1. law, govt and politics
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Sample Lesson
Sample Lesson
Welcome to Government Alive! Power, Politics, and You. This document contains
everything you need to teach the sample chapter “Public Opinion and the
Media.” We invite you to use this sample chapter today to discover how the
TCI Approach can make civics come alive for your students.
Contents
Overview: Sample Lesson 9: Public Opinion and the Media
2
Student Text
4
Procedures22
Notebook Guide
28
Guide to Reading Notes
32
Assessment33
Differentiating Instruction
34
Enhancing Learning
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Power, Authority, and Government
The Legislative Branch
1 The Nature of Power, Politics, and
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Foundations of American Government
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The United States and the World
Political Participation and Behavior
17 Creating American Foreign Policy
7 Citizen Participation in a
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18 Confronting Global Issues
8 Parties, Interest Groups, and
Public Policy
9 Public Opinion and the Media
10 Political Campaigns and Elections
Sample Lesson:
9 Public Opinion and the Media
F R E E 3 0 DAY T R I A L
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Program Contents
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| S tu d en t E d i t i o n | Lesso n Gu i d e | Lesso n Master s | Vi su al s | P lac ard s
158
To what extent do the media influence
your political views?
Chapter 9
Every four years, Americans express their views on
how this country should be led when they cast their
ballots for president. In the months leading up to
the election, voters are bombarded with television
ads aimed at influencing public opinion about the
candidates. Vast sums of money are spent on these
campaign ads in the hope of persuading voters to
support one candidate over another.
Is this the way to choose the leader of the free
world? Adlai Stevenson, the Democratic candidate
for president in 1952, didn’t think so. When asked
about running ads on television, Stevenson said, “I
think the American people will be shocked by such
contempt for their intelligence. This isn’t Ivory Soap
versus Palmolive.”
The 1952 presidential campaign was the first to
use the new medium of television extensively to
reach voters. Rather than try to sell himself like soap,
Stevenson opted to buy time for 18 half-hour speeches
airing from 10:30 to 11:00 two nights a week. Stevenson hoped this use of television would help him build
a national following. However, both the lateness of
the hour and the dull “talking head” format of his
speeches limited the audience. Most of those who
tuned in were already Stevenson supporters.
A 1952 campaign poster for Democratic presidential candidate
Adlai Stevenson
political socialization
The process by which people form
their political values and attitudes.
This process starts in childhood and
continues through adulthood.
opinion poll
A method of measuring public opinion.
This is done by asking questions of a
random sample of people and using
their answers to represent the views
of the broader population.
margin of error
A measure of the accuracy of an
opinion poll. The smaller the margin of
error, the more confidence one can
have in the results of a poll. The margin of error usually decreases as the
number of people surveyed increases.
mass media
Means of communication that reach a
large audience. Today the mass media
include newspapers, magazines, radio,
television, and the Internet.
spin
The deliberate shading of information
about a person or an event in an
attempt to influence public opinion.
media bias
Real or imagined prejudice that is
thought to affect what stories journalists cover and how they report those
stories.
negative campaigning
Trying to win an advantage in a
campaign by emphasizing negative
aspects of an opponent or policy.
In the past, this type of campaigning
was called mudslinging.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
■9.1 Introduction
public opinion
The sum of many individual opinions,
beliefs, or attitudes about a public
person or issue.
| S tu d e n t E d i t i o n | L e s s o n Gu i d e | L e s s o n Ma s te r s | Vi s u a l s | P lacards
Public
Opinion
and the
Media
Speaking of Politics
In contrast, Dwight Eisenhower, Stevenson’s
Republican opponent, embraced the use of 20- to
30-second “spot” ads in 1952. The idea came from
advertising executive Rosser Reeves. Reeves convinced Eisenhower that he could reach more viewers
with less money by running short ads during popular
prime time programs. Titled “Eisenhower Answers
America,” each spot featured the candidate answering a question posed by an ordinary citizen. The ads
showed “Ike” as a plain speaker responding to real
people’s concerns. Not only did more viewers see
Ike’s ads; they also seemed to like what they saw.
Eisenhower swept to victory with more than 55 percent
of the votes cast.
Stevenson’s loss in 1952 didn’t change his low
opinion of television advertising. But when he ran
against Eisenhower again in 1956, Stevenson agreed
to replace his speeches with five-minute spots. The
power of television to shape public opinion was just
too hard, even for Stevenson, to resist.
■9.2 The Formation of Public Opinion
Adlai Stevenson had a low opinion of political
advertising on television. But did Stevenson’s
personal views about TV ads match public opinion
as a whole? The answer, seemingly, is no, since
Eisenhower’s advertising strategy apparently worked
so well. From the election results, one might conclude that the public’s view of using televised ads to
160 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
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“sell” candidates was generally positive in 1952.
In reality, however, figuring out just what “the
public” thinks is not so easy. The American public
today consists of more than 300 million individuals,
each with his or her own personal beliefs, values,
attitudes, and opinions.
How Do Individuals Form Their Political Opinions?
The opinions you may have on political issues tend
to be shaped by deeply held political beliefs and
values. The formation of these beliefs and values
begins early in life and continues throughout adulthood. Political scientists call this process political
socialization. To “socialize” an individual means
to teach that person to be a fit member of society.
Political socialization involves learning about the
values, beliefs, and processes that underlie a political
system in order to participate in it effectively.
The process of political socialization is important. No democracy could survive if its citizens did
not share some fundamental beliefs about how their
government should operate. However, this process
does not produce 300 million people who think
exactly alike. Political socialization involves all of
the experiences that lead us to view political issues
the way we do. And those experiences are never the
same from one person to the next.
Many agents, or forces, play a part in political
socialization. They include family, schools, religion,
friends, and the mass media. The diagram on the
facing page illustrates these agents of socialization.
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The power of television in
politics first became evident
in the 1952 presidential election.
Dwight Eisenhower used television
ads to promote his candidacy. His
opponent, Adlai Stevenson, did not.
Eisenhower won a decisive victory
with more than 55 percent of the vote.
News Media
The news media influence what we pay
attention to as adults. The effects of the media
vary with our reading and viewing habits.
Gender and Ethnicity
Gender and ethnic identity affect our political
loyalties. Men are more likely to vote Republican
than women. Black voters are more likely than
white voters to cast ballots for Democrats.
Family
Families play a large role in
our early socialization. Most
high school seniors identify
with the same political party
as their parents.
Peer Groups
As we age, our friends
and co-workers begin to
influence our political
views. So do the groups
we join, such as labor
unions and political parties.
Young
adult
Mature
adult
Teenager
Older
child
Religion
Religious teachings help shape political values.
People may have more conservative or more liberal
views based on their religious beliefs.
15
Toddler
Young
child
School
Schools teach us to love our country, respect
the law, and value our rights. The more
education Americans get, the more likely
they are to participate in politics.
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 161
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Political socialization is the process by which we gain our political identity. It begins early in
childhood and continues throughout our lives. This diagram shows some of the forces that help
shape our political values and beliefs as we grow and mature.
| Stu d en t E d i t i o n | Les s o n Gu i d e | Les s o n Mas ter s | V i s u al s | Placards
Political Socialization
What Is Public Opinion and How Is It Shaped?
Public opinion is commonly defined as the sum of
many individual opinions about a public person or
issue. This definition assumes that we can find out
what public opinion on a given issue is by asking a
large number of people what they think and adding
up their responses.
With so many opinions floating around among
so many Americans, how does public opinion come
to be shaped? Political scientists who study this question have come up with several answers. Here are
three to consider.
Public opinion is shaped by special interest groups.
Some scholars believe that public opinion is less
about what individuals think and more about what
the special interest groups they belong to advocate.
Because many such groups represent large numbers
of people, they are listened to when they speak
out on issues.
Public opinion is shaped by journalists, politicians,
and other opinion makers. Scholars who support
this view observe that most of us don’t have time to
become informed on every issue. Instead we look
to influential opinion makers for information and
advice. These opinion makers may be journalists,
public officials, business leaders, or activists. Because
they have access to the media, “their” opinions often
become “our” opinions.
Public opinion is shaped by what politicians say it is.
This last view recognizes that politicians often talk
about “what the people think” without evidence to
back up their claims. They may sincerely believe that
they have their fingers on “the pulse of the public.”
Or they may hope that by claiming that the public
agrees with them loudly enough, they will convince
the American people that it must be true.
However public opinion takes shape, it is seldom
a single view held by all Americans. Our country is
162 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
8
Mass protests like this one in early 2007 opposing the Iraq war both
demonstrate and influence public opinion. The greater the number
of people involved, the more attention a protest is likely to get from
the news media. The more media coverage a protest gets, the more
influence it may have on politicians and the general public.
16
simply too large and diverse for that to be true. Instead, it is more likely to be a range of views held by
many different “publics.”
Public Opinion as Guide, Guard, and Glue
Public opinion serves our democratic system of
government in three key ways. First, it guides leaders
as they make decisions about public policy. Whether
conveyed through opinion polls, town hall meetings,
letters, or e-mails, public opinion helps politicians
know what their constituents are thinking. Politicians
who ignore what the people care about do so at their
own peril. When the next election rolls around, they
risk being voted out of office.
Public opinion also serves as guard against hasty
or poorly understood decisions. President Bill Clinton
found this out when he proposed a complex restructuring of the national health care system in 1993. As
public confusion about his proposed reforms mounted,
the plan lost steam. Without public support, it never
even made it to the floor of Congress for debate.
Lastly, public opinion serves as a kind of glue in a
diverse society like ours. Widespread agreement on
basic political beliefs holds our society together, even
in times of intense partisan conflict.
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Historical events are another important factor.
Children growing up in the affluent 1950s, for example, tended to have a positive view of government.
Those growing up in the 1960s—a time marked by
political assassinations, urban riots, and the Vietnam
War—were more likely to view government with
considerable distrust.
From Straw Polls to Scientific Sampling:
The Evolution of Opinion Polling
After the 1936 election, many wondered how Literary Digest had blundered so badly. The magazine
had a record of predicting presidential elections
accurately since 1916 using straw polls. A straw poll
is an informal survey of opinion conducted by a
Two Typical Opinion Polls
The basic elements of an opinion poll include (1) the name of the polling organization or sponsor,
(2) the question asked, (3) an analysis of the data gathered, (4) the date of the poll, (5) the sample
size, and (6) the margin of error. Note that the percentages on the graphs below do not all equal 100
percent. That is because they do not show the small percentage of people who answered “unsure.”
Newsweek Poll
Gallup Poll
Do you think America is ready to elect a woman,
African American, or Mormon president?
Do you feel that racial minorities in this country have
equal job opportunities as whites, or not?
Woman president
55%
35%
Non-Hispanic
white respondents
African American
president
56%
30%
Black respondents
Mormon president
34%
48%
Hispanic respondents
Yes
No
Date: December 6–7, 2006
Sample: 864 registered voters nationwide
Margin of error: ±4%
47%
53%
17%
81%
34%
Yes
62%
No
Date: June 8–25, 2006
Sample: 2,032 adults nationwide
Margin of error: ±6%
Sources: Newsweek and the Gallup Organization, as reported at PollingReport.com.
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 163
9
GOV_SE_09-3a-1_v2.eps
CMYK
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In 1936, in the depths of the Great Depression, Literary Digest announced that Alfred Landon would
decisively defeat Franklin Roosevelt in the upcoming presidential election. Based on his own surveys,
a young pollster named George Gallup disagreed
with that prediction. Not only did Gallup choose
Roosevelt as the winner, he publicly challenged
newspapers and magazines to show the two polls
side by side. The result was a triumph for Gallup,
with Roosevelt winning by a landslide. For Literary
Digest, the most widely circulated magazine in the
country, the embarrassment of wrongly calling the
election proved disastrous. Its credibility destroyed,
the magazine soon slid into bankruptcy.
show of hands or some other means of counting
preferences. So confident was the Digest of this
method of predicting elections that it boasted of its
“uncanny accuracy.”
The magazine conducted its 1936 straw poll by
mailing out more than 10 million ballots for people
to mark with their choices for president. It predicted
the winner based on the over 2 million ballots that
were returned. What the Digest editors did not take
into account was that their sample was biased. Most
of the ballots went to people with telephones or
registered automobiles. During the depths of the Depression, people wealthy enough to have phones and
cars tended to be Republicans who favored Landon.
The secret of Gallup’s success was his careful use
of scientific sampling. Sampling is the process of
selecting a small group of people who are representative of the whole population. Rather than mailing
out surveys blindly, Gallup interviewed a sample of
voters selected to mirror the entire electorate. His
survey results underestimated Roosevelt’s popularity
on Election Day, but he did predict the winner correctly. His success marked the birth of the modern
opinion poll.
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■9.3 Measuring Public Opinion
17
Poll 1
Poll 2
Do you agree or disagree
with this statement: Any
able-bodied person can find
a job and make ends meet.
65%
65%
22%
25%
12%
10%
Agree
Disagree
Some people feel that any
able-bodied person can
find a job and make ends
meet. Others feel there
are times when it is hard to
get along and some ablebodied people may not
be able to find work. Whom
do you agree with most?
Can make
ends meet
No opinion
87%
39%
43%
4%
18%
9%
Sometimes hard
to get along
No opinion
Source: Attributed to Albert H. Cantril, The Opinion Connection, Washington, DC: 1992, Brookings.
In Robert S. Erickson and Kent L. Tedin, American Public Opinion, Boston: 2003, Addison Wesley.
The Polling Process: Sample, Survey, and Sum Up
Professional polling organizations today follow
much the same methods pioneered by Gallup and
other early pollsters, though with a few improvements. The first step is to identify the population
to be surveyed. The target population might be all
adults, members of a political party, a specific age
group, or people living in one community.
Most polling today is done by telephone. Phoning people randomly ensures that pollsters interview
a representative sample of people. In most random
samples, every individual has a chance of being
selected. The number of people surveyed usually
ranges from 500 to 1,500. Internet surveys are also
widely used.
The opinions gathered in the survey are summed
up and reported in terms of the percent choosing
each response. Most polls also report a margin of
error stated as plus or minus (±) some number of
percentage points. The margin of error indicates how
accurately the sample surveyed reflects the views of
the target population. If the margin of error is small,
you can assume that the results reported are close to
the opinions of the population as a whole.
The Use of Polling to Measure Public Sentiment
George Gallup saw public opinion polls as the modern equivalent of the old-fashioned New England
164 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
10
town meeting. Politicians, he said, should view poll
results as a mandate from the people. No longer could
public officials ignore voter sentiment, he argued,
by claiming that public opinion was unknowable.
Today, opinion polls are widely used as means
of gathering information about public sentiment.
Businesses use polls to measure consumers’ attitudes
about their products. Groups of all sorts use polls to
find out what their members are concerned about.
News organizations commission polls to measure
the views of the American people on major issues
of the day. One regularly repeated opinion poll, for
example, asks people to respond to this open-ended
question: What do you think is the most important
problem facing this country today?
As you might expect, the results change over
time as new issues arise and capture the interest of
the public.
Other news media polls ask very specific public
policy questions. CNN, for example, conducted a
poll early in 2007 to gauge public opinion on the issue of global warming. The poll asked, Do you think
the government should or should not put new restrictions on emissions from cars and industrial facilities
such as power plants and factories in an attempt to
reduce the effects of global warming?
Seventy-five percent of the 500 adults surveyed
answered that the government should impose new
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How you ask a polling question can make a big difference in the answers people give. The impact of wording was
demonstrated in two polls conducted on unemployment. In the first poll, the question looked at only one side of the
issue. In the second, the question looked at why people are unemployed from two points of view. As the results
show, asking the question in this way made a considerable difference in how people responded.
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The Answer Depends on the Question
This poll was conducted with 5,154 voters as they exited
136 polling places across the country on November 2, 2004.
Each voter surveyed filled out a questionnaire asking how
he or she had voted in the presidential election. The results
were close to the actual vote count, with George W. Bush
winning 50.7 percent of the votes cast and John Kerry
48.3 percent.
Los Angeles Times
2004 National Exit Poll
All
51%
48%
Men
53%
46%
Women
49%
50%
Whites
57%
42%
Blacks
86%
14%
Latinos
45%
54%
Asians
34%
64%
18–29 years old
43%
55%
65 and older
55%
45%
George W. Bush
John Kerry
Source: Los Angeles Times, as reported at PollingReport.com.
In 2004, an exit poll based on interviews with
voters in 49 states appeared on the Internet early on
Election Day. The poll showed John Kerry leading
George W. Bush, prompting Kerry’s aides to start
polishing his victory speech. This false prediction
raised serious questions about the accuracy of exit
polls. “They are not perfect and they have never been
perfect and we have never taken them to be perfect,”
says a CBS News senior vice president, Linda Mason.
The Misuse of Polling to Influence Public Opinion
At times polls are used more to shape than to measure public opinion. Elected officials and special interest groups sometimes claim to be assessing public
opinion by sending out mail surveys. The questions
in these surveys are often rigged to generate highly
favorable results for the sponsor of the poll. Former
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 165
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The Use of Polling in Political Campaigns
Three special kinds of polls are widely used during
elections. A long and detailed benchmark poll is
often used by prospective candidates to “test the
waters” before beginning a campaign. Candidates
use information from such polls to identify which
messages to emphasize in their campaigns and which
to avoid.
Tracking polls are conducted during a campaign
to measure support for a candidate on day-by-day
basis. Pollsters survey groups of likely voters each
night to find out how their views have been affected
by the political events of that day. While each day’s
poll is just a snapshot of the electorate’s views, taken
together, tracking polls can reveal trends and shifts
in attitudes over time.
Exit polls are used by campaigns and the news
media to predict the winners on Election Day long
before the polls close. An exit poll is a survey of
voters taken at polling places just after they have
cast their ballots. Because ballots are cast in secret,
exit polling is the only way we have of finding out
how different age or ethnic groups of people voted
and why.
The use of exit polls by television networks led
to controversy in 1980 when newscasters predicted
that Ronald Reagan had won the presidency long
before polls closed in the West. Critics charged that
announcing the winner so early discouraged western
voters from going to the polls. As a result, television
networks are more careful now not to predict the
winner in the presidential race until the polls have
closed everywhere in the country.
Polling of Voters on Election Day
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restrictions. Whether such a result would change the
mind of a lawmaker opposed to added restrictions is
hard to know. But a legislator who agreed with the
majority view might have been encouraged by this
poll to press harder for new emission controls.
Presidents and other public officials use polls to
measure how well they are doing in the eyes of the
voters. They use the results to help them develop policies that they hope the public will support. In addition, the news media report regularly on the rise and
fall of presidential approval ratings. During the 1980s,
Ronald Reagan came to be known as the “Teflon
president” because bad news never seemed to stick
long enough to seriously damage his popularity.
19
12
Our opinions are shaped, in part, by the information we receive about the world. And never before in
human history has so much information been made
available to us through the mass media. By 2000,
Americans were buying nearly 60 million copies of
daily newspapers and 10 thousand copies of weekly
or monthly magazines. They listened to nearly 9,000
radio stations and watched an average of six hours of
television a day. Add to that the wealth of information made available through the Internet and you
can begin to see why many people complained of
information overload.
Where Do Americans Get Their News?
A century ago, this would have been an easy question to answer. Americans got their news from the
print media—mainly newspapers and magazines.
A half-century ago, the answer would have been
less simple. By the 1950s, the broadcast media—
mainly radio and television—had become major
sources of news. Where once the broadcast media
limited their news offerings to short news summaries
and nightly newscasts, we now have 24-hour news
programming available on both radio and cable
television stations.
To make matters still more complex, a growing
number of people now get instant news on demand
using the electronic media—computers, cell phones,
and other communication devices that connect via
the Internet to the World Wide Web. The Web makes
billions of documents stored in computers all over the
world accessible to anyone with an Internet connection. As the graph on the opposite page shows, the
rise of each new medium has changed the public’s
news-consumption habits.
The News Versus the “New” Media
A generation ago, most Americans looked to trusted
news media—newspapers, news magazines, and
broadcast news shows—for information on politics and
public affairs. The news media rely on a small army
of reporters, fact-checkers, and editors to research
and report stories in an accurate, unbiased manner.
Beginning in the late 1980s, new ways to communicate with the public about politics began to appear.
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166 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
■ 9.4 The Impact of the Mass Media
on Public Opinion
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congressman John Dowdy of Texas, for example,
once sent a newsletter survey to his constituents with
this question: A drive has recently been announced
to destroy the independence of Congress by purging
Congressmen who refuse to be rubber stamps for the
executive arm of government. Would you want your
representative in Congress to surrender to the purge
threat and become a rubber-stamped Congressman?
It is hard to imagine anyone answering yes to such
a highly charged question. Thus, not only are mail-in
straw polls highly unreliable, as the Literary Digest
editors discovered. The results can also be skewed.
Television and radio shows also use call-in and
Internet straw polls to report public opinion. In
1992, news anchor Connie Chung reported on the
basis of a call-in poll that 53 percent of Americans
reported being “worse off than four years ago.” She
went on to say, “This does not bode well for President Bush.” A scientific poll conducted at the same
time, but not released until later, showed that only
32 percent of the population felt “worse off” than
four years before. By then, however, it was too late
to repair whatever damage might have been done to
George H. W. Bush’s approval rating.
Despite criticism from scientific pollsters, some
news shows continue to promote call-in or Internet
polls and report the results. One public opinion textbook recommends viewing such polls as the expression of “bored people with strong feelings on some
subjects [who] are willing to pay a long-distance
charge to register their views.”
The 1990s saw the appearance of a highly suspect
form of polling called the push poll. These are phone
surveys, usually made close to Election Day, on behalf
of a candidate. The pollsters sound like they want
your views on the election. But their real purpose is
to “push” you away from voting for their candidate’s
opponent by spreading damaging information.
A typical push poll begins by asking for whom
you plan to vote on Election Day. Should you answer
that you plan to vote for the opposing candidate,
the next question might be, Would you support that
candidate if you knew that she wants to cut spending
for schools? The purpose of the question is not to
give you useful information, but rather to raise lastminute doubts. The American Association for Public
Opinion Research has declared push polls to be “an
unethical campaign practice.”
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Year
Daily newspaper
readers
These “new” media include talk radio, television talk
shows, television news magazines, televised town
hall meetings, and cable comedy shows spoofing the
news of the day.
While running for president in 1992, Bill Clinton
became a master at using the new media to talk directly
to voters. He even appeared on MTV, playing his
saxophone and fielding questions from young people.
More recently, news-oriented Web logs, or blogs,
have emerged as another new medium. A blog is
a journal or newsletter posted on the World Wide
Web. Because the Web is essentially free, anyone can
create a blog to distribute his or her opinions on the
news of the day. Blogs are the most democratic and
unregulated of all the news and new media. At times,
these citizen-journalists have scooped the news media
by reporting stories first. The scandal that eventually
led to President Bill Clinton’s impeachment was
first reported by Matt Drudge in 1998 in his blog,
The Drudge Report.
Because bloggers do not have to follow the same
standards for accuracy as professional journalists,
their reports should be read with caution. Some of
what passes for news on blogs may be gossip, false
rumor, or opinion. This lack of standards prompted
blogger Mark Coffey to wonder, “Have we entered
Nightly network
news viewers
Online news
consumers
an era where our lives can be destroyed by a pack of
GOV_SE_09-4a_v3.eps
wolves
hacking at their keyboards with no oversight,
CMYK
no editors,
no accountability?”
3rd Proof
7-4-2007
“I’m still undecided—I like Leno’s foreign policy, but
Letterman makes a lot of sense on domestic issues.”
This cartoon reflects the growing influence of the “new media”
in politics. Talk show hosts like Jay Leno and David Letterman
are better known for making jokes about politicians than discussing serious issues. However, because the late night shows
reach viewers who may not watch traditional newscasts, many
politicians are eager to appear on them as guests.
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 167
13
21
© The New Yorker Collection 2000, Dana Fradon from cartoonbank.com.
All rights reserved.
Sources: 1957 News Media Study, 1958 Omnibus
Survey of Consumer Attitudes and Behavior, 1967
Political Participation in American Study, and
1972–2004 General Social Surveys, as reported in
Martin P. Wattenberg, Is Voting for Young People?
New York: Pearson Learning, 2007. The State of the
News Media 2006. The Pew Research Center.
Changing Sources of News, 1955–2004
Percentage of Readers/Viewers
Fifty years ago, the majority of Americans
got their news from newspapers and
nightly news broadcasts from the three
major television networks. As this graph
shows, their share of daily readers
and nightly viewers has decreased
over time. In contrast, the number of
Americans turning to the Internet for
their news has surged since the advent
of the World Wide Web in the 1990s.
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
| Stu d e n t E d i t i o n | L e sso n G u id e | L e sso n Ma ste r s | Vis u a l s | Pl ac ards
Where Do You Get Your News?
168 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
14
The biggest leakers are White House aides,
Cabinet secretaries, generals and admirals,
and members of Congress. If this were enacted,
enforced and upheld by the courts, you could
relocate the capital from Washington to [the
federal penitentiary at] Lewisburg, PA.
Are the Media Biased?
Many Americans believe that the media have a
liberal or conservative bias. Nevertheless, most
professional journalists strive to be fair and unbiased
in their reporting. In its code of ethics, the Society
of Professional Journalists calls on its members to
be “honest, fair and courageous.” It cautions that
“deliberate distortion is never permissible.”
What critics see as media bias may, in reality, be
a reflection of how news organizations work. Most
news media outlets are businesses. They need to
attract readers, listeners, or viewers to survive. With
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Influencing the Media:
Staging, Spinning, and Leaking
Public officials at all levels of government work hard
to both attract and shape media coverage. The most
common way to do this is by staging an event and
inviting the press. Presidential press conferences are
an example of staged events.
In 2007, Senator Barack Obama launched his
presidential campaign by staging an event at Illinois’
Old State Capitol, the place where Abraham Lincoln
delivered his famous “House divided” speech against
slavery in 1858. As hoped, the event attracted thousands of supporters and widespread press coverage.
Politicians also try to influence the press by
granting interviews to reporters. Often they set
ground rules that indicate what information reporters can use and how they can identify their source.
If it is an on-the-record conversation, the report
can quote the public official by name. If it is an
off-the-record conversation, the reporter can use
the information but may not reveal the source.
When speaking on the record, politicians usually
put their own spin on issues. Their goal is to convince both reporters and the public that their view
of events is the correct one. They also try to include
colorful sound bites that capture their main points
in just a few words. They know that short sound
bites are more likely to be run in news stories than
are long speeches.
Public officials sometimes use off-the-record
conversations to float trial balloons. A trial balloon
is a proposal that is shared with the press to test
public reaction to it. If the reaction is negative, the
official can let the proposal die without ever having
his or her name attached to it.
Off-the-record conversations are also used to
leak information to the press. A leak is the unofficial
release of confidential information to the media.
Public officials leak information for many reasons.
They may want to expose wrongdoing, stir up support for or opposition to a proposal, spin the way
an event is covered, or curry favor with reporters.
In 2000, President Clinton vetoed a bill that would
have made it easier to prosecute government officials
for leaking secret information to the press. Former
Justice Department official John L. Martin said of
the antileak bill:
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The Role of a Free Press in a Democracy
The news media—old and new—have three essential
roles in a democracy. The first is serving as a “watchdog” over the government. The second is setting
the public agenda. The third is supporting the free
exchange of ideas, information, and opinions.
One of the greatest concerns of our nation’s
founders was the potential for government officials to
abuse their power. They saw a free press as a guard
against corruption and the misuse of power. For more
than two centuries, the media have fulfilled this watchdog role by exposing everything from the corruption
of the Grant administration to the efforts of President
Nixon to cover up the Watergate scandal.
Far too much happens in the world for the press
to report on everything, however. News editors and
producers have to choose what to cover and what to
leave out. These decisions help determine what issues
get placed on the public agenda. Politicians and
activists try to harness this agenda-setting power of
the media to focus attention on issues they care about.
Finally, the news media serve as a marketplace of
ideas and opinions. The airwaves today are filled with
opinion journalism—the chatter of “talking heads”
eager to share their views with the world. Most people who tune into these electronic debates do so not
to receive objective analysis, but rather because they
share the talk show host’s political point of view.
22
Source: Pew Research Center for the People
and the Press, “News Audiences Increasingly
Politicized,” June 6, 2004.
Viewers of Fox News
Viewers of CNN News
30%
36%
39%
52%
5%
Conservative
limited space or time to fill, their reporters, editors,
and producers have to make choices about what
stories to cover. These decisions are less likely to be
motivated by political ideology than by what they
think will attract and hold an audience.
Journalists look at many factors in choosing what
stories to cover. One is impact. Will the story touch
5%
13%
Moderate
20%
Liberal
Other
people in some way, even if only to make them mad
or sad? A second is conflict, preferably mixed with
violence. Does the story involve a crime, a fight, a
scandal, or a disaster? A third factor is novelty. Is the
story about a “hot topic” or a breaking news event?
A fourth is familiarity. Does the story involve people
weGOV_SE_09-4c_v1.eps
all know and find interesting?
CMYK
1st Proof
5-30-2007
© Tom Tomorrow
While this cartoon makes fun of media
bias, it also demonstrates how journalists
can shape the news through their choice
of stories and the way they cover them.
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 169
15
23
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People are selective when it comes
to getting the news. They pay attention to media that support their views
and screen out those that do not. In
2004, people identifying themselves
as conservative, for example, were
more likely to tune into conservative
Fox News than more liberal CNN for
their news. The opposite was true
for self-described moderates. This
selectivity limits the impact of the
news media on public opinion.
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How What We Believe Influences What We Watch
Political campaigns use a number of persuasive techniques
in an attempt to influence the opinions of voters. The more
you know about these techniques, the better you will be at
analyzing political advertising.
■9.5 The Influence of the Media
in Political Campaigns
In 1960, Richard Nixon and John Kennedy participated in the first televised debate between two presidential candidates. Nixon, weakened by a bout of
the flu, appeared nervous, awkward, and uneasy. His
face looked pale and sweaty, all the more so because
he did not allow the television producers to improve
his appearance with makeup. Kennedy, in contrast,
appeared confident, relaxed, and appealing.
Those who watched the debate on television
concluded that Kennedy had “won.” Those who
listened on the radio considered Nixon the winner.
The difference reflected not what the two candidates
said about the issues, but rather the images they
projected. This outcome underscored the growing
importance of image over issues in political campaigns.
Image Making and the Role of Media Consultants
Kennedy’s television triumph in 1960 contributed to
the rise of new players in political campaigns: media
consultants. Their job is to advise candidates on how
to present a positive image to voters. They make sure,
for example, that their candidates wear flattering
colors that will show up well on television. They
coach candidates on how to speak to the press and
how to respond to voters’ questions.
Media consultants also help candidates plan their
media campaigns. They work with the news media
to get free coverage of the campaign in newspapers
and newscasts. However, most media coverage comes
from paid political advertising. Media consultants
help decide what ads should say and where and when
they should appear.
Advertising is expensive. Candidates may spend
up to 80 percent of their “war chests,” or campaign
funds, on paid ads. Media consultants use opinion
170 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
16
Name-Calling
Using personal attacks on an opponent to distract voters
from the real issues of the campaign. The goal is to inspire
doubts about the opponent’s fitness for office by appealing
to people’s fears or prejudices. This 1964 ad uses namecalling to link presidential candidate Barry Goldwater to
“right-wing extremists.”
Transfer
Using symbols or
images that evoke
emotion to something unrelated,
such as a candidate
or proposition. This
1984 campaign
poster links presidential candidate
Walter F. Mondale
and his running mate
Geraldine Ferraro
to beloved patriotic
symbols such as
Liberty and the
American flag.
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Common Persuasive Techniques Used
in Political Advertising
24
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
These factors influence what you see and hear as
news. Because reporters like novelty, you won’t see
many stories about ongoing issues or social problems.
Because they want conflict, you won’t see much coverage of compromise in the making of public policy.
And because they are looking for impact, bad news
almost always wins out over good. As an old saying
in journalism goes, “If it bleeds, it leads.”
The Granger Collection, New York
The Granger Collection, New York
25
Plain Folks
The use of folksy or everyday images
and language to show that the candidate is a regular person who understands the needs and concerns of the
common people. In this 1872 poster,
President Grant and his running mate
appear as common working people.
Card-Stacking
Presenting facts, statistics, and other evidence that support only one side of an argument. This ad begins with the fact that as governor of Massachusetts, Democratic
presidential candidate Michael Dukakis supported a plan that allowed murderers to
take weekend leaves from prison. It concludes that “Mike Dukakis is the killer’s best
friend, and the decent, honest citizen’s worst enemy.”
Glittering Generalities
Using vague, sweeping statements that appeal to voters
emotionally, but don’t actually
say much of anything specific.
Candidates or proposals are
often described in lofty terms.
This 1952 ad for presidential
candidate Dwight Eisenhower
and his running mate Richard
Nixon urges “Let’s clean
house” without defining what
that might mean.
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 171
17
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Testimonial
Having a well-known celebrity or personality endorse a candidate or proposal. The hope is that you will follow the person’s example without questioning his or her qualifications to
make such a judgment. In this 1928 ad, famous sports figures
endorse Democratic nominee Al Smith for president.
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Bandwagon
Creating the impression
that “everyone” supports
a cause or candidate.
This technique plays on
people’s desire to conform, or “climb on the
bandwagon,” rather
than be left behind.
This 1972 ad suggests
that Americans from all
walks of life are backing
presidential candidate
George McGovern.
Attracting Media Coverage:
Photo Ops and Streamlined Conventions
For all they spend on advertising, candidates and their
media consultants work hard to attract news coverage
as well. Almost all aspects of a campaign are designed
to generate as much free publicity as possible. Often
this is done by creating a photo op—short for photo
opportunity—for the candidate. A photo op is a carefully staged event designed to produce memorable
photographs and video images.
172 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
18
Not all photo ops work out as planned. Democratic presidential
hopeful Michael Dukakis learned this the hard way in 1988. Wanting to show that he was strong on defense, Dukakis had himself
photographed riding in a tank. Wearing an oversized helmet, he
looked more comical than presidential.
One of the most famous photo ops in recent
years occurred in 2003 when President Bush, wearing a flight suit, landed on the deck of the aircraft
carrier USS Lincoln to announce the end of “major
combat operations” in Iraq. Clearly visible in the
background was a banner stating “Mission Accomplished.” Images of President Bush being cheered by
the Lincoln’s crew appeared in newscasts and newspapers across the nation.
National nominating conventions are also
staged to attract maximum media coverage. In the
past, conventions were dominated by long-winded
speeches and debates over the nominees and platform that bored television viewers. As a result, the
broadcast media drastically cut their coverage of
these events. In response, parties have streamlined
their conventions. Most serious business is completed off camera. Prime time speeches and events
are designed mainly to promote the party’s ideas and
candidates to the viewing public.
Media Coverage of Elections:
Horse Races and Soap Operas
Studies of election news coverage show that most
reporting falls into two distinct patterns. The first
pattern, horse race coverage, treats an election as a
sporting event. Horse race stories focus on who is
winning and why. Issues are discussed only in terms
of whether they will help or hurt the candidate’s
chances. Opinion polls, often sponsored by a news
organization, are used to track who is ahead or
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Types of Campaign Ads: Issue Versus Image
Political advertisements usually fall into two broad
groups. The first group deals with issues, the second
with images. Ads in either group can be positive
or negative. Positive ads are aimed at making you
like or respect a candidate, while negative ads are
designed to make you dislike or fear his or her opponent. Both types of ads use persuasive techniques
well known to advertisers. Some of those techniques
are explained on the previous two pages.
Positive issue ads promote a candidate’s position
on topics calculated to appeal to voters. A positive issue ad might highlight the candidate’s determination
to improve funding for schools or to hold the line on
taxes. Negative issue ads, on the other hand, criticize
the opponent’s stand on issues of importance to
voters. An opponent who opposes the death penalty,
for example, might be criticized in a negative issue
ad for being “soft on crime.”
A positive image ad might show the candidate as
a selfless public servant, a strong leader, or someone
who cares about ordinary people. The candidate
might be portrayed as a hero or as just “plain folk.”
In contrast, a negative image ad might portray the
opponent as weak, inexperienced, or lacking in
integrity. Often negative ads include unflattering
photographs of the opposition candidate. The desired
effect is to convince voters that this person is somehow unfit for public office.
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polls to make sure that money is spent effectively.
They also work with focus groups to test the appeal of campaign messages. A focus group is a small
group of people who are brought together to discuss their opinions on a topic of concern. Before
the public sees a campaign ad, it has probably been
discussed and tweaked by a focus group.
26
Summary
In a democracy, public opinion serves as a guide to elected officials, a guard against costly
mistakes, and a kind of glue that holds us together despite our differences. While the mass
media may help shape public opinion, they are also shaped by it.
Public opinion Public opinion is the sum of a large number of individual opinions. Our
basic views about politics are formed early in life through political socialization. Agents of
socialization include family, schools, religion, friends, and the news media.
Opinion polling Public opinion is best measured by scientific opinion polling. Accurate
results depend on surveying a random but representative sample of the target population.
Mass media Americans today receive information from print, broadcast, and electronic
media. The news media serve as government watchdogs, agenda setters, and forums for an
exchange of views.
Political campaigns Politicians depend on both the free and paid media to reach voters
during campaigns. Today, image seems as important as issues in both campaign advertising
and media coverage of candidates.
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 173
19
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Why Campaigns “Go Negative”
At some point during a campaign, media consultants
may advise a candidate to “go negative.” This means
switching from a positive, upbeat campaign to
negative campaigning, also known as mudslinging.
The decision to go negative is not taken lightly.
Polls show that the public dislikes attack ads. Going
negative also leaves the candidate open to criticism
for running a mean-spirited campaign. As Adlai
Stevenson warned in 1954, “He who slings mud
generally loses ground.”
Why then take the risk? Cathy Allen, an experienced media consultant, advises clients to consider
negative campaigning only when the candidate has
absolute proof that the opponent has done something wrong or when the candidate is facing an
uphill battle and has little to lose.
In the end, campaigns go negative because it
works. Some scholars argue that negative ads work
by discouraging voters who might have supported
a candidate under attack from going to the polls.
Others contend, however, that negative campaigning actually stimulates voter interest. They argue that
going negative works not by discouraging voting, but
instead by causing more voters to go to the polls and
choose a different candidate on Election Day.
Like it or hate it, negative campaigning is part of
our political tradition. How well it works depends
on how you and voters like you react to what you see
and hear during each election season.
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behind. The results of the polls are then covered by
the media as campaign news.
The second pattern of coverage, soap opera stories,
focuses on the ups and downs of candidates and
their campaigns. Soap opera stories thrive on gossip,
scandals, and personality. Questions of “character” are
more important than issues. During the 2004 election,
for example, stories about Democratic presidential
nominee John Kerry often dealt more with his “flipflops” on issues than with the issues themselves.
In their hunger for soap opera stories, reporters
sometimes practice what has become known as “gotcha” journalism. The aim of gotcha journalism is
to catch the candidate making a mistake or looking
foolish. An example of gotcha journalism occurred
during the 2000 presidential primaries when a reporter gave then-governor George W. Bush a “pop
quiz,” asking him to name the leaders of Chechnya,
Taiwan, India, and Pakistan. When Bush could name
only one leader correctly, reporters ran stories with
headlines like “Bush gets an F in foreign affairs.”
27
Should “truth in
advertising” apply
to political ads?
Political campaigns use a
variety of persuasive techniques
to influence public opinion.
But are there limits to what
those ads can say? If not, whom
can you trust to help you sort
out fact from fiction? Look for
nonpartisan, nonprofit consumer
advocates for voters. One of
these is FactCheck.org, an
Internet source of information
and political analysis.
In this article, Brooks Jackson, director of FactCheck.org,
explains why such an advocate
is needed. As you read the
article, ask yourself, Do truth-inpolitical-advertising laws make
sense to you? Or do such laws
violate freedom of speech and
freedom of the press?
False Ads: There Oughta Be a Law!
Or—Maybe Not
by Brooks Jackson
Here’s a fact that may surprise
you: Candidates have a legal
right to lie to voters just about
as much as they want.
That comes as a shock to
many. After all, consumers have
been protected for decades from
false ads for commercial products. Shouldn’t there be “truthin-advertising” laws to protect
voters, too?
Turns out, that’s a tougher
question than you might imagine. For one thing, the First
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution says, “Congress shall
make no law . . . abridging the
freedom of speech,” and that
applies to candidates for office
especially. And secondly, in the
few states that have enacted laws
against false political ads, they
haven’t been very effective.
Bogus Psychics & Twirling
Ballerina Dolls Laws protecting consumers from false advertising of products are enforced
pretty vigorously. For example,
the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC) took action in 2002 to
protect the public from the selfproclaimed psychic “Miss Cleo,”
who the FTC said promised free
174 Unit 3 Political Participation and Behavior
20
readings over the phone and
then socked her gullible clients with enormous telephone
charges . . .
But there’s no such truth-inadvertising law governing federal candidates. They can legally
lie about almost anything they
want. In fact, the Federal Communications Act even requires
broadcasters who run candidate
ads to show them uncensored,
even if the broadcasters believe
their content to be offensive
or false . . .
Stations can reject ads for
any reason from political groups
other than candidates. And they
may reject ads from all candidates for a given office. But if
they take ads from one candidate, they can’t legally refuse ads
from opponents . . . Rejecting a
candidate’s ad because it’s false
is simply not allowed.
So what gives? Surely the
public stands to suffer more
damage from a presidential candidate lying about his opponent
than from a bogus psychic . . .
Yes. But . . .
For one thing, the First
Amendment guarantee of free
speech poses a big obstacle
to enacting or enforcing such
28
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Power, Politics, and You
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9
State Supreme Court later struck
down the law under which the
committee had been charged.
The Supreme Court’s majority opinion questioned whether
state government officials had
any right to substitute their
judgment for that of the voters
in matters of political speech.
Quoting earlier court opinions,
it said . . .
“The First Amendment exists
precisely to protect against laws
such as (the Washington state
truth-in-advertising law) which
suppress ideas and inhibit free
discussion of governmental
affairs.” . . .
John Morris/www.CartoonStock.com
“Congratulations—you’ve won the
‘Truth in Advertising’ award.”
All this should tell voters
that—legally—it’s pretty much
up to them to sort out who’s
lying and who’s not in a political
campaign. Nobody said Democracy was supposed to be easy.
It is of course the job of news
organizations to assist; that’s
why the First Amendment guarantees a free press as well as free
speech. We at FactCheck.org try
hard to help. But on Election
Day, it’s up to you.
Brooks Jackson, an awardwinning journalist, is the
director of FactCheck.org,
based in Washington, D.C.
Chapter 9 Public Opinion and the Media 175
21
29
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Washington State: The Case
of the Killer Ophthalmologists
Washington state also ran into
problems trying to enforce its
truth-in-political-advertising law
after a 1991 ballot referendum
fight. At issue was a proposed
“death with dignity” law. A
group opposed to it, the “119
Vote No! Committee,” issued a
leaflet saying that if the proposal
passed it “would let doctors end
patients’ lives without benefit of
safeguards . . . your eye doctor
could kill you.”
The ballot proposition failed,
and the state’s Public Disclosure
Commission brought an action
charging the 119 Committee
with violating the state’s law
against false political advertising. The commission said the
proposal did contain standards
and it was false to say it would
open the door to killer ophthalmologists. But the trial court
dismissed the charges in this
case, too, and the Washington
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laws—which it should. The very
idea of self-government rests
on the idea that voters—given
enough uncensored information—can best decide who
should be in power and who
should not . . . So states have
found it hard to enact laws
against false political advertising—and even harder to make
them work.
Overview and Objectives
Overview
Students learn about the role that public opinion and the media play in American politics.
Preview Students analyze a political advertisement and identify the purpose of such media.
Activity In an Experiential Exercise, students work in groups to analyze persuasive techniques
and then create and evaluate campaign commercials for presidential candidates.
Processing Students write position statements on the reliability and effectiveness of campaign
commercials.
(Note: This lesson is the second part of a three-part Experiential Exercise. See the second
option in “Deeper Coverage” for tips on how to connect this activity to the activity students
participated in for the lesson “Parties, Interest Groups, and Public Policy.”)
Objectives
In the course of reading this lesson and participating in the classroom activity, students will
Social Studies
• analyze the role of the media in shaping public opinion.
• evaluate the extent to which the media act as a free press.
• analyze the influence of media coverage, political advertising, and public opinion polls on
local, state, and national elections.
• identify persuasive techniques and their application in U.S. campaigns.
• write position statements about the influence of political advertising on voters.
Common Core Literacy in Social Studies
• evaluate multiple campaign posters, looking at both image and text, to identify the
persuasive techniques used in each poster.
• determine and summarize the main role of free press and media in political contexts.
• draw information from the text to develop an argument that answers questions on
campaign commercials and the influence of political advertising.
22
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Procedures
Suggested time: 15 minutes
1 Have students complete the Preview. Distribute the Notebook Guide and project Adlai E.
Stevenson Campaign Poster, 1952 (Visual 9A in print materials) or direct students to the image
shown at the beginning of this lesson. Review the directions for the Preview with students.
You may want to point out that Adlai Stevenson, who ran for president in 1952, belonged to
the same political party as Franklin D. Roosevelt, who became president after Herbert Hoover
during the Great Depression. Read each question aloud, and have students respond to them
verbally and then record their responses in their notebooks.
2 Have students share their responses in pairs or with the class.
3 Explain the connection between the Preview and this lesson. Students have just
considered how a campaign poster might have influenced voters in the 1952 presidential
election and whether media messages are effective in shaping people’s political views. They
will now learn more about the various ways the media influence and are shaped by politics
and public opinion.
Reading
Speaking of Politics Encourage students to use the following terms as they complete their
Reading Notes for the lesson: public opinion, political socialization, opinion poll, margin of error,
mass media, spin, media bias, and negative campaigning.
1 Introduce the Essential Question and have students read Section 1, Introduction.
Afterward, ask students to consider possible answers to the Essential Question: To what
extent do the media influence your political views?
2 Before conducting the activity, have students read Sections 2-5 and complete the
Reading Notes. Consider the alternative reading and note-taking strategy in the first option
under “Quicker Coverage.”
23
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Preview
Suggested time: 180 minutes
1 Prepare the classroom. Hang one set of Placards A–H: Campaign Posters at three-foot
intervals along one wall of the classroom. Hang the second set along another wall.
2 Place students in groups of four and introduce the activity. Explain that groups will
first analyze campaign posters to identify the persuasive techniques used in them. Then
they will use the techniques they learned about to write and produce 30-second campaign
commercials for their assigned candidates.
3 Have students review the persuasive advertising techniques presented in Section 5.
Then project Visual A again and ask, What persuasive techniques are used in this ad?
(name-calling, card-stacking, plain folks)
4 Have students analyze Placards A-H. Tell students they will visit the placards in pairs and
quickly identify the persuasive advertising techniques used in each campaign poster, recording
the placard letter and the techniques in their notebooks. Assign two students from each
group to begin at each placard, and have pairs rotate until they have analyzed all the campaign
posters.
5 Review the advertising techniques used in the posters. Project Campaign Posters A–D
(Visual 9B in print materials), and have students quickly identify the techniques used in each
poster. Then project Campaign Posters E–H (Visual 9C in print materials) and repeat the
process. Here are the techniques for your reference:
Placard A: name-calling
Placard B: card-stacking, plain folks, transfer
Placard C: transfer, glittering generalities, bandwagon
Placard D: testimonial
Placard E: bandwagon, transfer (Note: This poster also uses testimonial, as such celebrities
as Clint Eastwood, Nelson Rockefeller, Wilt Chamberlain, and Barry Goldwater are pictured
in the background. Though the technique was effective, it is unlikely students will identify
these celebrities or this technique.)
Placard F: transfer
Placard G: transfer, glittering generalities
Placard H: card-stacking
Finally, ask, Which advertising techniques do you think are the most effective, and why? The
least effective, and why?
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Experiental Exercise
of panels that shows the important visual and verbal components of a television show or
commercial. Project Storyboard for a Campaign Commercial (Visual 9D in print materials), and
have students review the storyboard. Then ask,
• What is this commercial’s message?
• What type of commercial—positive, negative, or issue based—is this?
• What persuasive technique or techniques are used?
• What do you think makes this commercial effective or ineffective?
7 Review the requirements for creating campaign commercials. Project the Information
Master: Creating a Campaign Commercial and review the steps with the class.
8 Have groups prepare their campaign commercials.
• Give Student Handout A: Candidate Profiles and Student Handout B: Story board for
Campaign Commercial to each group. Assign half the groups to represent candidate Cory
Mathews and half to represent Taylor Andrews. Groups can refer to the opponent’s profile, as
well as their own, for preparing their commercials. (Note: The profiles are gender neutral, so
male or female students can play the roles. Feel free to revise the names to reflect particular
cultural backgrounds or genders.)
• Post or project Visual D for students to review as they work on their storyboards.
• Circulate and provide guidance as students prepare and rehearse their commercials.
9 Have groups perform or “air” their campaign commercials. Have each group perform
their commercial. Alternatively, have groups record their commercials ahead of time and then
play the commercials in class. This will allow students to edit and add special features to their
commercials using technology.
10 Have students evaluate the commercials. As each commercial is presented, have
students identify the type of ad and the persuasive techniques used, and record this information
in their notebooks.
11 Debrief the activity. Ask,
• Which techniques do you feel were most effective? Least effective?
• Would any of these commercials make you more likely, or less likely, to vote for one of the
candidates? Why?
• To what extent do you think political ads influence your political views? Can you think of any
political ads that have greatly influenced viewers?
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
6 Have students analyze a sample campaign commercial. Explain that a storyboard is a series
Have students read the “Power, Politics, and You” section of the lesson, and facilitate a class
discussion by asking the questions below. Consider having students discuss the questions in
pairs or small groups first.
• Are voters protected from receiving false information from political candidates?
Why or why not?
• Several states have sought to enact legislation to protect voters from receiving false
information from political candidates. Why have those laws been so difficult to enforce?
• According to the principles of self-government, what is the responsibility of a voter
during an election?
Processing
Suggested time: 20 minutes
1 Have students complete the processing activity in their notebooks. Students will write
position statements on the reliability and effectiveness of campaign commercials.
2 Debrief the Processing. Ask, What might be some of the advantages and disadvantages of
campaign commercials?
Quicker Coverage
Break Up the Reading Have students work in their groups to read and complete the Reading
Notes for Section 5 in class before beginning the activity. Then assign students to read and
complete the Reading Notes for Sections 2-4 as homework while they are working on the
activity in class.
Use Fewer Placards During the activity, post only Placards A through D. Or, analyze the first
four placards as a class by projecting Visual 9B or using the Digital Teacher Resources to project
the placards one at a time.
Eliminate the Performances Instead of having groups perform their commercials, post the
storyboards around the room. Have groups circulate to quickly review them, identifying the type
of ad and the techniques used in each.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Power, Politics, and You
Analyze Political Commercials For the activity, consider setting up computer stations in a
classroom, library, or technology lab where students can view television commercials from past
political races. The American Museum of the Moving Image maintains the Living Room Candidate
Web site, which makes available presidential race political commercials from 1952 to the present.
To cover all of the techniques, consider using these commercials:
• 1952: Dwight D. Eisenhower, “The Man from Abilene” (plain folks, card-stacking, transfer)
• 1960: John F. Kennedy, “Jingle” (glittering generalities, bandwagon)
• 1984: Walter Mondale, “Rollercoaster” (name-calling, transfer, card-stacking)
• 1992: George H. W. Bush, “Arkansas 2” (name-calling, card-stacking)
• 1992: Bill Clinton, “We Can Do It” (glittering generalities)
• 2004: George W. Bush, “First Choice” (testimonial, card-stacking)
Continue from the Previous Activity Consider linking this activity to that in Lesson 8 as follows:
• Have students stay in their roles—candidate groups or interest group representatives—from
Lesson 8, rather than using Student Handout A to assign roles.
• In this activity, have each candidate group create a commercial for their candidate or against one
of their opponents.
• Put the 12 interest group representatives into two separate groups, one for the liberal interests
and one for the conservative interests. Have each group create a commercial in favor of or
opposed to one of the candidates or political parties, or have them choose a particular issue or
set of issues around which they can endorse a candidate.
• You may want to post the candidate position statements from Lesson 8 for students to access
while creating their commercials.
A “Deeper Coverage” option in Lesson 10 further extends this exercise, making it a
three-part activity.
Analyze Real Candidates Consider creating and using your own profiles of current or past
candidates from local, state, or national elections in place of the fictitious profiles on Student
Handout A. You might use U.S. representatives, senators, or gubernatorial candidates during
midterm elections and presidential candidates during the year prior to and the year of a presidential
election. If it is an election year, you might direct students to the candidates’ own Web sites to
gather information.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Deeper Coverage
N O T E B O O K
G U I D E
Public Opinion and the Media
To what extent do the media influence your political views?
S p e a k i n g
o f
P o l i t i c s
As you complete the Reading Notes, use these
terms in your answers:
public opinion
political socialization
opinion poll
margin of error
mass media
spin
media bias
negative campaigning
P R E V I E W
Analyze Adlai Stevenson’s 1952 campaign poster,
shown at the beginning of this lesson, and record
responses to these questions:
• Whatdetailsdoyousee?
• Accordingtotheposter,whyshouldpeoplevote
forStevenson?
• Towhomisthisposterdesignedtoappeal?
• Doyouthinksuchapostercouldactuallyinfluencepeople’sviewsinanelection?
• Whatotherkindsofpoliticalmediamessageshave
youbeenexposedto?Didtheyhaveanyinfluence
onyourpoliticalviews?
R E A D I N G
N O T E S
After you read each section, answer the correspondingquestionsinyournotebook.
Section 2
1. Listsixforcesthatshapepoliticalsocialization.
Ranktheminorderfrom1(mostinfluenceonmy
politicalsocialization)to6(leastinfluence).For
the top two items on your list, briefly explain why
theyhaveinfluencedyourpoliticalsocialization.
2. Createasimplediagramorillustrationtorepresent each of the three ways that public opinion is
shaped.Labeleachillustration.
3. Whyispublicopinionimportantinademocracy?
Section 3
1. Explainthedifferencebetweenstrawpollsandthe
scientificsamplingprocess.
2. Createasimpleflowcharttoshowthestepsofthe
pollingprocess.Beginwiththesentenceshown
below.
Identify the target
population to be
surveyed.
?
?
3. Createasymboltorepresenteachofthesetypes
of polls: benchmark polls, tracking polls, exit polls,
and push polls.Thenwriteoneortwosentences
explainingwhetheryouthinkeachtypeofpoll
shouldbeusedinpoliticalcampaigns.
© Teachers’ Curriculum Institute
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Public Opinion and the Media 1
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Notebook Guide
G U I D E
Section 4
1. CreateasimpleT-chart.Inthefirstcolumn,list
atleastthreetraditionalmediasources.Inthe
second column, list at least five forms of “new”
media.Checkoffalltheformsofmediathatyou
haveseenorused.Belowyourchart,identifyat
leasttwoprosandoneconofthenewmedia.
2. Whatistheroleofafreepressinademocracy?
P R O C E S S I N G
Writeaparagraphinresponsetoeachquestion.
1. Arecampaigncommercialsagoodsourceof
informationaboutcandidates?Whyorwhynot?
2. Howmuchinfluencedoyouthinkpoliticaladvertisinghasonvotersduringelections?Why?
3. Describetwowaysinwhichpublicofficialscan
attractandshapemediacoverage.
4. Arethemediabiased?Explainyouranswer.
Section 5
Howimportantdoyouthinkacandidate’simageis
duringapoliticalcampaign?Useatleasttwoofthese
terms in your answer: media consultant, issue ad, image ad, photo op, soap opera story, mudslinging.
29 © Teachers’ Curriculum Institute
Public Opinion and the Media
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
N O T E B O O K
G U Í A
D E
E S T U D I O
Opinión pública y los medios
de comunicación
¿En qué medida influyen los medios de comunicación en tus
opiniones políticas?
C ó m o
h a b l a r
d e
p o l í t i c a
Usaestaspalabrasentusrespuestascuando
completes las Notas de la lectura.
opiniónpública
socialización política
encuesta de opinión
margen de error
spin
medios de
comunicación
sesgo de los medios de
comunicación
campañas negativas
V I S T A Z O
P R E V I O
Analiza el cartel de la campaña electoral de 1952 de
Adlai Stevenson que aparece al comienzo de este
capítulo y anota las respuestas a estas preguntas:
• ¿Quédetallesobservas?
• Segúnelcartel,¿porquédeberíalagentevotarpor
Stevenson?
• ¿Aquienesdeseaatraerestecartel?
• ¿Creesqueuncarteldeestetipopodríarealmente
influir en la opinión de las personas en una elección?
• ¿Aquéotrostiposdemensajespolíticosenlos
mediosdecomunicaciónhasestadoexpuesto?
¿Influyeronestosmensajesdealgúnmodoentu
opiniónpolítica?
© Teachers’ Curriculum Institute
30
N O T A S
D E
L A
L E C T U R A
Despuésdeleercadasección,respondelaspreguntas
correspondientes en tu cuaderno.
Sección 2
1. Enumera las seis fuerzas que ayudan a formar la
socializaciónpolítica.Clasifícalasenordende1
(mayor influencia en mi socialización política) a
6 (menor influencia). En las dos fuerzas de mayor
influenciadetulista,explicabrevementeporqué
han tenido influencia en tu socialización política.
2.Creaundiagramaounailustraciónsencillapara
representar cada una de las tres maneras en que se
formalaopiniónpública.Rotulacadailustración.
3.¿Porquéesimportantelaopiniónpúblicaenuna
democracia?
Sección 3
1. Explica la diferencia entre las encuestas informales
y el proceso de muestreo científico.
2.Creaundiagramadeflujosencilloquemuestrelos
pasosdelprocesodeencuesta.Comienzaconla
oraciónqueseindicaabajo.
Identifica el público
objetivo de la
encuesta.
?
?
Opinión pública y los medios de comunicación
1
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Spanish Notebook Guide
D E
E S T U D I O
3.Creaunsímboloquerepresentecadaunodelos
siguientes tipos de encuestas de opinión: encuesta
inicial,encuestadeseguimiento,encuestade
salidayencuestaforzada(pushpoll).Después,
escribeunaodosoracionesparacadatipodeencuestaexplicandosicreesonoquedebeserusada
en las campañas políticas.
Sección 4
1.CreaunatabladeTsencilla.Enlaprimeracolumna,enumeraalmenostresfuentesdemedios
de comunicación tradicionales. En la segunda
columna,enumeraalmenoscincoformasdemediosdecomunicación“nuevos”.Ponunamarca
decotejojuntoatodaslasformasdemediosde
comunicación que hayas visto o usado. Al final
delatabla,identificaalmenosdosventajasyuna
desventajadelosnuevosmediosdecomunicación.
P R O C E S A R
Respondecadapreguntaescribiendounpárrafo.
1.¿Sonlaspublicidadesdecampañasunabuena
fuentedeinformaciónsobreloscandidatos?
¿Porqué?
2.¿Quéniveldeinfluenciacreesquetienelapublicidadpolíticasobrelosvotantesdurantelascampañasdeelecciones?¿Porqué?
2.¿Cuáleselpapeldeunaprensalibreenuna
democracia?
3.Describedosmanerasenquelosfuncionarios
públicospuedenatraerydarformaalacobertura
de los medios de comunicación.
4.¿Sonpartidistaslosmediosdecomunicación?
Explica tu respuesta.
Sección 5
¿Creesqueesimportantelaimagendeuncandidato
presidencialdurantesucampañapolítica?Usaal
menosdosdeestaspalabrasenturespuesta:asesor
deimagen,propagandatemática,anunciodeimagen,
oportunidadfotográfica,artículostelenovela,intercambiodeinsultos.
31 © Teachers’ Curriculum Institute
Opinión pública y los medios de comunicación 2
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
G U Í A
G U I D E
T O
R E A D I N G
N O T E S
Following are possible answers for each section of the Reading Notes.
Section 2
Section 4
1. Answers should include a ranked list of six
forms of political socialization—family, school,
religion, peer groups, gender and ethnicity, and
news media—and include an explanation for
the top two ranked items.
1. Traditional media sources: newspapers, magazines, radio, or television. New media sources:
talk radio, television talk shows, television news
magazines, televised town hall meetings, cable
comedy shows, blogs. Lists of pros and cons
will vary.
2. Answers should include a simple illustration of
each of the three ways public opinion is shaped:
through the clash of special interest groups; by
journalists, politicians, and other opinion makers; and by what politicians say it is.
3. Public opinion is important in a democracy
because it guides leaders as they make public
policy decisions, serves as a guard against hasty
decisions, and serves as a kind of glue in a
diverse society like America, where widespread
agreement on basic political beliefs helps hold
society together.
Section 3
1. A straw poll is an informal survey of opinion
that can be highly inaccurate because it does
not ensure that the population sampled is
representative of the population as a whole.
Scientific sampling involves selecting a small
group of people who are representative of the
whole population. The results of this type of
survey are more likely to represent the views of
the larger electorate.
2.
Identify
the target
population
to be
surveyed.
Sum up
opinions gathered in
the survey.
2. In a democracy, a free press serves as a government watchdog, helps set the public agenda,
and supports the free exchange of ideas, information, and opinions.
3. To attract and shape media coverage, public
officials can stage events and invite the press.
They can grant on- or off-the-record interviews
with the press and can use these interviews to
spin issues, float trial balloons, or leak information.
4. Though most Americans would say the media
are biased, what is perceived as bias is more
likely a reflection of how news organizations
work. These organizations choose stories they
know people will pay attention to. Also, people
tend to pay attention to news that supports
their views and tune out news that doesn’t.
Section 5
Answers should include at least two of the following terms: media consultant, issue ad, image ad,
photo op, soap opera story, mudslinging.
Report the
percent
choosing
each possible
response and
the margin of
error.
3. Answers should include a symbol and a brief
explanation of whether each of the four types of
polls should be used in political campaigns.
© Teachers’ Curriculum Institute
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Public Opinion and the Media 1
Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Guide to Reading Notes
To protect the integrity of assessment questions, this
feature has been removed from the sample lesson.
These videos will help you learn more about our print and
online assessment tools.
Creating Printable Assessments (2:33 min)
Creating Online Assessments (2:25 min)
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Overview || Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Assessment
English Language Learners
Activate Prior Knowledge To help students make concrete connections between the media
and their own lives, consider drawing on their personal experience by asking how the media
affects their lives (such as the clothing they wear or the music they listen to) prior to discussing
the Essential Question in Reading Step 1.
Identify Key Candidate Information In the activity, consider having students underline key
information about the candidate, and read and discuss the profiles with their group or the
class, prior to preparing their commercials. This should help them identify appropriate political
viewpoints to include in their commercials.
Learners Reading and Writing Below Grade Level
Streamline the Note-Taking Process Assign students to their groups of four for the activity
prior to having them do the reading. Assign one or two groups to read each section, from
Section 2-5, and to answer the Reading Notes questions for that section. Then have each group
quickly create a poster or a visual with the following information:
• section number and title
• key words (not whole sentences) that should be in the answer to each question for
that section
Have each group quickly present their section by reviewing what content was covered and the
answer for each question in the Reading Notes while the other students complete their Reading
Notes for that section.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Differentiating Instruction
Support the Reading Notes Consider using one of these options:
• Provide a photocopy of the text with important passages underlined to help students find the
answers to the questions.
• Reduce the number of questions for each section. The following questions focus on the
main ideas of each section: Section 2, Question 2; Section 3, Questions 2 and 3; Section 4,
Questions 1 and 4; Section 5, Question 1.
Support the Placard Analyses To help make determining the persuasive techniques used in
the advertisements less abstract, offer students additional support. For example:
• Give a copy of the persuasive techniques from the text to each pair of students, and tell them
to circle the word or phrase that best illustrates each technique. Have them use these pages
as a resource as they visit the placards.
• Provide students with a multiple-choice checklist of two or three persuasive techniques for
each placard, one of which is used in the advertisement, and have them choose which one of
the techniques is used.
• Have groups check with you after analyzing each placard to make sure they correctly identified
the persuasive techniques used before moving on to the next placard.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Learners with Special Education Needs
Participate in a Social Media Election Have each student make a mock Facebook profile for a
real or made-up presidential candidate. Profiles can be made on Fakebook.com or poster paper.
Some Web Sites also offer mock Facebook PowerPoint and Microsoft Word templates. The
profile should include:
• the name of the candidate
• the candidate’s political party
• a drawing or photograph of the candidate’s profile picture
• at least one paragraph under the “About Me” section describing the candidate’s political
stances on 2-3 current topics
• any “favorites” that the student wishes to include. For example, a student could list a
candidate’s favorite music, books, and TV shows.
Have students display or present their profiles. Then tell students to comment on posts and
“like” profiles. For example, for posters, give each student one sticker, which functions as a
“like” button. Instruct students to “like” one candidate’s profile page except for their own.
Debrief the activity by having students discuss what they looked for in a candidate when
“liking” a profile. Ask students whether they considered a candidate’s image or political views
equally, or if they valued one attribute more than others.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Advanced Learners
Using Film
Please follow school and district guidelines for showing films in the classroom.
PBS Frontline: News War This four-part, four-hour series investigates current challenges
and the future facing the news media, especially in regard to shaping the public agenda.
The documentary is based on more than 80 interviews with key individuals from the print,
broadcast, and electronic media, combined with behind-the-scenes access to several news
organizations.
• Parts I and II, “Secrets, Sources, and Spin,” examine the relationship between the president
and the media, using anonymous sources and recent battles between the federal government
and the press over First Amendment rights and the news media.
• Part III, “What’s Happening to the News,” examines the changing role of print and broadcast
media and the rise of the new media.
• Part IV, “Stories from a Small Planet,” examines media from around the world and reveals how
journalism and politics in the United States are influenced by international forces.
West Wing, Season 7, Episode 6, “The Al Smith Dinner” In this episode, presidential hopefuls
Matt Santos (D) and Arnold Vinick (R) face the first negative turn of their campaigns when a 527
pro-life organization airs a negative ad against Santos for his pro-choice stance. The episode
centers on abortion politics but effectively highlights tough questions about the decision to
“go negative” and examines the difficulty candidates face in getting their message out via the
media. Consider forwarding through the scenes that take place in the West Wing, as they do
not further the campaign storyline, and because students would need considerable background
information to understand them.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Enhancing Learning
www.livingroomcandidate.org
This site, Museum of the Moving Image: The Living Room Candidate—Presidential Campaign
Commercials, provides an outstanding overview of how the media have increasingly come
to influence public opinion by turning presidential elections into marketing campaigns, with
candidate commercials delivered directly to your television. This online exhibition contains
more than 250 actual television commercials from every election year starting in 1952. The site
allows you to explore these ads via a searchable database, and augments the commercials
with commentary, election results, and historical background materials. Use the toolbar to
navigate by election year, commercial type, and specific issues. The “Type of Commercial”
section allows you to see the various strategies used to influence public opinion, such as
instilling fear, helping children, projecting strength, and using biographical anecdotes. The
“Issue” section provides insight into the use of “hot button” issues to influence the voter, or
“consumer.” Click the “The Desktop Candidate” link to review how campaign managers use
the Internet to reach an even wider marketplace of voters. Here you will find links to actual
candidate sites for recent election years. In particular, note the strategies used to reach out
to young voters and to potential voters like you. You will develop an appreciation of how much
time, money, and effort is expended to influence the voters of this nation. Being aware of
how political campaigns may try to manipulate you can help you to look beneath the glossy
advertising and draw your own conclusions.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
Museum of the Moving Image: The Living Room
Candidate—Presidential Campaign Commercials
http://www.pollingreport.com/
This nonpartisan site, PollingReport.com, tracks trends in American public opinion through a
variety of opinion polls and surveys. For almost any issue you can think of, this site provides
multiple polls and surveys that track the mood and attitudes of the American voter. You will
find poll results from major newspapers, television networks, news magazines, and traditional
polling organizations such as Gallup and Harris. Satisfy your curiosity about which candidates are
considered front runners, review the popularity ratings of the president, and analyze how your
fellow Americans feel about the performance of Congress. In addition, the public’s views on
issues of national importance—such as tax policy, consumer confidence, and the war in Iraq—
are covered in detail. Access issues and polls by clicking links in the site directory using the
“Search” feature or looking for featured topics on the home page.
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Overview | Student Text | Procedures | Notebook Guide | Guide to Reading Notes | Assessment | Differentiating Instruction | Enhancing Learning
PollingReport.com