1. technology and computing
2. computer certification

BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 1
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB (BIOL& 253L) MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
This lab manual was prepared specifically for the third term of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Lab
(Biology 253L) at Clark College. The knowledge that we expect you to gain from the lab portion of this class is
contained within. Please note: unless you are instructed otherwise, for any organ, cell, structure, etc.,
listed in this lab manual that is denoted by an asterisk (*), in addition to being able to identify it you
will also be expected to know one (1) physiological function in the body that it performs.
A great deal of your lab work will involve hands-on activity. Because you will often be working in groups, it is
important for you to interact freely with other students and with your instructors.
The study of anatomy is easier if you become familiar with the Latin or Greek derivations of the terms used.
Several medical and Latin dictionaries are available in the lab for your use, and this information may also be
found online.
LAB NEEDS:






This Laboratory Manual: handed out during the first lab meeting
Histology Text: A Photographic Atlas of Histology, 2nd edition, M.J. Leboffe
Anatomy Text: Atlas of Human Anatomy, 5th edition, F.H Netter
Lecture Text: Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9th edition, F.H. Martini et al.
Gloves: Nitrile gloves are provided for you as needed by the Biology Department.
Other printed materials: Additional lab manuals and texts that may prove useful are available in SCI
103 and 104.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
After a student has completed the Biology 251, 252, and 253 labs, he or she should be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationships between the structure and function in the
human body.
2. Demonstrate significant knowledge of the names, locations and functions of the organs, tissues, and
cells of the:
 Integumentary system
 Skeletal system
 Muscular system
 Nervous system
 Special senses
 Endocrine system
 Cardiovascular system
 Lymphatic system
 Respiratory system
 Digestive system
 Urinary system
 Male and female reproductive systems
3. Demonstrate an understanding of the relationships between the elements of organ systems.
4. Be able to identify the important tissues of the organ systems listed above.
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 2
NOTE: The course syllabus details the tentative lab schedule and the materials to be studied during each
week of the quarter. Tentative test dates and an assessment (grading) scale are also included. This class
moves very rapidly. Do not get behind. If you have questions or are having trouble, ask your instructor for
help right away. It is imperative that you start out quickly and manage your time wisely. It is the quality of your
study time, not simply the number of hours that you spend in lab, which is important here. Please make good
use of your lab time.
CADAVERS:
At Clark College we are very fortunate to have multiple human cadavers and other preserved biological
specimens available for study. This is unusual at the community college level. Computer simulations or other
technologies would not provide the same educational experience to our allied health students. Your
participation in laboratory examinations that include cadavers or other preserved specimens is a
required element of all A&P labs at Clark College (BIOL& 251, 252, and 253).
Cadavers are supplied by the University of Washington School of Medicine Willed Body Program. Although
they are preserved when they arrive at Clark, it will be your responsibility to keep them wetted with an
appropriate solution. Spray bottles containing this solution are located in the cadaver room, SCI 103B. Please
return the spray bottles to their proper location at the end of the lab period. DO NOT remove the spray bottles
from the cadaver room. After studying the cadaver(s), leave your gloves in the cadaver room trash and wash
your hands in the cadaver room sink. Nothing that you take into the cadaver room can be brought back out
into the lab.
If you are pregnant or have allergies, respiratory problems or other health issues, you should contact Clark
College Risk Management (Rebecca Benson at 360.992.2965). They will give you information that will help
your physician advise you. An MSDS explaining the preservatives is available to anyone for inspection.
You will be provided with additional details about cadaver study protocols (which are found in the next section
of this manual) before we actually enter the cadaver lab for the first time.
FORMAT FOR LAB EXAMS (LAB PRACTICALS):
The written lab exams are “practical” in nature. This means that you will be asked to identify organs, cells, and
other structures on microscope slides, anatomical models, preserved specimens, and human cadavers.
Unless you are instructed otherwise, for any organ, cell, structure, etc. listed in this lab manual that is denoted
by an asterisk (*), in addition to being able to identify it you will also be expected to know one (1) physiological
function in the body that it performs. A detailed explanation of lab exam protocols will be provided to you
before you take the lab exams.
It is, of course, important that you arrive prepared and ON TIME for lab exams. Each lab exam will start at the
scheduled time. Unless you have made prior arrangements with the instructor, failure to appear at your
scheduled time will result in your missing the test altogether or in having less time to complete the exam.
If microscopes are used on an exam, you must not touch any part of the microscope except the fine
focus knob. Biological specimens (including the cadavers) with pins in them may not be touched during an
exam. If pins are used on specimens, the structure in question will be the first structure that the pin passes
through, unless otherwise indicated.
Lab exams are not multiple-choice exams. You will be asked to provide a specific answer to a specific
question. Always give the most specific possible answer (as indicated in this lab manual) that you can
to each question. Avoid “hedging” (i.e., giving additional information and/or more than the requested
number of answers, or giving incomplete, nonspecific answers in an attempt to receive partial credit)…all
answers you give will be graded. Spelling counts.
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 3
LAB ATTENDANCE:
Unless you make prior arrangements with the instructor, you must attend the lab for which you are registered
on exam days. However, on non-exam days, you are welcome to come to any other lab period (or periods) for
extra study, as long as there is space and you remember that there are students in those labs who have not
yet had a chance to examine the materials. If you come to extra labs, please defer materials (and the
instructor‘s attention) to those students who are registered for that lab.
BIOLOGY PRACTICUM (BIOL 011):
You must also be enrolled in the Biology Practicum, BIOL 011. The labs for BIOL 011 are “open labs”, many
of which are held on the weekends. Your one credit hour tuition for this practicum is used to pay qualified
instructors to staff the lab and to help you during these times. An open lab schedule will be posted in the lab
and on my website as soon as it is available.
BIOL& 253L LAB SECTIONS:
AL:
BL:
CL:
DL:
EL:
T 1–2:50P, Th 1–1:50P
T 3–4:50P, Th 3–3:50P
W 8–9:50A, F 8–8:50A
W 10–11:50A, F 10–10:50A
W 12–1:50P, F 12–12:50P
TL: T 6:30–9:20P (Instructed by Aaron Campbell)
VL: Th 6:30–9:20P (Instructed by Aaron Campbell)
Note: if you are officially registered for lab section TL, you must be able to take your lab exams at
8:00P on Thursday October 16th, Thursday November 13th, and Thursday December 4th. Please contact
your instructor ASAP if you have any questions or concerns about this scheduling requirement.
EQUIPMENT CARE:
The equipment available to you in lab includes microscopes, histology slides, preserved organ specimens,
human cadavers, plastic models, charts and diagrams. This equipment is expensive and difficult to replace.
This equipment is always available for your use during labs and open labs; it is imperative that you take proper
care of it. Please return equipment to its appropriate container or location in the lab. This is especially
important with respect to microscope slides. Specific equipment care will be discussed as it applies to each
new portion of the lab.
LAB PROTOCOLS:
I will make every effort to promote your success in this class. The other instructors and I are here to help you
succeed. However, with as many as 20 students per lab, it is also necessary that students become competent
independent learners, help one another, and share the available resources. Use the instructor as your last lab
resource. In the histology portion of this term, for example, prior to asking me for help with identifying a
particular tissue you should: 1) find and carefully inspect a picture of the tissue in an appropriate resource, 2)
read the description of the tissue, 3) actually observe the tissue with the microscope and try to reconcile what
you see with the resource and, 4) ask your lab partner(s) for help or for confirmation. In short, I expect to see
evidence of a significant effort on your part before you ask me for help. Why? Because in addition to learning
the subject matter that is specific to this course, you are also here to learn how to learn and to trust your ability
to independently find accurate information from appropriate resources. These skills will benefit you throughout
your lifetime in any of your future endeavors.
While you are encouraged to work together and discuss what you are learning, please keep the volume of
your voice to a level that is appropriate for a learning environment. In other words, your lab partner(s) should
be able to hear you, but please don’t distract neighboring students and groups with an unnecessarily loud
voice. Also, keep the subject matter being discussed relevant to what you are learning. Students who engage
in distracting social conversations will be asked to leave.
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 4
UNREGISTERED STUDENTS OR CHILDREN IN LABS:
Unregistered students or children are not allowed in the lab or in the cadaver room. This policy also applies to
open labs (BIOL 011) and conforms to Clark College rules. Please do not bring visitors to lab who are not
current BIOL& 253 students.
FOOD AND BEVERAGES:
Food and beverages are not allowed in the lab. Please keep any food and beverages that you may have
sealed and put away, and step out the lab if you need to grab a quick bite or drink.
CELL PHONES:
Cell phones are not to be used in the lab. Turn your phone to silent mode (if it is indeed silent) or to OFF
when you are in the lab. Feel free to step out of the lab if you need to make or receive a call or text message.
DIGITAL CAMERAS:
Some students find it useful to take digital photos of lab materials (including models, specimens, and slides
through the microscope). This is fine, but make sure that your camera is set to silent mode, and note
that you may NOT photograph: 1) cadavers, or 2) lab exams.
REPEAT POLICY:
Clark College policy allows any student to repeat a class twice. That is, you may take any class (e.g. BIOL&
251 or 252 or 253) a maximum of three (3) times. If you decide to repeat any of these classes for any reason,
you must retake BOTH the lab and the lecture. This policy will be adhered to; please do not ask for an
exception.
FINAL WORDS:
Despite rumors to the contrary, thousands of students have successfully completed this class. Years of
experience tell the instructors that successful students:
1. Work cooperatively in groups with other students. You will be spending a lot of time with each other!
Get to know and value your fellow classmates; they can be very helpful resources.
2. Attend all of their scheduled labs and stay until the end of each lab.
3. Visit other labs or take advantage of open labs for further study if necessary.
4. Learn to enjoy and appreciate learning.
5. Keep an open mind and a positive attitude towards learning.
6. Retain a sense of humor and keep the significant demands of the class in perspective.
7. Keep in mind that they are studying the structure and function of the amazing human body – everybody
has one!
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 5
HUMAN CADAVER LAB PROTOCOLS AND STUDY TIPS
Human Cadaver Lab Protocols
As you likely know by now, we are incredibly fortunate here at Clark to have one of the top college human
cadaver facilities in the entire Northwest. We are very grateful to the generous people who have provided us
with the amazing gift of their bodies, on which we can study real anatomy. Accordingly, it is imperative that we
demonstrate our appreciation for this gift by maintaining an appropriate atmosphere in the cadaver room, as
well as handling the preserved tissues with great care. While we want to enjoy the process of learning and
discovery, we also want to keep a respectful tone. Thank you in advance for doing your part!
The cadavers are preserved in an embalming solution that contains chemicals that are harmful to living
tissues. Every surface and item in the cadaver room should be considered to be contaminated and handled
accordingly. Wear closed toe shoes, and pull and tie long hair back. Nothing that you take into the
cadaver room can be brought back out into the main lab; there will be plenty of “cadaver room only” structure
lists and Netter atlases available for your use. Nitrile gloves are provided to you and required during study
within the cadaver room, even if you’re not planning on touching the cadavers. After studying the cadavers,
leave your gloves in the cadaver room trash can and wash your hands in the cadaver room sink. The room is
well ventilated with downdraft tables, but it is a good idea to take regular breaks for fresh air. If you are
pregnant, planning on becoming pregnant, breastfeeding, or have allergies, respiratory problems or other
health issues, let your instructor know ASAP, and we can discuss your options.
Exposure to air will gradually dry out the cadavers and make their tissues stiff and brittle. Therefore, it will be
your responsibility to keep them moistened with a wetting solution approximately every 20 minutes. Spray
bottles containing this wetting solution (which is different from and not as harsh as the embalming solution) are
located in the cadaver room. It is also your responsibility to make sure the cadavers are properly enclosed in
their bags, and the halogen spotlights are turned off, if you are the last one to leave.
Finally, remember that taking pictures of the cadavers is prohibited by law.
Hopefully, by now most of you are comfortable studying human cadavers, but remember that it is normal and
natural to feel uneasy at times. If you ever feel faint or nauseous, tell someone and leave the room and/or sit
down. Let your instructor know your questions and concerns, and we will help you as best as we can!
Study Tips
Before you come to lab, get prepared so that your time in the cadaver room is spent as efficiently and
effectively as possible.
First, in Martini, your Netter atlas, and the photographic atlas that came with your new Martini textbook (if you
have it), highlight or circle the names of the structures on your list (and, in the case of Martini, read their
descriptions in the text). The structures on the actual cadavers will look similar to but not exactly like the
images in your books, so the more different views you get of each one, the better. Note the location, size,
shape, orientation, and relative position (e.g. medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superior/inferior, superficial/deep)
of each structure, especially compared to other nearby anatomical landmarks that are more easily located.
You can also look up the meaning of each structure’s name in Martini or online, which can often tell you a lot
about where it’s located and what it looks like.
When you get to lab, remember that you cannot bring any of your personal study materials into the cadaver
room – if you want to have them back, that is! So pick a section (or part of a section, if it’s a larger section) of
your structure list to focus on, and write down on a blank piece of scratch paper the names as well as any
tidbits about location, size, shape, orientation, and relative position that you learned from your pre-lab
preparation. Take it into the cadaver room, and spend 20-30 minutes finding and getting to know the
structures on your paper. Don’t hesitate to get your hands on the cadavers during your study – that’s how
many of you learn best! – but remember to touch respectfully and handle with care. (Eventually, though,
you’re going to want to be able to identify the structures without having to touch them, as touching the
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 6
cadavers is not allowed during Lab Exams.) When you’re ready to leave the cadaver room, drop your paper
along with your gloves in the trash, wash up, and get some fresh(er) air in the main lab as you re-write on a
new piece of paper the structures you just studied, along with any new, additional information you learned that
you think might help you remember them even better next time. Also, reexamine the textbook and atlas
images of the structures you just studied, which will help you further cement the new knowledge in your brain.
When you’re ready, start the whole process all over again with a new blank piece of scratch paper and a new
section (or part of a section) of your structure list.
Work together! Those of you who get the structures down sooner can share your knowledge with your
classmates (this is actually a great study strategy for all involved parties), and everyone can be constantly
quizzing each other to get ready for the actual lab exam to come.
I highly recommend you employ the aforementioned study techniques, as they have proven to be very
effective for many students…there is truly no substitute for being prepared ahead of time and then spending a
good amount of quality, efficient time in the cadaver room. Remember that in addition to your scheduled lab
meetings, you have access to the cadaver room many other times throughout the week (ask your instructor for
details if you’re not sure when), as well as of course the open labs. Your instructor will give small group
lessons on some of the more challenging structures during some of the lab meetings, and, as always, let your
instructor know if you have any questions or concerns about any aspect of our study of human cadaver
anatomy. Have fun, and good luck! ☺
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 7
UNIT 1: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Introduction (FYI for lab exams): During the labs on the cardiovascular system you will study its three main
components: blood, the heart, and blood vessels. Blood is a fluid connective tissue whose functions include
transporting many substances (hormones, nutrients, waste products, etc.) throughout the body, helping
maintain a homeostatic pH balance, and helping regulate body temperature. Blood is composed of two main
components, the plasma and the formed elements. Blood is moved through the body within blood vessels
(arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins) in response to pressure generated by rhythmic
contractions of the heart. During the labs on the cardiovascular system you will study slides of a blood smear,
a cross section (c.s. or x.s.) of an artery/vein/nerve, and cardiac muscle. A dissection of the sheep heart to
identify the four chambers and related structures will be done. On the cadaver, the major blood and lymphatic
vessels will be observed. Several nerves will also be exposed on the cadaver.
Reminder: unless you are instructed otherwise, for any organ, cell, structure, etc., listed in this lab
manual that is denoted by an asterisk (*), in addition to being able to identify it you will also be
expected to know one (1) physiological function in the body that it performs.
SLIDES:
1. Blood*
Background (FYI for lab exams): Blood slides are stained with Wright’s or Giesma’s stain. Pay
attention to the structure (number of lobes, shape) of the nucleus (if present), the amount of
cytoplasm visible, the color of the stained cytoplasmic granules (if present), and the shape and size
of the cells.
A. Erythrocytes (red blood cells)*
Drawing:
Function(s):_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Number and size (FYI for lab):________________________________________
Characteristics (FYI for lab):__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 8
B. Leukocytes (white blood cells)*
1. Neutrophils*
Drawing:
Function(s):_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Number and size (FYI for lab):________________________________________
Characteristics (FYI for lab):__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Eosinophils*
Drawing:
Function(s):_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Number and size (FYI for lab):________________________________________
Characteristics (FYI for lab):__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 9
3. Basophils*
Drawing:
Function(s):_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Number and size (FYI for lab):________________________________________
Characteristics (FYI for lab):__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Lymphocytes*
Drawing:
Function(s):_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Number and size (FYI for lab):________________________________________
Characteristics (FYI for lab):__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 10
5. Monocytes*
Drawing:
Function(s):_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Number and size (FYI for lab):________________________________________
Characteristics (FYI for lab):__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
C. Platelets (thrombocytes)*
Drawing:
Function(s):_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Number and size (FYI for lab):________________________________________
Characteristics (FYI for lab):__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 11
2. Cross section of an artery*, vein*, and nerve
Background (FYI for lab exams):
Blood vessels transport blood throughout the body. Arteries and veins are composed of three
layers (coats or tunics) called the tunica interna (intima), tunica media, and tunica externa
(adventitia). Each layer is specialized for the particular functions that it has to accomplish in
each type of vessel. These functions are directly related to the blood pressure found in each of
the vessel types. Arteries are high pressure vessels while veins are low pressure vessels.
The tunica interna (intima) is composed of simple squamous epithelium (and elastin in arteries),
and is also specialized in veins to form valves.
The tunica media is composed of visceral (smooth) muscle. When compared to the size of the
vessel’s lumen, this layer is very thick in the higher-pressure arteries and much thinner in the
lower-pressure veins.
The tunica externa (adventitia) is composed of fibrous connective tissue. Because blood is
moving fairly rapidly in the blood vessels, especially arteries, and blood vessel walls are often
thick, the vessel requires special adaptations to receive an adequate source of nourishment
and removal of generated metabolic waste products. Located in the tunica externa are very
small blood vessels known as the vasa vasorum which accomplish this function.
The capillary is the area of functional exchange of gases, nutrients and waste products and has
only a tunica interna. The thin wall facilitates exchange.
Identify also: tunica interna*, tunica media*, tunica externa*, vasa vasorum*, venous valve*
Drawing:
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 12
3. Cardiac muscle*
Background (FYI for lab exams): Cardiac muscle makes up the myocardium in the walls of the
heart. This type of muscle is slightly striated due to the orderly arrangement of the myosin and
actin myofilaments within sarcomeres. Individual muscle fibers are electrically connected to one
another by gap junctions found in intercalated discs.
Identify also: nucleus, intercalated disc*
Drawing:
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 13
HEART MODELS AND SHEEP HEART:
Background (FYI for lab exams): Mammals have a four-chambered heart (2 atria and 2 ventricles).
Atria receive blood returning to the heart from the systemic (RA) and pulmonary (LA) circulations.
Ventricles pump the blood into the systemic (LV) and pulmonary (RV) circulations. The flow of blood is
regulated within the heart by valves – atrioventricular (AV) valves between the atria and ventricles, and
semilunar valves at the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
The lab instructor will demonstrate the proper method of dissecting the sheep heart. Except as
otherwise noted, be able to identify each structure on both the heart models and the sheep
heart.
Heart*:
• layers of the heart wall:
endocardium*
myocardium*
epicardium
• chambers of the heart:
right atrium*
left atrium*
right ventricle*
left ventricle*
• heart valves:
right atrioventricular (right AV) (tricuspid) valve*
left atrioventricular (left AV) (bicuspid) (mitral) valve*
pulmonary valve (pulmonary semilunar valve)*
aortic valve (aortic semilunar valve)*
• vessels associated with the heart:
superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
coronary arteries (models only)
coronary veins (models only)
coronary sinus
pulmonary trunk
pulmonary arteries
aorta
pulmonary veins
brachiocephalic artery
• other heart structures:
chordae tendineae*
papillary muscles*
interatrial septum
interventricular septum
fossa ovalis
ligamentum arteriosum
pectinate muscles
anterior longitudinal sulcus (anterior interventricular sulcus)
posterior longitudinal sulcus (posterior interventricular sulcus)
internal openings of the coronary arteries (sheep heart only)
moderator band* (sheep heart only)
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 14
OTHER MODELS AND CADAVER: Except as otherwise noted, be able to identify each structure on
both the other (non-heart) cardiovascular models and the cadaver.
Nerves:
sympathetic chain (cadaver only)
vagus (cadaver only)
phrenic (cadaver only)
Veins:
superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
azygos, hemiazygos, and accessory hemiazygos (cadaver only for all 3)
brachiocephalic (torso model and cadaver only)
subclavian
vertebral (cadaver only)
internal jugular
external jugular (cadaver only)
axillary
brachial
radial and ulnar (cadaver only for both)
cephalic and basilic
transverse scapular (suprascapular) (cadaver only)
inferior mesenteric (cadaver only)
superior mesenteric
splenic
hepatic portal (cadaver only)
suprarenal (cadaver only)
renal
gonadal (ovarian or testicular) (cadaver only)
lumbar (cadaver only)
common iliac, external iliac, and internal iliac
femoral
greater (great) saphenous
lesser (small) saphenous (models only)
anterior tibial and posterior tibial (cadaver only for both)
peroneal (cadaver only)
dorsal venous arch
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 15
Arteries:
Lymphatic
vessels:
aortic arch
brachiocephalic (brachiocephalic trunk) (cadaver only) -- found on right side only
common carotid, internal carotid (cadaver only), and external carotid
superior thyroid, occipital, lingual, facial, maxillary, and superficial temporal
subclavian
vertebral
thyrocervical trunk and transverse scapular (suprascapular)
internal thoracic (internal mammary) (torso model and cadaver only)
costocervical trunk
dorsal scapular (cadaver only)
axillary
thoracoacromial (acromiothoracic)
lateral thoracic (cadaver only)
subscapular (cadaver only)
thoracodorsal
brachial
radial and ulnar
intercostal (cadaver only)
esophageal (cadaver only)
pulmonary trunk
celiac trunk
left gastric
splenic
common hepatic
gastroduodenal (cadaver only)
hepatic proper (cadaver only)
right hepatic (cadaver only)
cystic (cadaver only)
left hepatic (cadaver only)
superior mesenteric
ileocolic, right colic, and middle colic (cadaver only for all 3)
suprarenal
renal
gonadal (ovarian or testicular) (cadaver only)
lumbar (cadaver only)
inferior mesenteric
left colic, sigmoidal (sigmoid), and superior rectal (cadaver only for all 3)
common iliac
external iliac
internal iliac
femoral
popliteal (models only)
anterior tibial and posterior tibial
peroneal (cadaver only)
dorsalis pedis and arcuate
thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct (cadaver only)
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 16
UNIT 2: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Introduction (FYI for lab exams): The digestive system consists of a hollow tube that extends from the mouth
to the anus, as well as some associated glands. The walls of this hollow tube are composed of four main
layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa (visceral peritoneum). Each layer has its
characteristic tissue types and specialized cells. The following is a summary of what makes up each of these
layers:
Mucosa:
epithelium
lamina propria, which contains:
 areolar CT
 lymphoid tissue
 blood and lymphatic vessels
 nerve endings
muscularis mucosae
Submucosa:
dense irregular CT
blood and lymphatic vessels
nerve plexuses
glands
lymphoid tissue
Muscularis externa:
inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle layers
Serosa (visceral peritoneum):
serous membrane
Below, draw a diagram that illustrates these four main layers of the digestive tract and their associated
structures. (See Figure 24-3 in Martini.)
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 17
Reminder: unless you are instructed otherwise, for any organ, cell, structure, etc., listed in this lab
manual that is denoted by an asterisk (*), in addition to being able to identify it you will also be
expected to know one (1) physiological function in the body that it performs.
SLIDES:
Space is provided for each type of slide to enable you to sketch what you see. Pay attention to the four main
layers (if present) and to any special cells or glands that are present. Some regions of the digestive tract may
vary from the general four-layer plan. For example, the stomach has three layers of muscle in the muscularis
externa (adding an oblique layer). Think about how these variations to the general plan reflect the function(s)
of a particular organ or region.
1.
Tongue* – See slides labeled as “Tongue Rabbit”, “Taste Buds”, “Foliate Papillae Rabbit”, “Tongue
Cat”, or “Tongue Frog”.
Identify also: papillae*, taste buds*, skeletal muscle
Drawings:
2.
Salivary Glands* – See slides labeled as “Salivary Gland Mammal” or “Salivary Gland Human”.
Identify also: mucous acini*, serous acini*, serous demilunes; be able to differentiate
between the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual salivary glands
Drawings:
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 18
3.
Stomach* – See slides labeled as “Human Fundic Stomach” or “Stomach Fundus Monkey”.
Identify also: all four main layers of the wall (plus lamina propria and muscularis mucosae), gastric
pits, mucous (goblet) cells*, parietal cells*, chief cells*
Drawings:
4.
Small Intestine* – See slides labeled as “Duodenum Monkey”, “Ileum Monkey”, “Jejunum Monkey”, or
“Ileum Peyer’s Patch Monkey”.
Identify also: all four main layers of the wall (plus lamina propria and muscularis mucosae), lymphoid
tissue*, Brunner’s (submucosal or duodenal) glands*, crypts of Lieberkuhn (intestinal crypts) (intestinal
glands)*, Peyer’s patches (aggregated lymphoid nodules)*, plica circulares (circular folds)*, mucous
(goblet) cells*, villi*
Drawings:
5.
Large Intestine* – See slides labeled as “Colon” or “Large Intestine Mucous Stain”.
Identify also: all four main layers of the wall (plus lamina propria and muscularis mucosae), taeniae
coli*, mucous (goblet) cells*
Drawings:
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 19
6.
Liver* – See slides labeled as “Liver”, “Liver Human”, “Liver Mammal”, or “Liver Pig”.
Identify also: liver lobule, central vein, sinusoids, hepatic triad (portal triad or portal area) (Note: a
hepatic triad includes branches of a hepatic portal vein, a hepatic artery, and a bile duct, each of which
you must also be able to identify individually)
Drawings:
7.
Gall Bladder* – See slides labeled as “Gall Bladder”.
Identify also: simple columnar epithelium, smooth muscle*
Drawings:
8.
Pancreas* – See slides labeled as “Pancreas Human”, “Pancreas Mammal”, or “Pancreas Monkey”.
Identify also: pancreatic duct*, acini*
Drawings:
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 20
MODELS AND CADAVER: Except as otherwise noted, be able to identify each structure on both the
models and the cadaver.
Oral cavity
Oropharynx
Nasopharynx
Laryngopharynx
Labia (lips)*
Labial frenula (frenula of upper and lower lips)
Hard palate
Soft palate
Uvula*
Tongue*
Lingual frenulum (frenulum of tongue)
Gingivae (gums)
Types of teeth:
Incisors*
Cuspids (canines)*
Premolars (bicuspids) *
Molars*
Parts of a tooth (models only for all):
Enamel*
Dentin
Cementum (cement)
Crown
Neck
Root and root canal*
Salivary glands*:
Parotid glands
Parotid ducts*
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands
Esophagus*
Stomach*
Rugae
Cardia (cardiac zone)
Fundus
Body
Pylorus (pyloric zone)
Pyloric sphincter*
Gastrosplenic ligament (cadaver only)
Lesser omentum (cadaver only)
Greater omentum (cadaver only)
Duodenum
Plica circulares (circular folds)*
Duodenal papilla (major duodenal papilla)*
Jejunum
Ileum
Pancreas*
Pancreatic duct*
Head and tail
Accessory pancreatic duct (models only)
Liver*
Falciform ligament
Left and right lobes
Round ligament
Left and right hepatic arteries
Hepatic veins
Hepatic portal vein
Left*, right*, and common hepatic ducts*
Common bile duct*
Gall bladder*
Cystic duct*
Large intestine*
Ileocecal valve*
Cecum
Appendix
Haustra
Taeniae coli*
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Anus (models only)
Mesentery proper (cadaver only)
Mesocolon (cadaver only)
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 21
UNIT 3 (PART A): RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Introduction (FYI for lab exams): The respiratory system is responsible for providing oxygen to and removing
carbon dioxide from the body’s tissues. The respiratory system is composed of conducting passages and
functional (exchange) passages. Air is moved into the conducting passages due to a pressure gradient
caused by the contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. The contraction and
relaxation of these muscles are due to the rhythmic depolarization of the inspiratory and expiratory centers
located in the medulla oblongata of the brain stem. The conducting passages are as follows: external nares,
nasal cavity, internal nares, nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi (primary,
secondary, etc.), bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles. The functional (exchange) passages of the
respiratory system, which is where actual gas exchange occurs, are as follows: respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli. The amount of air brought in during a normal inspiration is known as
the tidal volume (average approximately 500 mL). Total lung capacity averages about 5 liters, but varies with
the physical size, gender, and general health of the individual.
Reminder: unless you are instructed otherwise, for any organ, cell, structure, etc., listed in this lab
manual that is denoted by an asterisk (*), in addition to being able to identify it you will also be
expected to know one (1) physiological function in the body that it performs.
SLIDES:
See slides labeled as “Lung”, “Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium”, or “Trachea”.
Identify also: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium*
simple squamous epithelium (alveolar epithelium)*
hyaline cartilage
alveolus
Drawings:
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 22
MODELS:
Paranasal sinuses*:
Frontal
Sphenoidal
Nasal cavity*
External nares*
Internal nares
Nasal conchae*:
Superior
Middle
Inferior
Tonsils*
Palatine
Pharyngeal
Nasopharynx
Eustachian (auditory) (pharyngotympanic) tube openings*
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Hyoid bone
Larynx*
Epiglottis*
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
Arytenoid cartilages*
Vocal folds*
Trachea*
Tracheal rings (tracheal cartilages)*
Primary bronchi*
Lungs*
Cardiac notch
Hilum (hilus)
Pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins
Diaphragm*
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 23
UNIT 3 (PART B): URINARY SYSTEM
Introduction (FYI for lab exams): The urinary system is the major body system responsible for the excretion of
waste products that are produced by the metabolic processes of the body. (The other main systems involved
in this process are the respiratory and integumentary systems.) The urinary system is composed of the
following main structures: kidneys, ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra. The structural and functional
unit of the kidney is the nephron. A typical nephron is composed of a renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted
tubule (PCT), nephron loop (loop of Henle), and distal convoluted tubule (DCT). The nephron connects to a
collecting tubule or duct. The circulatory system is closely associated with the nephron via a capillary network
(the glomerulus) that is surrounded by the glomerular capsule, and a peritubular capillary network and/or vasa
recta surrounding the PCT and DCT. The nephron accomplishes three primary functions: filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion, the end product of which is urine.
Reminder: unless you are instructed otherwise, for any organ, cell, structure, etc., listed in this lab
manual that is denoted by an asterisk (*), in addition to being able to identify it you will also be
expected to know one (1) physiological function in the body that it performs.
SLIDES:
See slides labeled as “Kidney” or “Ureter”.
Identify also on kidney slides:
renal cortex
renal medulla
renal corpuscle*
glomerulus
glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
parietal layer (capsular epithelium)
visceral layer (visceral epithelium or podocytes)
capsular (Bowman’s) space
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)*
distal convoluted tubule (DCT)*
collecting duct (collecting tubule)*
Identify also on ureter slides:
transitional epithelium*
Drawings:
BIOL& 253L, Fall 2014, Page 24
MODELS:
Kidney*
Renal (fibrous) capsule*
Renal cortex
Renal medulla
Renal corpuscle*
Glomerulus
Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)*
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)*
Collecting duct*
Interlobar artery and vein
Arcuate artery and vein
Cortical radiate (interlobular) artery and vein
Afferent arteriole
Efferent arteriole
Renal column
Renal pyramid
Renal papilla
Renal sinus
Minor calyx*
Major calyx*
Renal pelvis*
Hilum (hilus)
Ureter*
Urinary bladder*
Urethra*