6.05***
(4, 43)
.07
2.37
(3, 48)
.09
(1, 47)
.87
(4, 43)
.08
.06
.34***
.06
.05
1.21
(3, 48)
.10
(1, 47)
6.68***
(4, 43)
.01
5.60**
(3, 48)
1.80
(1, 47)
11.99***
(4, 43)
.21**
.00
.32***
.23**
.60***
F
2.32
(3, 48)
1.75
(4, 47)
4.27***
(8, 43)
2.37
(3, 48)
1.77
(4, 47)
1.31
(8, 43)
1.21
(3, 48)
.91
(4, 47)
4.02***
(8, 43)
5.60**
(3, 48)
4.72**
(4, 47)
10.56***
(8, 43)
**p < .01; ***p < .001.
of 476 undergraduate students from the University of California, Davis
(USA), and their responses were submitted to confirmatory factor analysis.
A cross-national replication of the structure of the SBSS with a sample
speaking a different language would be a robust test of the stability of the
four-factorial structure.
Method
Participants. Participants were 476 undergraduate students (319 women and
157 men ranging from 17 to 35 years of age, Mdn = 19) from the University of
California, Davis, who received Introductory Psychology course credit for their
participation. The sample was ethnically diverse with 49.2% Caucasians, 3.6%
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
693
African Americans, 25.2% Asian American, 6.9% Hispanics, and 13% who
chose ‘other.’
Measures and procedure. Participants individually completed an English
version of the SBSS as part of an Internet survey about ‘attitudes and feelings
regarding close relationships.’ The survey was posted on the Internet with the
title ‘Experience in Close Relationships and Relational Satisfaction Survey’.
Links to the online survey were located on the Department of Psychology’s
experiments website. The survey was programmed with SPSS software (mrInterview) such that IP addresses were read, and surveys submitted from the
same address for the second time were automatically rejected. The survey was
introduced as follows:
Thank you for taking part in this study. In the following pages we will ask you about
your attitudes and feelings regarding close relationships. All the information
gathered in this survey will be kept confidential, so please try to respond as honestly
as possible. The data collected will help us to learn more about the function of
relationships. Please make sure that you have enough time available now to
complete the survey free of interruptions.
For the present study, a team of four bilingual psychologists translated the full
18-item SBSS into English, using the back-translation technique. Instructions
and rating scales were identical to those described in the pilot study.
Results and discussion
Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS; Arbuckle, 1999) was again used to
conduct a confirmatory factor analysis of the factor structure of the SBSS. Once
again the overall chi-square test was significant, χ2(117) = 428.07, p < .001, likely
reflecting the large sample size. Model fit indices that adjust for sample size
indicated good fit (GFI = .91 and CFI = .92) and low RMSEA of .07. As these
values are within recommended levels (Bentler, 1995), the model represents
good fit to the data.
To insure that the underlying structure of the SBSS was the same for both
men and women, we split our sample by gender, and performed an independent confirmatory factor analysis for men and women. Once again the overall
chi-square test was significant for both men and women (χ2 (113) = 174.48, p <
.001 and χ2 (115) = 237.91, p < .001, respectively). Model fit indices that adjust
for sample size indicated good fit (GFI = .90 and CFI = .95 for men and GFI =
.92 and CFI = .95 for women) and low RMSEA of .05 for both men and women.
As these values are within recommended levels (Bentler, 1995), the model
represents good fit to the data for both men and women.
Cronbach alpha coefficients indicated adequate internal consistency for the
four SBSS subscales (from .73 to .85). In the present sample, the correlations
between these factors were mostly small to moderate (ranging from –.05 to
.42), indicating that nearly all of the SBSS scores were quite independent of
each other. However, the correlations between Maintaining the Bond and
Relationship Initiation, as well as Maintaining the Bond and Sexual Pleasure
and Motivation were rather high (.64 and .58, respectively). It is important to
note that the current sample was younger than the Israeli samples, t(788) =
–16.05, p < .01, and these age differences may account for the different pattern
of correlations revealed in the current sample. The various personal- and interpersonal-related functions of the sexual behavioral system may be more differentiated as people gain more experience in understanding the differential
694
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
contribution of sexuality to distinct phases of relationship development. That
is, younger persons might not differentiate sharply between the role played by
sexuality in relationship initiation and maintenance, because they may be in
the early stages of relationships in which both are prominent. Another plausible explanation for the distinctive pattern of correlations revealed in this
study might be the different language and nationality characterizing the
current sample.
General discussion
Across five studies, we developed a self-report measure of individual differences in behaviors and beliefs concerning the pursuit of subgoals of the
sexual behavioral system. These subgoals are based on a functional-evolutionary analysis of the sexual behavioral system in the context of long-term
adult romantic relationships. Results indicate that the SBSS was a reliable
and valid instrument that applied equally well to men and women. The pilot
study as well as Studies 1 and 2 revealed that the SBSS incorporated welldifferentiated dimensions of behaviors and cognitive representations of the
functionality of sexual activity in the context of an adult romantic relationship. Studies 1 and 2 also indicated that our theoretical model of the dimensions underlying men’s and women’s sexual behavior represented good fit
to the obtained data and that the SBSS displayed convergent validity with
other measures of cognitive, behavioral, and affective aspects of sexuality
and romantic relationships. Additionally, Studies 1, 2, and 3 established that
the SBSS was unrelated to social desirability and self-esteem. These studies
showed that this scale also demonstrated incremental validity in predicting
sexual functioning, as well as emotions and beliefs related to it, beyond
variance associated with attachment dimensions, relationship satisfaction,
and key individual differences. Finally, Study 4 provided cross-national
evidence for the generalizability of the underlying factor structure in
the US.
The sexual behavioral system subgoals integrate functional behaviors
and their cognitive substrate and evolved to solve particular adaptive
problems of reproduction and to regulate the expressions of sexuality in
romantic relationships. Based on a functional analysis of the importance of
adult human sexuality, we identified four dimensions of the personal- and
interpersonal-related functions of the sexual behavioral system that are
related to both men’s and women’s reproductive success in the context of
long-term romantic relationships: (i) Bringing partners together and establishing a relationship by means of sexual activity; (ii) keeping partners
attached to each other for an extended period of time; (iii) promoting
frequent sexual activity through increasing positive affect and sexual motivation; (iv) restricting the expressions of sexuality when sexual activity is
viewed as aversive and incompatible with other important personal and
interpersonal goals. Our analyses broadly supported this theoretical
proposal.
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
695
The first dimension, ‘Relationship Initiation,’ reflects the beliefs that
sexual intercourse is a means of initiating romantic relationships as well as
the foundation on which to build them. This dimension was positively
associated with the willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations,
erotophilic tendency, and positive sexual self-schema. Sex drive motivates
individuals to pursue either short-term or long-term mating with a potential partner (Buss, 2004; Fisher et al., 2002). Consequently, sexual activity is
one strategy that may be used to initiate romantic relationships, although
it is perceived by many people as more acceptable in later (when compared
with earlier) stages of relational progression (see Sprecher & McKinney,
1993). Our findings are consistent with prior studies showing that people
with unrestricted sexuality, who are more likely to engage in uncommitted
sexual relations, rated the desire for possible sex as more important reasons
for initiating opposite-sex friendships (Bleske-Rechek & Buss, 2001). It
seems that this constellation of positive sexual self-view and attitudes,
combined with less restricted sexuality, is likely to facilitate the use of sexuality to successfully initiate both short-term and long-term relationships.
Indeed, people who had a positive sexual self-view and lacked behavioral
inhibition about their sexuality had more sexual and romantic partners and
broader sexual experience, compared with people with negative sexual selfview (e.g., Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994; Andersen et al., 1999). Still,
although both unrestricted individuals and individuals with positive sexual
self-view use sex to initiate romantic relationships, they may be motivated
by different relational goals: Unrestricted individuals may be more likely
to use sex to facilitate short-term relationships (see Simpson, Wilson, &
Winterheld, 2004), whereas individuals with positive sexual self-view may
engage in sex to form and maintain long-term committed relationships
(Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994; Andersen et al., 1999; Cyranowski &
Andersen, 1998).
The second dimension, ‘Negative Reactions,’ taps feelings of frustration,
difficulties in experiencing sexual pleasure, indifference, and boredom
during sexual activity. This dimension was positively associated with
neuroticism, attachment-related avoidance and anxiety, as well as sexual
anxiety, and negatively associated with relationship satisfaction (only
among women), self-esteem, extraversion, and most sexual functioning
measures. These findings fit Kaplan’s (1974) assertion that the various
remote psychological antecedents of sexual dysfunction (e.g., early history
factors, distressed relationships) may be diverted into the ‘experiential
surface’ in the form of negative affectivity and cognitive obstacles to erotic
pleasure. Distressed sexuality then may have diverse personal and interpersonal consequences. Specifically, perceiving sex as aversive may regulate
sexual expression, imply a loyal and valuable long-term mate in the eyes of
potential partners (Buss & Schmitt, 1993), and thereby maximize reproductive benefits of the monogamous sexual strategy (Goldenberg et al., 1999).
Nevertheless, because this dimension was not significantly correlated with
sexual restrictiveness (the unwillingness to engage in uncommitted
sexual relations; Simpson & Gangestad, 1991), it seems more likely that
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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23(5)
experiencing sexuality as frustrating and boring may signify disrupted
relational harmony (e.g., Kaplan, 1974; Snyder & Berg, 1983) and motivate
individuals to prevent similar interference to their relational and sexual
needs and goals in the future (Buss, 1989). The implication of the motivation inflicted by distressed sexuality for dyadic relationships may depend
upon one’s relational goals and the importance he or she attributes to
sexual activity in the context of romantic relationships: Some individuals
may dismiss the implication of the disturbed sexuality for their relationship,
whereas others may be motivated to resolve dyadic conflicts and improve
current sexual and relational well being, or possibly dissolve their relationship and look for a more appropriate partner. Future research should
examine the contribution of mating strategies, relational goals, and the
perceived importance of sexuality, as it functions in adult romantic relationships, to the understanding of the consequences of distressed sexual intercourse for personal and interpersonal motivation and well being.
The third dimension, ‘Maintaining the Bond,’ reflects the beliefs that
sexual intercourse and sexual attraction maintain romantic relationships as
well as the interest of romantic partners in them, and that without adequate
sex, a romantic relationship is likely to deteriorate. This dimension was
positively associated with erotophilic tendency, positive sexual self-schema,
and orgasmic responsivity. Because infants and children were more likely
to survive and thrive if reared by two parents, human reproductive success
was enhanced when sexual partners stayed with each other during their
offspring’s exceptionally prolonged and vulnerable period development
(H. E. Fisher, 1998; Hazan & Zeifman, 1994). Consequently, couples must
engage in strategies that help them maintain their more developed relationships. In later phases of relationship development, processes related to the
provision of mutual support, warmth, responsiveness, and interdependence
may make a greater contribution to relationship maintenance than sexual
desire does (Kotler, 1985; Reedy, Birren, & Schaie, 1981; Sternberg, 1986).
However, sexual expression may still be a common maintenance strategy
(e.g., Bell, Daly, & Gonzalez, 1987), mainly among erotophilic individuals
with positive sexual schema. These individuals experience their sexuality
positively and therefore may use it to express, or achieve, affection,
emotional intimacy, and love, which in turn, also may foster the emotional
bonding with their partner. These findings raise some related questions
regarding the operation of the sexual behavioral system in later phases of
ongoing romantic relationships: What are the differential relational
outcomes of dysfunctional, infrequent sexual activity, or the total loss of
sexual activity among individuals who believe that sex contributes to
relationship maintenance, compared with individuals who believe that sex
is irrelevant for relationship maintenance? Will individuals who believe
that sex contributes to relationship maintenance increase their sexual intercourse frequency after relationship threat, conflict, or temporally perceived
relational insecurity? Further studies are needed to determine how perceiving sexual activity as contributing to relationship maintenance moderates
the sex–relationship linkage.
Birnbaum & Gillath: Subgoals of the sexual behavioral system
697
The fourth dimension, ‘Sexual Pleasure and Motivation,’ which reflects
the beliefs that sex is a strong motivator as well as a source of pleasure and
joy, was positively correlated with extraversion, openness, self-esteem
(mainly among women), as well as with most of the cognitive, affective and
behavioral sexual measures and negatively correlated with sexual anxiety.
Surprisingly, although sexual desire and pleasure enhance emotional
bonding between sexual partners (Hazan & Zeifman, 1994), our findings
revealed that their contribution to relationship satisfaction was rather
marginal in comparison to perceiving sexual activity as aversive. Indeed,
sexual activity may be less important to relationship satisfaction than other
relational expressions (e.g., affection, emotional intimacy, caring), particularly in later stages of relationships (Greenblat, 1983; Reedy et al., 1981).
However, the contribution of distressed sexual interactions to relationship
satisfaction may be more pronounced than that of harmonious sexual interactions, because of its potential detrimental consequences for both personal
and relational well being. This finding is in line with the ‘bad is stronger
than good’ argument (see Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, & Voys,
2001, for a review). Thus, the dimensions ‘Sexual Pleasure and Motivation’
and ‘Negative Reactions’ may represent independent, complementary
psychological mechanisms: Whereas ‘Negative Reactions’ is designed to
attune individuals to potential threat to their relational goals, sexual desire
and pleasure evolved to motivate sexual behavior, which may promote
attachment formation, as well as effectively pursuing short-term mating
strategies.
Implications and limitations
The current findings revealed different patterns of associations between the
pursuit of various subgoals of the sexual behavioral system and relational
and sexual measures across the four perceived functional dimensions. Our
findings affirmed that each dimension represented a unique functional
aspect of the sexual behavioral system with distinctive contributions to
one’s close relationships. The SBSS will allow future research to address
questions about the specific mechanisms whereby the sexual behavioral
system contributes to the initiation, maintenance, and dissolution of
romantic relationships: In what ways are different strategies and relationship goals reflected in the operation of the sexual system through different
stages of relationship development and in different kind of sexual-romantic
relationships? Are sexual functioning and relational well being reciprocal,
unrelated, or does sexual functioning compensate for relational threat and
insecurity? More specifically, is the sex–relationship linkage moderated by
the unique combination of the perceived functions of the sexual behavioral
system? What are the sexual and relational outcomes of conflicting
perceived functions of the sexual behavioral system, such as in the case
where a person believes that sex contributes to relationship maintenance
and experiences sex in negative terms? What are the relational sequels of
couples’ clashing functions of the sexual behavioral system? For example,
what are the relational outcomes of dysfunctional sexuality or reduced
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sexual frequency when one partner believes that sex contributes to
relationship maintenance and the other believes that sex is irrelevant for
relationship maintenance? And vice versa, how will disharmonious
relationships influence sexual functioning among couples with discrepancies in their perceived functionality of the sexual behavioral system?
Further research is needed to explore the tangled role played by the sexual
behavioral system in the broader context of close relationships.
Several caveats of the present research should be highlighted. First, our
samples consisted mostly of young men and women, thus the generalizability of the patterns of associations between perceived functions of the sexual
behavioral system and relational and sexual measures to older individuals,
who have gained more experience in understanding the differential contribution of sexuality to distinct phases of relationship development, is less
certain. Next, it should be noted that the data in this study were correlational and prevent us from depicting the causal direction of the association
between perceived personal- and interpersonal-related functions of the
sexual behavioral system and relational and sexual measures. For example,
perceiving sex as aversive may be one of the immediate causes contributing to distressed relationships. Nevertheless, one can easily argue the
reverse, namely that distressed relationships result in experiencing sexual
intercourse as aversive, not the other way round. Finally, our research
focused on relationship satisfaction, a rather narrow aspect of relationship
quality, which encompasses many other relational components, such as
emotional intimacy, perceived support, agreement, responsiveness, and
interdependence, as well as a variety of determinants and consequences
that may change as a relationship develops.
On the whole, in spite of its possible limitations, the present research
should be viewed as an important step in the development of a reliable and
valid instrument tapping sex behaviors and beliefs related to the pursuit of
various subgoals of the sexual behavioral system. We hope this measure will
promote better understanding of the role of functional and dysfunctional
sexuality in relationship initiation, maintenance, and dissolution. Future
studies are thus encouraged to adopt a longitudinal prospective design,
administering the SBSS in multiple waves to couples involved in steady
relationships, and assessing whether age and relationship duration, along
with changes in relationship quality, major life transitions, and accumulative sexual experiences, have differential effects on the pursuit of various
subgoals of the sexual behavioral system, and vice versa.
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