1. No category

From Trolls to Turks: Continuity and Change in Danish Legend Tradition
Author(s): Timothy K. Tangherlini
Source: Scandinavian Studies, Vol. 67, No. 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 32-62
Published by: Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40919729 .
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FromTrolls to Turks:
Continuityand Change
in Danish Legend Tradition
TimothyK Tangherlini
UCLA
circulation or long since relbe it in CONTEMPORARY
exhibitsa markedresiliency
realms
of
the
to
the
archive,
egated
and continuityin adapting itselfto historicalchange. Carl
Wilhelmvon Sydowrecognizedtheinfluencelocalityhad on narrative
tradition,labelingthe geographicvariantshe observedas ecotypes
(von Sydow 1931). A similarprocessoccursthroughtimeas well,in
and actorsrelevantto one historical
whichfeatures
age arealteredto fit
discussedby
the next.Like the processof synchronie
ecotypification
is subtle but
von Sydow, thisprocess of diachronicecotypification
ofculturesto assignthe
AlbertEskerödnoticedthepropensity
distinct.
characters
to the "traditiondominants"ofthat
functionsof narrative
geographicarea(Eskeröd1947: 81). This elucidationofthe
particular
also holdstrueforthediachronic
of
ecotypification
process synchronie
"traditiondominants"so too
area
exhibits
as
a
Just
geographic
process.
in Danish tradition
does a historicalperiod. Legends contemporary
a process
of
diachronic
the
illustrate
ecotypification,
concept
help
which best can be called "historicization"(Tangherlini1990: 379;
1994: 15). Whilelegendremainspreoccupiedwithhumaninteraction
withtheOther,perceptionsoftheOtherexhibitdistinctchange.The
majorareaofchangeinperceptionsoftheOtherhas been a moveaway
actantsto humanactants.Ethnicminoritiescomfromsupernatural
tradition.
the
prise majorgroupofthehumanOtherin contemporary
Danish legend traditionis richand varied,oftencenteringon instancesof human interactionwiththe Other,be theyghosts,elves,
trolls,and witches,or immigrants,
refugees,drunks,and psychotics.
The Other is constitutedby all legend actantswho belong to the
"outsiderealm."Thisrealmisindirectoppositionto the"innerrealm,"
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Danish Legend Tradition
33
which is bounded by the culturalbordersof the traditiongroup.
suchas theboundSometimesthesebordersarephysically
discernible,
farm.Othertimes,the boundariesare
ariesofthenineteenth-century
more subtle and harderto recognize.The traditionboundariesare
- boundarieswhich
closelylinkedto theconceptofethnicboundaries
arebased on "a senseofcommonorigin,commonbeliefsand values,a
common sense of survival"(De Vos 1975: 5; Barth 1969). All the
awareoftheboundariesand
membersoftheinnerrealmaredistinctly
theirmembershipin that realm. Legend helps both to defineand
reinforce
the bordersof theinnerrealm.
BeverlyCrane has noted thatthe primaryreason a person tellsa
legend is psychologicalneed- a need to expressparticularbeliefsor
valuesin a narrative
form(Crane 1977; Dundes 1971). Donald Ward
fornarrative
has also consideredthepsychologicalmotivations
perfortraditionstend to reflectthe
mance,revealinghow popularnarrative
dominatingconcernsofthesubjectsinvolved(Ward 1976: 350). The
perceptionsof the Other,the object of conflict,revealsthe cultural
viewsof wherethreatcomes from.The actionsof the Other in such
conflictrevealtheculturalviewson whatis threatened.WhileDanish
in whatis threatened,
the
legendtraditionshowsa markedcontinuity
ofthatthreat,theOther,has changedappearanceso as to
perpetrator
fitbetterthe culturallandscape.This changein identityof the Other
suggestsa changein theexternalconcernsof the involvedsubjects,a
changewhichhas been precipitated
byhistoricalchangesin society.
Unlike Sweden which has had the benefitof the publicationof
Klintberg'scollectionofcontemporary
legends,Danish contemporary
remains
uncollected
largely
legend
(Klintberg 1986). Carsten
two
short
articles
on
Bregenhoj's
contemporary
legendsprovidesome
into
Danish
tradition
and 1978). Also, the
1969
insight
(Bregenhoj
newsletter
of ForeningenDanmarks Folkeminder
has carriedoccasionalvariantsof contemporary
and
Kofod
1985; Kofod
legends(Pio
Marie
Else
Kofod
of
Dansk
and
1989). Recently,
Folkemindesamlinß
CharlotteJensenhave been involvedin contemporary
colleclegend
tion.Manyofthecontemporary
legendsdiscussedbelowarefromtheir
collections.Luckily,the scholarinterestedin earlierDanish legend
hasthebenefit
tradition
ofEvaldTang Kristensen's
voluminousprinted
collectionsas well as the countlessunpublishedvariantsarchivedat
Danskfolkemindesamling.
Withthesetwo groupsoflegendsat hand,
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34
Scandinavian Studies
in Danish legendtradition,
thespecificsof historicization
particularly
concerningattitudestowardsthe Other,beginto takeshape.1
Danishlegend
One ofthemostnotableaspectsofthecontemporary
and minorities.Klintbergmentions
is the highprofileof immigrants
the ethnocentricnatureof manycontemporary
legends (Klintberg
an "ordinary"Swede is put into
1976 and 1984). In thesenarratives,
conflictwith a memberof the outside realm,oftenan immigrant
(Klintberg1976). The grouptellingthelegendcentersitselfwithinthe
The
narrative,
puttinganyoutsidegroupintooppositionwithitself.2
distinctioninside/outsidebecomes paramount.In earlylegends,in
ofDanishsocietywasnotthreatenedby
whichtheethnichomogeneity
- trolls,
outside cultures,threatwas assignedto supernaturalforces
elves,and witches.Occasionally,foreignhumanthreatsappeared,in
cultureactantsin theroleofOtheralso appeared.3
whichcase minority
Withthe adventof scientific
scepticism,universaleducationand the
folkbeliefconcerningtrolls,elves,and
moveawayfromrurallifestyles,
the need foractantsto assumethe
witchesdeclined.Concomitantly,
newlyvacatedlegendfunctionsappeared.Withthemarkedchangein
theinfluxoflargenumbersofAsians
Danish demographics,
primarily
and southernEuropeansin the 1960s and 1970s (DanmarksStatistik
and minority
populationswerethelogical
1961-1984), theimmigrant
lead a
relevantreplacement.Like the bjargfolk,
immigrants
culturally
lifehiddenfromthe nativepopulation.They have a separateculture
and language.Theyworktheleastpopularjobs, and thereis minimal
intoDanish culture.Often,physicalcharacterchanceforassimilation
isticssetthemapartfromethnicDanes. Finally,theseparationofthese
people fromDanish societyis intensifiedby the isolationof large
minoritypopulationsin communitiessuch as Ish0j. The resultis a
group easilyidentifiedas Other,whichlives and worksoutside the
bounds of theethnicDane's sphere,in muchthesamewaythattrolls
and elveslived and workedoutsideof the humansphere- the farm.
1 I am
deeplyindebtedto the help both Else Marie Kofod and CharlotteJensenhave
providedbothwithregardto theircollectionsand theirhelpfulcommentson contempomaterialssent them after
raryDanish tradition.Their collectionscompriseprimarily
nationalradioandnewspaperappeals.SylviaGrider(1981) addressedthequestionofhow
televisionshows,becomethesubjectoffolknarration.
massmediaevents,particularly
2 An
legendstold by immigrant
studywould be to comparecontemporary
interesting
legendstold bythe Danes.
groupsin Denmarkwiththecontemporary
31
providesomeexamplesofthisin connectionwithplaguelegends,inwhichFinnsactas
1988: 188).
ofthediseaseinplaceofthesupernatural
thebringer
traveling
pair(Tangherlini
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Danish Legend Tradition
35
Kristensenincludesnumerousaccountswhichsuggestthat bjargfolk
societyis a mirrorofhumansociety,forexample:
- tilervettere
I Krustrup
ti¿enfindesikkenu}da
fandtes,
findesenho'j
deribernile
denerbortkert
ellefolk.
Enßammel
tilfyld-hvor
dogeboede
at hendes
enhalvsnesâr siden,
somdedefor
kone,
fortalte,
forddreofte
derÜberetstykke
kovedenb&k,
vandederes
havdesetellefolkene
senden
1980:vol. 1, 31)4
omhejen.(Kristensen
- orrather
therewas,sinceitisn'tthere
(There'sa moundinKrustrup
- whereelveslivedin the
awayforfiller
anylonger,as itwastrucked
olddays.Anoldwoman,whodiedabouttenyearsago,toldthather
theircowsata stream
which
hadoftenseentheelveswatering
parents
flowsa bitsouthofthemound.)
The modern Dane does not need legend accounts to confirmthe
life- he need onlytaketheSparallel,buthiddennature,ofimmigrant
to
the
tqg
appropriatestop.
Denmarkwas a decidedly
Nineteenth-and earlytwentieth-century
The
of
the
majority
populationlived in smallrural
agrariansociety.
communitiesspreadthroughoutthecountry.The distinction
inside/
was easilydeteroutsidewas easilymade,and community
membership
mined.Outside consistedof areasoutsidethe immediatefarmhouse
and buildings(Hastrup 1985; Lindow 1978a). The onslaughtof the
industrial
revolutionled to anincreasedurbanizationand a breakdown
Danish
of earliercommunalboundaries.Nevertheless,
contemporary
societyhas been able to maintaintheinside/outsidedistinction.The
on differences
distinctionis based primarily
of physicalappearance,
and
to
traditional
culturalnorms.
languageability,
ancestry, conformity
In short,the inside/outsidedistinctioncorrespondsto the ethnic
boundaries(Barth1969). The legendmaterialshowsthatdespitethe
of communalmembership
changein demographics,the distinctions
maintaintheirethno-and sociocentriccore.Legendsarean expression
ofthisethno-and sociocentrism.
MichaelBantonnotesthat"individuin orderto creategroupsand
alsutilizephysicaland culturaldifferences
the
of
inclusion
and
exclusion"(Banton 1983:
categoriesby
process
This
is
the
one
104).
process precisely
expressedin the legend tradition. Legend, in largepart,is a formof ethnicbehavior,definedby
RichardThompson as "behaviorsthatare . . . based on culturalor
4 I have
in all citationsfromhis collections.Thus, one
keptKristensen'sorthography
oftenfindsboth "0" and "o" in a singlerecord.
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36
Scandinavian Studies
physicalcriteriain a socialcontextin whichthesecriteriaarerelevant"
(Thompson 1989: 11). In theDanish socialcontext,theperformance
of ethnocentriccontemporary
legend both exhibitsand definesthe
relevantcriteriaand the limitsof the ethnicboundariesculturally
of Danes in relationto non-Danes.
namelytheethnicdifferentiation
Interactionwiththe Otherfallsinto threebroad categoriesin the
contemporary
legendtradition.Each one of thesecategories,in turn,
Whilethecontemporary
has a correlatein theearlierlegendtradition.
legendspresentedhereare byno meansa completeviewof the tradiof the contemporary
tion, theyare at least partiallyrepresentative
maincategoryis sexualcontactwiththeOther:this
tradition.The first
includeslegendsthatdeal withanyattempts,sucgroupofnarratives
cessfulor not at thiscontact.Includedin thiscategoryarekidnapping
as theyoftenimplya sexualcontact
and bytning)
legends( bj&rgtagfning
of the
(Lindow 1978b). This group deals withthreatsto the fertility
The second
innerrealmand the continuedsuccess of thatfertility.
focuseson theOther'sattemptsto disruptthefood
groupofnarratives
of the innerrealm. The threatto food constitutesa threatto the
The finalcategoryis comprised
continuedsurvivalofthecommunity.
in whichthe Other attemptsto maim,hurt,or kill,an
of narratives
immediatethreatto the individualand the social order.In each catfromtheoutside.
is threatened
and survival
egory,communalintegrity
motivationalfactorfor
The conceptof outsidethreatis an underlying
and constitutesone of the prilegend compositionand transmission
in legendtradition.
maryareasof continuity
Legend traditionincludesnumerousexamplesof human sexual
liaisonswiththe Other.These legendsreceiveexpressionin the contemporary
legendtraditionin accountssuch as thefollowing:5
Baggrundener at der pâ det tidspunktfandtesflere stederi det
Ârhusianskenatteliv,hvormangegrenUnderpigerkom.Disse steder
blevhurtigtkendtsom "sidstechance".. . . Vigerneder,blevregnet
for
i v&rste
meget"lettepâ trâden"og man vistebvad detkunneindeb&re,
De grgnlandske
piger. . . var kendt
fald iformafgonorrêeuerlign
De bavdeet megetafslappet
sommegetvarmblodige
oggodeelskerinder.
uh&mmet
forholdtilsex.Alt dettevidstefyrene
ogi nogletilfalde,ganske
om
med
man
mâtte
sigselv man turde°gâ tildem" . ... En
gere op
og
fyrfraÀrhuseri byenforevt.at "score"sigenpige.Jagtengar indflere
5 Sentto Jensen ThorliefSorensen,Àrhus.
by
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Danish Legend Tradition
37
menuden held.Tilsidst,og mangetimer(og 0ller) efterender
stedety
vores venpâ et of de steder,omtaltfer. Pludseliger pigenelidt mere
charme.Det¿fiverham selvtilliden
og modtagelig
forfyrens
n&rg&ende
^bage^pà en rigtig
flotgrenUnderpige.Hun
tubageoghanbegynderat
ermodtageliß
forhanscharmetilen visßrAnseoßhan brußeraisin kraft
hendeomat hun vilgâglip
tilat overbevise
oß efterhânden
desperation
hun
ikke
hvis
taßermedham hjem.Hun
afen uforßlemmeliß
oplevelse,
i at tage med ham hjem indenfyrens"bageri"
indvillißerherefter
udviklersig til en plage. De tagerherefter
hjemtil ham og undervejs
at
hun
til
at
se
om
han erligesagod i sengen
aller
hun
ham
fort
gUdersig
harvoresveni Übetafaftenenognatten
somhan eri munden.DesvAtre
drukketsâmeget0I at han ikkeer i standtilat indfrisinelefteroverfor
pigen,somnu ferster varmetrigtigop. Fyrenfalderi S0vnog vâgner
ferstnAstedagsformiddagmeden del "hoved"pâ. Pigen er vAkog har
hendeegentliggodt
ikkeefterladtsig nogenseddelel. lign.Fyrenforstár
til sin myesli
indtilhan âbner keleskabet
for at tage skummetm&lken
sin nedterft
[sic], og ser at pigen,fra aftenfer, har forrettet
pâ en
tallerkenogstilletden indpâ mellemste
hylde.
(The backgroundforthisstoryis that,at thattime,therewerea lot of
places on the Ârhusnightscene wherea lot of Greenlandicwomen
went.These places soon got knownas "last chance". . . . The girls
therewere consideredto be easy, and you knew what that could
include,in theworstcase gonorrheaor thelike.The Greenlandicgirls
wereknownas verywarmblooded and good lovers.They had a very
relaxedand, in some cases, quite uninhibitedattitudetowardssex.
ifyoudared
The guysknewall ofthis,andyouhadto decideforyourself
to "go to them" A guyfromÂrhusis in townto tryand scorea girl.
The huntgoes on inseveralplacesbutwithoutluck.Finally,and many
hours (and beers) later,our friendends up at one of these places
mentionedbefore.All of a sudden,the girlscome a littlecloserand
they'remore receptiveto the guy's charm.This giveshim his selfconfidenceback,and he beginsto hiton a reallybeautifulGreenlandic
girl.She is receptiveto hischarmto a certainextent,and he uses all his
powerand, aftera while,desperationto convinceherthatshe'll miss
out on an unforgettable
experienceifshe doesn't go home withhim.
She agrees to go home with him beforethe guy's hittingon her
becomes a nuisance.They go to his house, and on the way she tells
him thatshe's lookingforwardto see ifhe's as good in bed as he is
withhismouth.Regrettably,
our friendhas drunkso manybeersover
thecourseof theeveningand thenightthathe isn'tin anycondition
to keephispromisesto thegirlwho hasjustnow gottenreallywarmed
up. The guyfallsasleep and doesn't wake up untilthe nextmorning
witha bitofa hangover.The girlis gone and hasn'tleftanynoteor the
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38
Scandinavian Studies
to
herwelluntilhe openstherefrigerator
like.The guyunderstands
from
the
sees
that
the
his
cereal
and
milk
for
the
skim
night
girl
get
herself
on a plateandputiton themiddleshelf.)
beforehasrelieved
In thiscase,theDane (insider)makesa consciousattemptat seduction
a double
of the Otherwithnegativeresults.The young man suffers
- both to his fertility
and to his food. The Greenlandicwoman
threat
executestwo inversionsin her dealingswith the young Dane. His
inabilityto consummatewhatis a dangerousliaisonin the firstplace
leads to the Other's inversionof the "normal" fertility
cycle. She
an anal actionforwhatshouldhavebeen vaginal,negating
substitutes
functionof sexual contact.Also, she invertsthe normal
the fertility
- the place where
food cycleby placingher fecesin the refrigerator
food is normallykept.As such, she contaminatesthe food, thereby
withthehuman
expressingthestrongdesireofthe Otherto interfere
woman
the
Greenlandic
double
this
food cycle.By causing
inversion,
identifiesherselfas Other and, therefore,nonhuman. The legend
underscoresthe nonhumannatureof the Other
traditioninvariably
whichthreatenthe success of the tradition
inversions
such
through
community.
One findsnumerousparallelsto thislegendin Kristensen'scollections:
Min oldemorpà modersside hed Karen Rasmusdatterog var fedt i
pâ Ristinge,Langeland;hunharfortaltminmoder,at da
fargegârden
varderenafdatidensellekarle,
huntjentepàLangelandsommalkepige,
somkomtilbende,hvergang hunvar i marken
forat malke,ogsamlede
hende.Men nu blevhan
k0ernepaétsted,somjo var tilstortjenestefor
at hun blevbangeforham og
sa Unge ved medsingodhedog tjeneste,
kjedafhans venskab.Sa var deten middag,da han stodog n&stengav
minetil at vennesmedhende,at hun tagersin ene traskoaf s&tter
sig
nedoggjörsitbehovderivedsidenafmdkebotten,
ogellekarlenblevda
sa led vedhende,at hanganskeforlodhende,og hunsa ham ikkemere
fdrendmangear efter.. . . (Kristensen1980: vol. 2, 13-4)
(My great grandmotheron my mother's side was called Karen
and was bornin the ferry
Rasmusdatter
yardin Ristinge,Langeland;
she told mymotherthatwhen she was in serviceon Langeland as a
milkmaid,therewas an oldtimeelfboy who came to hereverytime
she was in the fieldto milkand [he] gatheredthe cows in one place,
whichwas a realhelp to her.But now he had continuedhis kindness
and helpso longthatshe gotscaredofhimand afraidofhisfriendship.
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Danish Legend Tradition
39
madea moveto get
Thenone dayat noon,he stoodandpractically
withher;so shetakesoffone clog,sitsdown,anddoeswhat
friendly
shehas to in it rightnextto themilkpail,and theelfboygot so
withherthathe abandonedher,and she didn'tsee him
disgusted
againformanyyears.)
This legend reflectsa partialreversalof the contemporarylegend.
- sexual liaison
Despite the change, the fundamentalconsideration
withtheOther remainsthesame.The juxtapositionofnourishment
andwaste(milkand feces)areenoughto preventthedangerousunion
theGreenlandicwoman'sjuxtapositionof
ofwomanand elf.Similarly,
fecesand milkprovidesthe Dane with a degree of reliefafterthe
undoubtableinitialshock- he has not consummateda threatening
union. If she is capable of invertingthe food cycle,negatingthe
cycle would
concept of nourishment,her inversionof the fertility
simiundoubtedlyhave similardireconsequences.The moststriking
variantand earlierones may be
laritiesbetweenthe contemporary
foundin thefollowingstory:
i en ellekj&llinß
Et stedvar en karlbleven
forelsket
oß havdeblandetsiß
medhende,mensa blevhan kjedafforholdet
oßnqgtedeat kommeud til
hendeen often.Bllefolkene
fikdoßfati ham oß rendtesa medham over
sa han var heltude ofsißselv.Nu henvendte
han sißtil
bakkeroj$moser,
en kloßmand,oßhanßav hamdetrâd>at nâr nu ellekj&llinßen
komfor
at lokkeham medsißißjeny
skuldehanßa ud ißarden tilhende-forind
kundehunikkekomme
oßhaveen meldmadi hândenoßßa oßbideof.
Sâ skuldehan¿fahenpâ möddinßenmeddetsammeoß sattesiß der i
Nâr hunsä detvildehun blivekjedafham. Han
naturlißforretning.
fulßteràdei,oßda hunsä harnbaresißsâdan ad, rendtehunsin vej,oß
han sâ hendeikkemere.(Kristensen1980: vol. 2, 14-5)
(At one place,a boyhad fallenin love withan elfhag and had gotten
mixedup withher,but he was bored bythe relationship
and refused
to come to her.The elvesgot a hold ofhimand ranhimoverhilland
dale, so he was completelyout of himself.Now he consultsa folk
healer,and he gavehimthatadvicethatwhentheelfhag came to lure
him to her again, he should go out in the yardto her- since she
couldn'tcome in- and havea pieceofbreadand go and chewit.Then
he shouldgo to thedung hilland sitdown to do hisnaturalbusiness.
When she sees that,she'll be upsetwithhim. He followsthe advice
and whenshe saw himact likethis,she ranherwayand he didn'tsee
heragain.)
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40
Scandinavian Studies
In thiscase,theboyhas becometiredwithhisearliersexualconquests
and, as a meansforriddinghimselfof thisobvious threatto hiswellbeing,he gives explicitexpressionto the human food cycle.In the
legend,the Other givesreferenceto an invertedfood
contemporary
and nutrition,
the
in bothsexuality
In
either
case,thedifferences
cycle.
the
dissoto
are
blocks
of
fundamental
community, juxtaposedleading
Whilethe Other
lutionof a unionthatthreatenscommunalintegrity.
tradition
to engageinsexual
iswillinginbothearlierand contemporary
contact,and oftenseeksout suchcontact,theresultofsucha liaisonis
thanconstructive.
rather
destructive
Thus,sexualrelationships
inevitably
of human
withthe Otheract as a negationratherthanan affirmation
Likewise,the Other'sattitudestowardshumanfood and the
fertility.
food of the Otheritselfact as a negationof humannutrition.
Severaldiscrepanciesexistbetweenthe earlierand contemporary
oftheOther.
is foundin theidentity
difference
tradition.The primary
.
andhumanGreenlander
The earlierelfisreplacedbythecontemporary
of
The connectionbetweenthe Greenlandicwoman and the ellefolk
earliertraditionis made explicitin the contemporary
legendwiththe
locution"go to them."Thisshiftresultsintwonoticeablephenomena.
First,the Greenlandicwomanis robbedof herhumantraits,as she is
equatedwiththeearliernonhumanOther.Second,theethnicdifferento theearlierhuman/nonhuman
tiationofDane/non-Dane,incontrast
This typeof shiftis frequentin contempois highlighted.
distinction,
is foundin the intentionsof the
rarytradition.A second difference
Dane withregardto the Other.In contemporary
tradition,the Dane
seeksout the Other,and it is onlyhisinadvertent
inabilityto perform
which avertsthe union. In earliertradition,the Dane takesexplicit
liesin
The finaldifference
therelationship.
stepsto avoidor terminate
andwaste.In earlier
theexecutionofthejuxtapositionofnourishment
tradition,the insidercarriesout this juxtaposition,as opposed to
tradition,in whichit is the Otherwho performsthis
contemporary
task.Whiletheearliertraditionfocuseson thehumanqualitiesof the
focuseson thenonhumanqualities
tradition
insider,thecontemporary
oftheOther.As such,earliertraditiontakesan inclusivestandpoint
those who behave in this mannerbelong whereas contemporary
- thosewho behavein this
traditiontakesan exclusionary
standpoint
mannerdo notbelong. Bantonmentionsthatwhileethniccategories
resultfrominclusiveprocesses,racistand ethnocentricdistinctions
resultfromexclusiveprocesses(Banton 1983). Taken in lightof the
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Danish Legend Tradition
41
thatcondemographicchangesmentionedabove,it is not surprising
and exclusiveprocessto
traditionrelieson an ethnocentric
temporary
definethe boundariesof the group,whileearliertraditioninclusively
definedthoseboundaries.
Also plentifulin Danish traditionare legendsconcerningthe kidnappingof insidersby the Other.The kidnappingof a young child,
a girl,by the Other expressesa potentialthreatto the
particularly
member
futuresuccess.Byremovingbotha community
community's
removesthe abilityof
and a futurechildbearer,the Othereffectively
theinnerrealmto procreate.Accountssimilarto theone consideredby
Danish tradition:6
Edgar Morin (1982) existin contemporary
Min HileS0ster
fortuitemig dt hun h0rteom trefiger som rejstepâ
Interratinedi Frankrig.Sa varpigernei Varisogdetvar dagenf0rde
skullerejsehjemtilDanmarkogsä skullede ud i byenengang tilindede
Hilekvarterned
toghjem.Sa var de ud atgâ ogde komtil et m&rkeligt
den
Ligepludseligfik
längsfloden.De skullekiggelidtrundti butikkerne.
sineveninder
enepige0jepâ enkjolei etforretningsvindue
oghunfortalte
da hunligevilprevédenneherkjole. . .Sa de to
at deskulleventeudenfor
andrestodudenforogventedeogventedeogpigenblevderinde.Sa tager
en afpigerneind i butikken
tilat undersege
hvadderersket>menham
somejerbutikken,
var
derAraberen,
n&gter
opognedat en lyshàretpige
kommetderind.Sa pigenskynder
sig ud af butikkenog sammenmed
denanden tagerde tilpolitietogforklarer
Situationen-de kunnebegge
.
Politiet
med
til
menAraberen stadigvtk
.
.
butikken,
tager
tofransk
nagter at pigen var kommet derind. Men da de unders$ger
opdagerde enfaldlem.Politietmenerat pigentog
omkUdningsrummet
tilatpr0vekjolen,faldt
ind i omkUdningsrummet
nedgennemlemmen
De sigerat hunblevsolgtviderei denhvide
ogpâ denmadeblevbortf0rt.
slavehandeli nordafrika.Hun komhellerikketubage,menbutikken
blevlukketogAraberen sidderifengsel.
(My littlesistertold me thatshe heardabout threegirlswho traveled
downto France.Now thegirlswerein Paris,and itwas the
on Interrail
daybeforetheyweresupposedto travelbackto Denmark,and so they
weregoingto go intotownone moretimebeforetheywenthome. So
theywere out walkingaround, and they came to a strangelittle
neighborhooddown bytheriver.Theyweregoingto look aroundin
thestores.All ofa sudden,one girlsees a dressin a storewindow,and
shetoldherfriends
thattheyshouldwaitoutsidesinceshewantsto try
on thisdress.So the othertwo stood outsideand waitedand waited
6 CollectedfromLotte
Pedersen,age 19, Roskilde.
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42
Scandinavian Studies
inside.So oneofthegirlsgoesintothestoreto
andthegirljuststayed
buttheArabwhoownsthestoredenies
findoutwhathashappened,
down
that
a
blond
and
girlhadcomeintothestore.So thegirl
up
withtheothergirltheygo tothe
outofthestoreandtogether
hurries
- theycouldbothspeakFrench.. . .
policeandexplainthesituation
Thepolicego alongtothestore,buttheArabstilldeniesthatthegirl
had comein there.Butwhentheysearchthechanging
room,they
The policebelievethatthegirlwentintothe
discovera trapdoor.
thetrapdoor
roomto tryon thedress,felldownthrough
changing
in thatway.Theysayshewassoldintothewhite
andwaskidnaped
She nevercameback,butthestorewas
slavetradein northAfrica.
closedandtheArabis injail.)
The younggirlshavemovedbeyondtheboundariesoftheinnerrealm
atthreat.Theiryouthsuggeststhat
haveplacedthemselves
andthereby
Theretheyhaveyetto contributeas childbearersto thecommunity.
is
one
of
them
to
seize
devastating
fore,theOther'sability
particularly
of theinnerrealm.
to thefertility
collectionscontainanaloguesto thisaccount.ParticuKristensen's
larlyworthyof note is:
künde
IHerrestedsognpâMare markerenstörhöj,hvorfra
menforhen
somtogenpigefra en mand i
se overtil Sjdland. Der boedebj&rgfolk,
men
Mare. Han sendtebendeen aftenudpâ markenforat hentegj£s,
hunkündeikkefindedem,ogforat bedresesigomgikhun oppa höjen,
De troedealdrigat skullesebendemere,
mensankda nedogforsvandt.
menenaften,da moderenvar eneinde,komenpigetilbendeogbad om
nattely.Konensagdenej,detvarjo ikkebeltmörktendnu,bun kunde
nokß busetandetsted. . . Nugav bun sigtil at sporge,omde ikkefor
nogleâr sidenbavdemistetenpigeherpâ garden. Konensvaredejo og
omdetvar bende.Pigensvaredeikkepâdet,mensagde:*Vildu
spurgte,
sa skaljegsige,hvorjeger,ogsa kan Iselv demrne,
give migenposegryn,
hunbagsigligeoptilhojensnordreside,og
hvemjeg er.* Grynene
streede
forddrenefulgtebag efter.Som de stodder,sankpigen nedfor deres
òjne.Deforsögteat grave bendeop,menda varj ordenblevensa hard,
at de ikkekundefa en spadei. (Kristensen1980: vol. 1, 249)
(In Herrestedparishon Mare field,there'sa big mound fromwhere
who
you used to be able to see overto Sjadland.The mound-dwellers
livedtheretook a girlfroma man in Mare. He sentherout into the
fieldone eveningto getthegeese,but she couldn'tfindthemand, to
see better,shewentup on themoundbutsankdownand disappeared.
Theyneverexpectedto see heragain,butone night,whilethemother
was at home,a girlcameto herand askedforlodging.The womansaid
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Danish Legend Tradition
43
darkyetshecouldprobably
find
no and sinceit wasn'tcompletely
else.. . . Nowsheaskediftheyhadn'tlosta girl
lodgingsomewhere
a fewyearsago.Thewomananswered
hereon thefarm
yesandasked
ifitwasher.Thegirldidn'tanswer
butsaid,"Ifyougivemea bagof
who
thenI'll saywhereI amandyoucandecideforyourselves
grain,
I am."Shesprinkled
thegrainbehindherup to thenorthsideofthe
moundandtheparents
followed
alongbehind.As theystoodthere,
theireyes.Theytriedto digherup buttheearth
thegirlsankbefore
hadbecomeso hardtheycouldn'tsinka shovelin.)
Here one findsboth thedangerof theoutsideto younggirlsand the
downwardmovementduringthe kidnapping.Unlikethe contemporaryversion,this variantexpressesa degree of optimism the girl
she remainsremovedfromthe community.
reappears.Nevertheless,
Anotherlegend mirrorsthe contemporary
legend in thatthe girlis
temptedintotherealmof the Other,thistimebystrawberries:
Nâr manfelßer
manomveden
vejen
fra TorsemelletilAjdt,kommer
entidlißere
dereroverßroet
medsmâtr&er
bakke,
oßefter
ejer
oßbuske,
Dervildehörnern
kaldesSörenAjdt*s
skov.
s$ßehenforat samle
ßJArne
en
En HilepißefraTunßelund,
derudy
somßikmeßet
forsvandt
jordbar.
Folkhavdesetbende
oßifleredogeledte
ßanßsportest.
ßa indi skoven,
menalt
manda ombendesa veldersomi etkj&rvedsidenafbakken,
1980:vol. 1, 252)
varforßJAves.
(Kristensen
theroadfrom
TorsomilltoAjdt,youcometoa hill
(Whenyoufollow
withsmalltreesandbushesand,after
a previous
whichis overgrown
Thechildren
oftenwentthereto
owner,is calledSorenAjdt'sforest.
A littlegirlfromTungelund,
went
whofrequently
pickstrawberries.
outthere,disappeared
oncewithout
a trace.Peoplehadseenhergo
andtheysearched
forherformanydaysthereas well
intotheforest,
as a ina pondnextto thehill,butitwasallinvain.)
In all cases, a movementto the outside realmresultsin the Other
thecommunalintegrity.
disturbing
Implicitis theneed foryounggirls
to remain"inside" and the desireof the Otherto acquiresuch girls,
oftenforsexualpurposes.Whereasthecontemporary
variantpositions
and unknownhuman ethnic
the Other as a memberof a different
variantsidentify
the Otheras a supergroup,the nineteenth-century
naturalbeing.In all of theseaccounts,the girlis not returnedto the
community.
Whilemanyof the Otherappearingin Kristensen'scollectionsare
beings,humanOtheralso exist.In conjunctionwiththe
supernatural
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44
Scandinavian Studies
legendscitedabove,one shouldconsiderlegendsof the
bj&rgtagning
robberband whichstealsa girlto be theirslave:
udc i hcdenen höj,der
Sydvest
forAssensbyliggerpâ minejendom
Detstammer
hedder
Sinnishòj.
fra,at enpige,derhedSine,blevsnappet
derboedei höjen.Folkledtesvartefierhende0£f
kunde
afnogleròvere,
til
Arender
ikkeopdagehendes
og
Hungikafog
forröverne,
opholdssted.
Da kommer
huntilenbitte
engangvarhunsendtud efter
noglegryn.
hendeud om,hvorhunvarfra.Sa svarer
hun,at
kn&gt,
oghansporger
dettilkjende.
Hun lodgrynene
hunskulde
faldeafogtil,ogsâ
nokgive
1980:vol.4, 520)
(Kristensen
tilhöjen,
oghunblevudfriet.
fandtfolk
there'sa moundout on the
ofAssenson myproperty
(Southwest
heathwhichis calledSinni'smound.It stemsfromwhena girl,who
was calledSine,was snatchedby some robberswho livedin the
mound.Peoplelookedhardforherbutcouldn'tfindwhereshewas
nowandthenfortherobbersandone time
Sheranerrands
staying.
shewassentout aftergrain.Thenshecomesto a littleguy,andhe
thatshe'dlet
Thensheanswers
heraboutwhereshe'sfrom.
questions
it be known.She letsomegrainfallnowandthenandthenpeople
foundthemound,andshewasreleased.)
These legendstendto end on an optimistic
note,withthegirleventuremoved.In contrast,
communal
and
the
threat
to
released
integrity
ally
versionrefusesto returnthegirlto hercommunity.
thecontemporary
differentiated
OtheraremoredangerThe suggestionis thatethnically
the
Other.After
ous thansociallydifferentiated
all, sociallyunacceptable
arestillpartoftheethnically
acceptablegroup.In eithercase,thethreat
- it will alwaysbe dangerousforgirlsto travel
continuesimplicitly
outsidethecommunalboundariesin therealmof the Other.
can also be measuredin the successof the
The successof fertility
a
or
Physically sociallyhandicappedchildrenare inherently
offspring.
for
the
blame
threatto thesuccessofthecommunity.
Legend assigns
to theOther.Atthesametime,theselegendsexpressthe
suchoffspring
desireof the Otherto become partof theinnerrealm.Earlierlegend
traditioncontainsnumerousaccountsof changelings,identifiable
by
theirodd appearanceand actions:
De
der var der oventil S0ndergârd.
i et bJArg,
Der var bJArgfolk
en
solle
nor
i
i
en
Han
var
et
barn
byenog
gârd
derfra.
forbyttede
alle hansdage.Han lignedeogsâen dvArg
oggik i skywter
stymper
1980:vol. 1, 302)
al hanstid.(Kristensen
(skjörter)
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Danish Legend Tradition
45
veddegnensi Lovns.Degnensdattervar modertil
Der var en shifting
den.Den stodogsegledeogvistesâdan langeUnd. Det var en dreng,qg
han bleven trediveâr. (Kristcnscn1980: vol. 1, 304)
overin a mountainwhichwas over by
(There were mound-dwellers
a
child
fromthere.He was in a farmin the
Sondergârd.Theychanged
northern
partoftownand a poorwretchhiswholelife.He looked like
a dwarfand wore shirtsall the time.)
(Therewas a changelingat thedeacon's house in Lovns.The deacon's
daughterwas itsmother.It stood and scratcheditselfand showedits
yearsold.)
long teeth.It was a boy,and he reachedthirty
In each case, the child is that of the Other. The presence of this
changeling within the inner realm constitutes a frighteningthreat.
Contemporary legend traditionprovides several examples:
deres"kebstad"var
Min mor...voksede
oppâ 0regârdpâ Sydsj&lland,
Vordingborg,
og her boededer en lods,derjo of qg til var ret Unge
hjemmefra.Hans Konefgdteet negerbarnog mandenvar rasende
men det vistesig, at hans bedste-elleroldefarhavde v£retpâ Dansk
Sâ negerbarnet
derovremeden *indf0dt'y>
Vestindien
ogvar blevetgift
var et af de megetsjddne tilfdder,hvorbesternte
arveanl&gpludseliß
slâr igennem?
En dame i Oslo havdefedtet negerbarn,en mulat.Manden, en vidt
konensky
Idforikkeat haveholdtsigpâ
gav selvf0lgelig
rejsende
person,
i Europa.Hanskonebedyrede
matten,nârhan rejste
pâforretningsrejse
at han i Kebenhavnhosen
sin uskyldj
qgmandenmattetilsidsterkende,
lidt velrigeligt.Denne dame havdekort
dame havdedyppet
letlevende
ensoldatfra deamerikanske
medenneger,
vistnok
forindenv&retsammen
i Tyskland.Beskyttelsen
afnogen art havdeikkev&ret
bes&tteUesstyrker
sl&ber
medtilNorgeogputterdeni sin
negers&d
pâ tale,sa nordmanden
8
kone.
Summa
summarum:
Negerenvinder1-0.
egen
(My mother. . . grewup at 0regârd in southSjadland;theirmarket
townwasVordingborgand a pilotlivedtherewho was,everynow and
then,awayfromhome a long time. His wifegave birthto a negro
child,and the man was enraged- but it turnedout that hisgrandfatheror greatgrandfather
had been in the Danish West Indies and
7 Sentto Kofod Vibckc
Calov, age 86, Sjxlland.
by
8 Sent to Kofod
by Aksel R. Kondrup, Grenâ who collected the storyfromHans
a painter,Oppegârd,southof Oslo, at a buildingsitein June1960.
Christensen,
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46
Scandinavian Studies
So thenegrochildwasone
overtherewitha native.
hadbeenmarried
wherecertain
oftheveryseldomoccurrences
genescomethrough.)
(A womanin Oslo gave birthto a negrochild,a mulatto.The
a personwhotraveled
husband,
widely,
puttheblameon hiswife,of
whenhe wenton businesstripsin
herself
course,fornotbehaving
and thehusbandhad to
herinnocence,
Europe.His wifeasserted
aroundwitha loose
hehadscrewed
admitatlastthatinCopenhagen
witha negro,
beforebeentogether
woman.Thiswomanhadshortly
in Germany.
forces
a soldierfromtheAmerican
occupation
probably
carries
so theNorwegian
Therewasno talkofanytypeofprotection
andputsitintohisownwife.Summa
backtoNorway
thenegrosperm
thenegrowins1-0.)
summarum:
The Otherhas been able to forceitswayintotheinnerrealmthrough
traditionthephysicalhandicapofearliertradibirth.In contemporary
tionis replacedbyan ethnichandicap.Whiletheskincolorofthechild
does not hamperits actualphysicalabilities,it does hamperits social
of blacksand
abilities.Thompson notes thatthe racialclassification
whiteshas meaningand social significance"only to the extentthat
fromeach otheron dimensions
blacksand whitesare differentiated
otherthanskinpigmentation"and that"people do believethatthere
are socially meaningfuldifferencesbetween blacks and whites"
(Thompson 1989: 16-7). The blackchildis consideredequallyunable
to be partof societyas the nonhumanchangeling.The horrorof a
whiteDane givingbirthto a blackchildis implicitin theaccountsand
correlateswell withthe horrorboth the parentsand communityfeel
towardsthe changelingin earliertradition.The horrorof the event
seemsto be the mainmotivationalforcebehindthe legend's performance. In both cases, the man places initialblame on his wife,the
protectorof the domesticspace, but eventuallyis forcedto acknowlthe "outside" is able to
edge his "fault"in the matter.Interestingly,
forceitsway into the innerrealmwhen an insidertravelsawayfrom
thusthelegendsalso
home to engagein economicallycoded activity;
in
with
associated
the
engaging economicexchange
emphasize dangers
withtheoutside.In all of thevariants,the traditioncommunitygives
desireto maintainits "purity,"devoid of any
ventto itsethnocentric
desireto enterthe innerrealmplaysa major
Other's
The
handicaps.
role in theseaccounts.Fromthepointofviewof the insider,thisis a
However,in thecontempodangerousthreatto communalintegrity.
of minoritypeoples to
wish
of
the
subtext
the
speaks
raryvariants,
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Danish Legend Tradition
47
group. The
integratethemselvesinto the dominantethnic/cultural
thedesireto avoid
horrorof theDanes in thelegendperhapsmirrors
as itthreatens
thealreadyestablishedculturalboundsuchintegration
aries. As such, the legend does not hold out much hope for the
minority
personwho hopes to integratehimselfintoDanish society.
Sexual liaisonswiththe Otherconstitutea threatto the perseverance of the communityas a homogeneous entity.In the firstcase
hazardousrelationship
is averted.The Otheris
examined,a potentially
rebuffed
atthelastsecond,eitherbysexualimpotencyor an expression
ofhumanness.In contrast,theOtherexpressestheinvertednatureof
theirrealm.In the second case considered,the Other repeatedlyatmembersofthecommunity
as a means
temptsto stealthemostfertile
of the innerrealm.Whetherthe girl
of compromisingthe integrity
- she has been indeliblystamped
returnsor not is almostimmaterial
of the outerrealm.One of the greatestthreatsto the
withthe effects
is thetransplantation
of a babyfromtheouterrealminto
community
theinnerrealm.The Other'sbabyin thiscase threatensthe homogeneityof theinsidegroup.
As notedabove,theOtheroftentriesto poison humanfood.Food
is one taskthatshouldbe carriedout exclusively
withinthe
preparation
innerrealm.Allowingoutsideelementsto engagein foodpreparation
or to evenhaveaccessto foodstorageareascan havedisastrousconseFriedRat" legendhasbeenthecenterofgreat
quences.The "Kentucky
and
debatein contemporary
scholarly
legendstudies(Fine
speculation
1980; Brunvand1981, 1984, 1986, 1989, 1993). In manyof the
theoffending
restaurant
is ownedbynon-ethnic
Scandinavian
variants,
Danes, usuallyreadilyidentifiableones such as Chinese or Turks
(Klintberg1988). Bregenhojincludesa variantof one such account:
Det var et ungtpar, somßik pâ kinesisk
restaurant.De bestilte
forãrs
rulleroßßikmedgodappétitigang medmaden.Pludseligmarkededen
at
ungemand,athanfik nogethârdti sin mundfuld,menhanfors0£fte
synkedet. Det blev imidlertidsiddendei halsen,og hvad man end
hvor
gjorde,komdet ikkeUs igen.Manden mattetagepà skadestuen,
at
det
et
som
han
i
var
halsen.
konstaterede,
rotteben,
Legen
havdefâet
blev alarmeretog unders0gteden kinesiske
Sundhedsmyndighederne
restaurantmed det résultat,at man afshrede,at der i fryseren
var
rotter
side
om
side
i
háleme.
adskilligeslagtede
h&ngtop
(Bregenhoj
1978: 70)
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48
Scandinavian Studies
They
(Therewasa youngcouplewhowentto a Chineserestaurant.
ordered
beganeatingthefood.All
eggrollsand,withgoodappetites,
hardinhis
ofa sudden,theyoungmannoticedthathehadsomething
mouth,buthe triedto swallowit. It got caughtin histhroatand
ofwhathedid,hecouldn'tgetitout.Theguyhadto go to
regardless
thatitwasa rat
roomwherethedoctordetermined
theemergency
were
The healthofficials
bonewhichhadgottenstuckin histhroat.
that
withtheresult
theChineserestaurant
andtheysearched
notified,
numerous
rats
in
the
discovered
freezer,
that,
slaughtered had
they
beenhungup,sidebyside,fromtheirtails.)
The Otheris readyat anymomentto pass poison or nonhumanfood
and thelike
offas "normal."In earlierlegend,trolls,bjsrßfolk,
cllefolk
would tempttheunwaryfarmhandwithordinarylookingfood. This
food,however,was oftenpoisonousor in otherwayshexedto appear
normalwhenin factit was not:
SörenKristensen,
Pâ Torshöj
foren20 âr siden.Da
plöjedeen mandy
om
kUderoßsorti ansißtet,
ud afhöjeni sorte
kometkvindemenneske
en
Sa
sa skulde
enskâde,hunßiktnedy
hanikkevildefare
kaße.
hanfâ
somkjerte
komhunmeden,oßda blevendreng,
syß.(Kristensen
ploven,
1980:vol. 1, 104)
yearsago.
plowedonTorshojabouttwenty
(A man,SorenKristensen,
Thena womaninblackclothesandwitha blackfacecameoutofthe
mound,[andasked]ifhe wouldn'trepaira spadeshehad,thenhe'd
geta cake.Thenshecamewithoneandthentheboy,whodrovethe
plow,gotsick.)
In thisinstance,thefood offeredbythe Otheris acceptedand results
in illness.
legend thatexperiencedhyBregenh0jidentifieda contemporary
thevariantsas follows:
in 1978 .9He summarizes
peractivetransmission
i en
i âr opskramte
deferste
Gennem
befolkninßen
par ußeraffebruar
havdeindesprejtede
omat terrorister
landeafnyheden
r&kke
europ&iske
da mani
Det helestartede
i isr&lske
kviks0lv
tilsyneladende
appelsiner.
«Arab
kaldet
omenpaUstinesisk
Hollandfikmeddelse
organization
israelske
havde
Command*
Palestinian
forßiftet
Army,
Revolutionary
1978: 65)
(Bregenhoj
Jaffa-appeUiner.
9As
state
transmissionary
such,thislegendcirculatedas rumor.Rumoris a hyperactive
of legend. PatrickMullen considersthe relationof contemporary
legend to rumor,
oflegend(Mullen 1972).
suggestingthatrumoractsas a reinforcement
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Danish Legend Tradition
49
fewweeksofFebruary
thisyear,thecitizensof a
(Duringthefirst
wereterrified
seriesofEuropeancountries
bythenewsthatterrorists
intoIsraelioranges.It all started,
mostlikely,
hadinjectedmercury
in Hollandthata Palestinian
whennoticewasreceived
organization
Palestinian
Command''had poicalled"ArabRevolutionary
Army,
sonedIsraeliJaffa
oranges.)
The accountwas also carriedin newspapersthroughoutEurope, in. The terrorist
Palestinians
creasingbothitsdispersionand believability
and
as
intent
on
the
food
disrupting
supply poisoning
appear theOther
themembersoftheinnerrealm.In thefollowingexamplesfromearlier
tradition,the poisoned fruitis an apple,whichis deliberately
placed
to poison someone:
along theroad or otherwiseproffered
Detvarnoßet
Da jeßvardrenßßikjeß
Gärslev
vedFredericia.
hjemfra
en
Da retsomjeß
kommer
overmiddaßyoßjcßvarsulten.
by
lißcudenfor
veda stordam,finderjeß et dejlißtrödtMe pà vejen.Jeßßrebdet,
menuha! denfoleste
ßjordekortprocèsoß toßen v&ldißmundfuld,
i ansißtet,
at det
materie
mißud omkrinß
oßjeß sa nuferst,
spröjtede
varhuit,mensamletmedtrepinde.Jeßvar15 ar denßanß,menjeß
endnutydeliß,
detvarformiß.Kort
husker
hvorunderliß
VAmmeliß
detvenstre
benoßhavden&raldrißsluppet
syvbylderpà
af
efterfikjeß
meddem.(Kristensen
1980:vol.7, 348)
Itwas
Gârslev
nearFredericia.
(WhenI wasa boy,I walkedhomefrom
whenI geta little
outoftown
a little
Just
pastnoon,andI washungry.
redappleontheroad.I grabitand
neara bigpond,I finda wonderful
butyeach!the
makeshortprocessofit bytakinga hugemouthful,
material
outintomyface,andI nowsawforthefirst
foulest
sprayed
timethatitwashollowbuthadbeenheldtogether
bythreepins.I was
I
it
howincredibly
fifteen
old
that
but
remember
time,
clearly,
years
itwasforme.A littlelater,I gotsevenboilson myleftleg,
disgusting
nevergottenridofthem.)
andI've practically
Thisvariantalso includestherandomnatureoftheattackfoundin the
account,as no particularvictimis singledout. In all
contemporary
cases, an innocuous but tempting(the apple has temptedmankind
fromthebeginning!
) fruitbecomesthevesselofthreat.This featureof
as partof"The
thelegendpromptedSylviaGriderto dub thenarratives
Razor Blades in theApple Syndrome"(Grider1984; Ellis 1989). In
thewitch'spositionis takenoverbythe fortradition,
contemporary
In each case,theOtheroperateswithintheinnerrealm
eignterrorists.
witheasyaccessto thefoodsupply.The legendssuggestthattheOther
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50
Scandinavian Studies
can in factbe verycloseathand.Althoughboththewitchand Palestinian terrorist
aredisguisedin humanform,theyaredecidedlymembers
of the Other,as evidencedthroughtheirdestructiveactions.Their
cleverhumandisguisesmakethemallthemoredangerous.Bregenhoj,
in analyzingthelegend,mentionsthat"historierne
byggespâ en ofte
situationmensammetidig
forekommende
grunderde sigpâ nogetvier
erdertaleom etnytelementi samfiindslivet"
bangefor... i fieretilfadde
(Bregenhoj1978: 71) [thestoriesbuildon a commonsituationbut,at
thesame time,theygroundthemselveson somethingwe are afraidof
... inmanycasesthereis a questionofnewelementsinthesocietallife].
and witchesled
In theearlierlegends,thefearoftheellefolk,
bj&rgfolk,
oflegendsconcerningeitherthepoison natureof
to thetransmission
the Other's food or the Other's desireto poison human food. The
becausetheyhave
areparticularly
witches,liketheterrorists,
terrifying
In the
or theellefolk.
greateraccessto theinnerrealmthanthebjargfolk
thefearofcontaminatedfoodpersists.Instead
variants,
contemporary
the
of witchescontaminatingthe food, theirmoderncounterparts,
as newelementsinsocietyandthusas newactorsintherealm
terrorists,
of the Other,playtheleadingrole.
The Otherhave also been engagedin the theftof food and, more
thetheftofhouseholdpets,whicharelatereatenfordinner.
strikingly,
as is attestedby
Accountssuchas thesehavegreatglobal distribution,
folknarrative
FlorenceBaer'sstudyofanti-Vietnamese
(Baer 1982). A
variantfollows:10
contemporary
etâr siden,detvar en dame derskullei Brugsenog
Det helestartedefor
bun bar tagetsin bund med.Hunger ind i Brugsenog tyveminutter
efterda bun komud sâ bun ligenbagdelenaf hunden.Hunfulgteefter,
den blevtrukket
og op
afen invandrer.Hangik ind i en trappeopgang
Hun
anden
sal.
prevedeat bankepâ deren,menhan àbnedeikke
pâ
sâ hungikind til naboenogringedetilpolitiet.Da de kom,âbnedehan
et- klartilat Hive
hundenstodbarber
deren.De komud i kekkenethvor
là
der
hunde
de
âbnede
Da
ogfugleogkaniner,klartil
fryseren,
slagtet.
at blivespist.
(It all starteda year ago. There was a woman who had to go to
Brugsen,and she took her dog along. She goes into Brugsenand
twentyminuteslater,whenshe came out, shejustsees thebacksideof
He goes
herdog. She follows;it was beingpulled by an immigrant.
10Sentto Jensenand Kofod byHenrikBech Jensen,Fârup.
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Danish
Legend
Tradition
51
intoa stairwelland up to thesecond floor.She triedto knockon the
door,buthe didn'topen- so shewentin to theneighbor'sapartment
and called the police. When theycame, he opened the door. They
went out to the kitchenwherethe dog stood shaved- readyto be
slaughtered.When theyopened the freezer,dogs, birds,and rabbits
werelyingin therereadyto be eaten.)
In thiscase,whiletheDane is in themarket
shoppingforher(i.e.:
the
the
invandrcr, Other,goes "shopping"for his
normal)food,
of the
A secondvariantdoes not includethetimelyarrival
food!11
police:12
Historienomhunden,derblevstjàletoßspistaftyrkerfikjeß
fortaltfor
mennesker
cd. 4 âr siden. Det var i en kredsof retsa fornuftige
oß
detßik ud over.Dissemennesker
ßik tur
fortdlerenkendtede menneske,
medderesßravhund,dapludselißtetpar tyrkere
snuppedelinen ud of
medhunden.Da politietfandt
hândenpâ dissemennesker
oßforsvandt
Hele tyrkerfamilien
varmàltidetlige
overstâet.
fremulßerninßsm&nden,
benvar tilbaße.
sad omkrinßbordetoß kun de afyn&vede
(I heardthe storyof the dog whichwas stolen and eaten by Turks
about fouryearsago. It was in a circleof reasonablepeople, but the
tellerknewthepeople it happenedto. These people took a walkwith
theirdachshundwhenall of a suddena couple ofTurkssnatchedthe
leash out of theirhands and disappearedwith the dog. When the
dinnerwasjustfinished.The entirefamily
of
policefoundtheculprits,
Turkssat aroundthe tableand onlythe gnawedbones wereleft.)
in describing
Thereis a grotesque
delighton thepartofthenarrator
the
theentire
Turkish
around
sitting
well-gnawed
pup.In earlier
family
theroleoftheOtheris filledbyellefolk:
variants,
Hans fadertjentei Töjstrup,
En karlfortaltemißfelßende:
oßdenßanß
helt
ned
til
skoven
op
Töjstrupby,nu erderkanskeenheltfjerdinßvej
ßik
De komtit
til den.Der i skovenvar ellefolk,
somvar huleop ad ryßßen.
hentilham,nâr han var hyrde,
oß de vilßj&rnelistehansmeldmadfra
De
det
de
var
ham,
jo det, ßik efter. ßik oßsaind i byenoßvarslemmetil
atstj&lederoßtaßedereskatte.Dem spistede,saßdeman.Folkeneskulde
se nöjepa-,at dereskatteikkevar enei stuen,forellerssnappedede dem.
(Kristensen 1980: vol. 2, 34)
11
whenfinally
the invandrer^
caught,haveshavedthedog beforeslaughInexplicably,
teringit.
12Sentto Jensen Werner
Flirschua,Horsens.
by
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52
Scandinavian Studies
andat
hisfather
workedin Tojstrup,
(A guytoldmethefollowing:
wentallthewaydownto thetownofTojstrup;
thattimetheforest
therewereelves
a mileup to it.In theforest
nowthere'spractically
whohadhollowsintheirbacks.Theyoftencametohimwhenhewas
andtheytriedto stealhisbreadfromhim,thatwaswhat
a shepherd,
theywanted.Theyalsowentintotownandwerebad aboutstealing
cats.It'ssaidthattheyatethem.
thereandtaking
[thetownspeople's]
their
catsweren'talone in a room
watch
out
that
had
to
People
becausethentheywouldgetsnatched.)
In bothcases,theOtherstealsand eatsthefamily
pet- an animalthat
is notonlypartoftheinnerrealmbutalso an integralpartofthefamily,
onlyone stepremovedfromthestatusof a child.
In a directattackagainstthe innerrealm,the Other also triesto
maim,hurt,orkill.WhileKlintberg'scollectionofSwedishcontemporarylegends containsnumerousaccountsof thissort,the only one
to as
presentin theDanish collectionto dateis one commonlyreferred
an
as
views
the
"the severedfingers."Klintberg
expressionof
legend
victim
with
the
reactionsto violentsituations
unconsciouslyor acci1986:
the
attacker
48). His examination
(Klintberg
dentally
victimizing
This observation
seen.
is
the
attacker
that
ofthevariantsreveals
always
in which the
variants
Danish
of
with
the
contrastssharply
majority
of
horror
the
the
of
the
attacker
unseennature
discoveryof
heightens
the amputatedfingers:13
- eller var det
En m0rk,sen often,med tage, er en hjemmehj&lper
¿fard.Hun kererstille,da
sygeplejer-pâvej hjemfra en edeheliggende
er ringe.Pludseligsyneshun,at hun hererbarnegrâd( sigtbarheden
skrig).Hun standserhilenqg¿farud i den utte tagefor at spejdei
sighentil hilen,
retningaflyden.Med eetfelerhunsigutrygogskynder
springerind, starterog k$rersa hurtigtsom muligthjem. Da hun
led
serhun,at dersidderdefireyderste
kommer
hjemogâhnerhild$ren
afen handfast i derenl
(One dark,late night,withfog,a ladywho had helped withhouse
work- or was thata nurse- is on herway home froma farmin the
is bad. All
middleofnowhere.She drivesslowly,becausethevisibility
of a sudden,she thinksthatshe hearsa childcrying(- screams).She
stopsthe car and goes out intothedense fogto look in the direction
of the sound. At once she feelsinsecure,and she hurriesback to the
car,jumpsin,and startsand drivesas quicklyas possiblehome.When
13Sent to Jensen Dorte Jensen,Herning.
by
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Danish Legend Tradition
53
shegetshomeandopensthecardoor,sheseesthatthefourouter
ofa handarecaughtinthedoor!)
mostextremities
theintendedvictimas a nursefromÂrhus:14
A secondvariantidentifies
omen ungsygeplejerske
i Ârhus.Det var en
Den andenhistorie
fortaller
hvorhunvarpâ vejhjemi bilefterenaftenvaßtpahospitalet.
vinternat,
Hun var tratoß kerteden direktevejßennemMarselisborßskoven.
Da
hunerhalvtigennemserhunen byIt,derliggermidtudepâ vejen.Hun
standserbilen,âbnerderenoßstißerud afbilen. Inden hun nâr atßa
rundtom deren,far hun pludselißen starkfelelseaf at hun ikkeer
kasterhun siß r&dselsslaßen
ind i bilen,smakker
alene. Som en refleks
Pâ
dereni medetbraßoßspeederop oßkererud afskovenpâ rekordtid.
tilro,menhunerdoßstadiß
resten
af vejenhjemfalderhunefterhânden
underlißtilpas,da hunparkererbileni sinßaraße.Idethuntanderlyset
i bilen,opdagerhun,at hun har blödpâ tejet. Hun drejerhovedettil
venstre,mod bilderen,oßßiver et skrißfra siß, da hun ser en blodiß
i deren!!!Lanß tidseneremederhunievrißten koließa
finßerklemtfast
et
der
kan berette
handeisen
kursus,
om,at omirent
pâ
pâ dettidspunkt
fandt sted,arbejdedehun pâ en skadestue,hvorman behandledeen
mand,derhavdemistetenfinßer.
(The second storytellsof a young nursein Ârhus.It was a winter
night,and shewas on herwayhomein hercaraftera nightshiftat the
hospital.ShewastiredanddrovethedirectroutethroughMarselisborg
forest.When she is halfwaythroughit,she sees a bundlelyingin the
middleoftheroad. She stopsthecar,opens thedoor, and getsout of
thecar.Beforeshe managesto get aroundthedoor, she getsa strong
feeling,all of a sudden,thatshe isn't alone. As a reflex,she throws
herselfterrified
back into the car, slams the door with a bang and
speedsup and drivesout of theforestin recordtime.Duringthe rest
of the way home, she beginsto settledown, but she's stillfeelinga
littlebitstrangewhensheparksthecarin hergarage.Whenshe turns
on thelightin thecar,she discoversthatshe has blood on herclothes.
She turnsherhead to thelefttowardthe car door and screamswhen
she sees a bloodyfingercaughtin the door!!! A long timelater,she
meetsa colleagueat a seminarwho tellsherthatat thesametimethis
roomwheretheytreated
happened,shewasworkingat an emergency
a man who had lost a finger.)
The thirdvariantis in fact a collection of variants,and includes references to various types of psychologicallyor socially unstable men:15
14SenttoJensen MarinKruse,
by
Mariager.
15SenttoJensen
andKofodbyK.N.,Àrhus.
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54
Scandinavian Studies
tudervindenuhyßßelißtßennem
Deter midnat.Almindelißvis
Uheßnets
koldtnedfra oven.En syßeplejerske
stirrer
traer.
Mane
oßstjerner
neßne
i
efteraftenvaßtskal hjemforat sove.Hun har arbejdetpâ et syßehus
Skalen, Senderborß,Esbjerß, Odense, Sore, Priste oß Renne. Vel
ankommettilsin bolißàbnerhun bilderen,oß ned dratteren samlinß
en mand,haftsinefinßreude efter
finßre.Altsâ har enperson,sikkert
damen,da hun vedsin arbejdspladssattersiß ind i bilen.For ikkeat
bliveudsatforlidtafhvertsm&kkerhun
bildereniforn&sen(ßnßrene?)
enforlystelsessyß
herre,enpervers
jyr,euerhvad han nu
af enjyIdebette,
kan vare.Finßrenekommermedhjem,menikkemanden.Han blevvel
slidtned til inßentinßudepâ landevejensasfalt.
throughthewindbreak's
(It is midnight.Usuallythewindiswhistling
nakedtrees.The moon and thestarsstarecoldlydown fromabove. A
nurseis on her way home to sleep aftera nightshift.She has been
workingat a hospitalin Skagen,Sonderborg,Esbjerg,Odense, Sor0,
Praest0,and Bjanne.Whenshe is safelyhome,she opens thecardoor,
a person,almost
and downtumblesa collectionoffingers.
Apparently
when she got
after
the
woman
his
out
had
a
fingers
definitely man,
she
intohercarat herworkplace. To encountera littleofeverything,
ofa drunk,a sex-crazed
slamsthecardoor righton thenose (fingers?)
come alonghome,
or whateverhe maybe. The fingers
man,a pervert,
but not the man. He is worndown to nothingout on the highway's
asphalt.)
A finalvariant identifiesthe attackersas "rockere" [motorcycle gang
members] and is markedly similar to the variants mentioned by af
Klintberg(1986:45-8):16
somefteren aftenvaßtvar po' vej
Min venindekenderen syßeplejerske,
til sin bil skullehun krydseen
nâ
hen
at
Det
var
sent,
oßfor
hjem.
Hun var lidt utryßvedSituationen,oß
temmelißede parkerinßsplads.
bedre blev det ikke, da en ßruppe rockerekomfräsende ind pâ
De beßyndte
omßaendeat
pâ deresstoremotorcykler.
parkerinßspladsen
hun
blev
n&rmere
de
kom
da
narmere,
alvorlißt
hende,
oß
oß
ßenere
i bilen.Hun na,ede liße
banße oß sattei lebfor at kommei sikkerhed
derenhârdti, speedede
akkuratind, indendefikfati hende,sm&kkede
Hun
rasende
heje rãb oßskrißfra
i
kerte
herteßodtnok
fart.
afsted
opoß
var
menantoß,at det var utrykfor
over,at offeret
skuffelse
rockerne,
Da hunendelißnâedehjemoßskulletilatstißeud af bilen,
undsluppet.
i bilderen.. . .
finßerfastklemt
opdaßedehun,at dersad en afreven
16Sentto Jensenand Kofod byBirgitteSeider,Frederiksberg,
who had heardthestory
froma formercolleague.
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Danish Legend Tradition
55
a night
knowsa nursewhowason herwayhomeafter
(Mygirlfriend
shift.It was late,and,to get to hercar,she had to crossa really
andit
withthesituation,
lot.Shefelta littleinsecure
deserted
parking
intotheparking
cametearing
didn'thelpwhena groupofrockers
to harassherrightaway,
Theystarted
placeon theirbigmotorcycles.
shegotreallyscared
and
closer
when
closer,
and,
theykeptcoming
ofhercar.Shejustmanagedto
to runto reachthesafety
andstarted
thedoorhard,sped
getin beforetheygotholdofher,sheslammed
did
hearloudyellsand
incredible
She
at
an
drove
and
speed.
away
up,
of
butassumedthattheywereanexpression
screams
fromthebikers,
reached
aboutthevictim's
escape.Whenshefinally
disappointment
outofthecar,shenoticedthata severed
homeandwasgetting
finger
wascaughtinthecardoor.. . .)
In all cases,thewoman(and itis a woman!) is a nurseon herwayhome
situationis presented.
a threatening
fromworkat night.Immediately,
A womanis out atnight- sheisneitheratworknorathome,butrather
in the limbo of her commute- therebytreadingin the dangerous
realmof the Other.As long as she remainsin her car,providedshe
managesto get there,she is freefromthreat.However,in the first
variant,the cryof a babyawakensherinstinctsboth as a mother(or
potentialmother)and as a nursecausingherto stopthecarand getout.
That thewomanis a nurseunderscoresthetraditionalrole ofwoman
the nurseis
as helper,healer,nourisher,and protector.Furthermore,
because ofherimplicitrolein
ofthecommunity
linkedto thefertility
In short,thenurseactsas a protectorofcommunal
assistingchildbirth.
In
this
case, the Other deliberatelyattemptsto harm an
integrity.
vital
memberof theinnerrealm.
importantand
one findsplentifulaccountsof a similarnature.
In earliertradition,
ofa Swedishvariant,relatesthelegendto a
in
her
evaluation
Simpson,
threatened
boat journey
by a water spirit(Simpson 1981: 207).
ofsimilaraccountsundertherubric
several
variants
includes
Kristensen
of "Mislykkedeoverfald"(Failed attack).These are the obvious prevariants:
cursorsto thecontemporary
en2, 3 dogeoßßet lovtilat tagesabelen
En soldathavdefàetpermission
medsig,dethavdeman ellersikkelovtil i de doge.Han vildetiljerslev
qg sa komhan ind qgfik sig en dram i kroen.Da kommerder en
han vilde ogsâ her nordpà. Sa sporgerSoldaten
gârdmand kj0rende>
gârdmanden,omhan kundeikkefâlovtil at kjeremed.Jo,detkunde
vareskjentnok>forvejenvar ikkealtid sa rargennem0sbj&rgbakker,
han havdenetopv&reti Âlborgogfàet nqglepenge,somhan havde
0£f
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56
Scandinavian Studies
sa ud at kj0rey
i krattet,
medsig.De kommer
Hiverde
ogda de kommer
hvertilsinsideaf egeneoggriberi
of 3 rovere.De tospringer
omringet
Soldaten
dem, oß den tredievil springeop i vognen.Men sa tr&kker
sabelenqg huggerenfìngerof ham, qg den bliverlißgendei vognen.
de afalle tre.(Kristensen1980: vol. 4, 475)
Ovenpâ det¿falopperede
Der var en röverbandei Gjellerup,somhavdesin kuleved landvejen
mellemVarde og Öllevad,og da han red hjemyrertehan ved kjaden.
Rövernesprangop og en togved mundenafhesten,en anden i halen,
menhangav hestenafsporeneqghuggededenandenshand af. Da han
komtil Vardeâ, var derflodoppeoghan ma tilbagetil Gjellerup.Der
komhan til engârd, hvorkun en koneog en Hilepige var hjemme.
Händen h&ngteendnu i halen, qg pigen kunde kjende,at det var
faderens,pâ en ring. Sa sigerhun: *Det er jo minfadershand, der
sidderommei bestens
hale,"ogsâ satterhan sigatteropqgriderhjemad
Vardetil. Nu skuldehan over,i hvordandetgik,og lovedeat byggeet
til kirken,hvishan slap levendederfra.lian komgodt overog
stykke
. . . (Kristensen1980: vol. 4, 473^74)
holdtsitUffte.
(A soldierhad receivedleave fortwo or threedaysand had received
permissionto takehissaberwithhim,whichwasn'tallowedotherwise
and so he wentin and had
in thosedays.He wantedto go to Jerslev,
a dram at the inn. Then a farmercomes drivingalong and he also
ifhe could ridealong.
wantsto go north.So thesoldierasksthefarmer
Yeah, thatwould be good enough,because theroad wasn'talwaysso
nice throughthe 0sbjaerghills,and he had just been in Âlborgand
gottensome money,whichhe had withhim.So theystartdrivingand
when theyget to the thickettheyare surroundedby threerobbers.
Two of themjump to eitherside ofthe nagsand grabhold,thethird
triesto jumpup intothewagon.But thesoldierpullsout hissaberand
that
slashesone ofhisfingers
off,anditremainslyinginthewagon.After
all three[oftherobbers]gallopoff.)
(Therewas a robberbandin Gjellerupwhichhad itshang-outnearthe
highwaybetweenVarde and Öllevad, and when he rode home he
brushedagainstthechain.The robbersjumpedup, and one grabbed
thehorse'smouth,and thesecondthetail,buthe spurredhishorseon
and choppedthehandoffthesecond.Whenhe got to theVarderiver,
thewaterwas up, and he had to go backto GjeUerup.There he came
to a farmwhereonlya womanand a littlegirlwereat home. The hand
stillhungin thetail,and thegirlrecognizeditas herfather'sbya ring.
Then she says: "That's my dad's hand which is stucktherein the
horse's tail," and then he gets back on his horse and rides home
towardsVarde.Now he mustgetoverno matterwhatand promisesto
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Danish Legend Tradition
57
ifhe getsawayalive.He gotsafely
acrossand
buildon to thechurch,
...)
kepthispromise.
In mostofthesecases,theidentity
oftherobber,theOther,is brought
inner
realm
oftheampuintotheimmediate
throughtheidentification
a
child.
mentions
that
in earlier
tated hand or fingersby
Klintberg
accounts such as these,the amputationof the hands is deliberate,
causedbyan actofself-defense
(Klintberg1986: 48). He seesthisas an
betweencontemporary
and earliervariants.Howareaof discrepancy
thecase. Instead,theactofslammingthecar
everthisis notnecessarily
as lashingout witha baredsaber.Whilethe
door is equallyas defensive
allowedforculturally
to carry
earliertradition
crediblecharacters
swords,
thisis not the case in contemporary
society.Since people rarelyride
in contemporary
horsesas a dailymeansoftransportation
society,the
culturallycrediblecar has takenits place. The more recentvariants
as a protectivemeasuremuch as the earlier
mentiondoor-slamming
variantsmentionthe slashof the swordas a defensivemeasure.The
amputationof hands and fingersin contemporarylegend may be
traceddirectlyback to theseearliervariantsas a car door is explicitly
designednotto amputatelimbscaughtbetweenitand thecarframe.17
In all of thevariants,theintendedvictimis alwaysstartledto findhis
attackersdigitsstuckto his/herconveyance.
Despite manyof the areasof agreement,earliervariantsand convariants
ofthislegendexhibitnumerousareasofdiscrepancy.
temporary
The mostnotableof thesediscrepanciesis the sex of the attacked
variantshavea
earliervariantshavea malevictim,whilecontemporary
female victim. This change in victim highlightsthe process of
In earlierDanishsociety,itwasuncommonfora woman
historicization.
to travelalone on the roads. The legendis distinctly
relatedto travel
a culturally
crediblecharacter
is neededto filltheroleof
and,therefore,
variantsreplacethe male travelerwitha
traveler.The contemporary
femaletraveler
fora numberofpossiblereasons.Whileearliertradition
could not supporta lone femaletraveleras a crediblefigure,the
workingwomanis now a socialreality.Possibly,thetraditionchooses
17
ofFord Motor Company'sBody and
Design engineersin the"Closures" department
Chassis EngineeringDivision state that car closures are designed not to resultin
closedon fingers,
etc.The OfficeofMicrosurgery
at the
amputationwheninadvertently
of California,San FranciscoMedical Centerconfirmedthattheyhave only
University
rarelybeen involvedin surgeryon fingerscrushed in car doors. They had never
encountereda fullyamputatedfingeras mentionedin thelegendvariants.
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58
Scandinavian Studies
a woman to act as intendedvictimto underscoretheperceptionthat
woman's journeyto the outsiderealmto fulfilla non-domesticrole
The domesticroleassignedby
(i.e. work)as a dangerousundertaking.
preservedin theworktheintendedvictim
societyto womenis partially
- nurse.
performs
liesin theidentityoftheattacker.The
Anotherarea ofdiscrepancy
- the
earlierhighwayrobberhas been replacedbyhis contemporaries
drunk,or gangmember.Brunvand'sand Klintberg'scolpsychopath,
lections both include numerous variantsof psychopathickillers
attemptingto attackwomen in theirautomobiles.The automobile
an extensionof the innerrealm- a meansto be conveyed
represents
safesafelythroughtherealmoftheOther.However,itis notentirely
theOtherhas easyaccessto theopen car.A journeythroughtherealm
of the Other is inherently
dangerous.While the car givesa sense of
womenwho do travelthroughthe
itis a falsesense.Therefore,
security,
realmof the Other,evenifbycar,are at risk.
of the ampuliesin thepossibleinterpretations
A finaldiscrepancy
tation.Earliervariantsalwayspositiontheattackeras a robberthereby
providinga reasonfortheloss ofa hand thehandis used to steal.In
is rape.
theimplicitintentionoftheattacker
thecontemporary
variants,
hasmovedfroman explicitsymbolto an
The amputationofthefingers
(Dundes 1971 and
implicitone actinghereas a metaphorforcastration
maynot be necessaryifthe intentof the
1980). This interpretation
attackeris to maimor killthe intendedvictim.Both of theseactions
would be carriedout byhand- theremovalofthehandwould remove
tales such as "The
thatthreat(Dégh 1968 and 1971). Regretfully,
who aremissinga handareprone
Hook" tellus thatevenpsychopaths
to attack- using theirprosthesisinsteadof theirmissingfingers.In
contrastto theotherlegendsconsideredabove,theselegendsoffailed
sociocentric.
attackshave remainedessentially
The perceptionsof the Other in Danish legend traditionreveal
severalaspectsof the functionof legendin society.JohnLindow has
natureof legend
in the socio- and ethnocentric
noted the continuity
to be
and sociocentric,
acrosstime:"Modernlegendryis ethnocentric
sure, but in thatit simplyexhibitscontinuitywith older tradition"
(Lindow 1989: 401). ManyDanish legendshavemovedfromimplicit
to explicitethnocentrism.
ethnocentrism
By equating the minority
cultureswithtrolls,elves,and othernonhuman
refugeeandimmigrant
placesthesepeople
legendtradition
groups,theDanish contemporary
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Danish Legend Tradition
59
outsideof theDanish culturalboundaries.In earlyagrarianDenmark
and earlytwentieth
ofthenineteenth
centuries,therewerefewthreats
to the ethnichomogeneityof the Danes. Occasional outsidersappopulations,were pushed into
peared and, likethe currentminority
therealmoftheOther.Becausetheethnicthreatwas highlyabstractin
thisearliercontext,the role of Other was assignedto supernatural
and actual
was not omnipresent
beings.Threatto ethnichomogeneity
thetradibutratherperceivedand implicit.In thenineteenthcentury,
tiondominantforethnicthreatresidedin thesupernatural
beings.In
tradition,thismotifemicslot is filledby the minority
contemporary
populations.
Witchesand robbers,thoughhumanin appearance,also belongto
these
the realmof the Other. Ratherthanbeing ethnicdistinctions,
In contemporary
two categoriesare social distinctions.
tradition,the
robberhas been replacedbythepsychopath,
drunk,or gangmember,
ofhistoricization,
anothersocialdistinction.
Despitethevariouseffects
have preservedtheirsociocentricnature.In
these legend narratives
contrast,thelegendsaboutwitchesand poisoned fruithavemovedin
to the realmof ethnocentrism.
partfromthe realmof sociocentrism
The terrorist
The witchhasbeenreplacedbytheterrorist.
encompasses
both a social and ethnicdistinction.Not only does he distinguish
socialintegrity,
himself
throughhisactsofviolenceaimedatdisrupting
in thiscase Palestinian,firmly
entrenches
but also his ethnicidentity,
himoutsidethe ethnicboundariesof the Danish innerrealm.
in definingthe
legenduses, in largepart,ethnicity
Contemporary
remainsconof
the
Other
While
the
function
of
the
Other.
identity
stant,the identitychanges fromsupernaturalor asocial actantsto
ethnicallyunacceptableactants.Lanternaricommentson the dehumanizinggoal of ethnocentrism:
Proprioin forza di questopassagio un gruppofinisceper negarepari
valoreummanoall'altrogruppo,cheperciòvienediscriminato,
perseguitato, marginalizzatoe al limite annientato.(Lanternari1983:
151)
(Preciselyas a resultofthisprocess,one groupends up denyingequal
human worthto anothergroup which is, therefore,discriminated
against,persecuted,marginalizedand, in the extreme,annihilated.)
This process corresponds with what one observes in contemporary
Danish legend tradition.Because the actantschange fromsupernatural
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
60
Scandinavian Studies
thelegends
Otherto a dehumanizedbut actualgroup"immigrants,"
to explicitlyethnocentric.
shiftfrombeing overtlyanthropocentric
The resultis at leastmarginalization
of theimmigrant
groupsand, at
and persecutionof these groups. The
worst,acts of discrimination
need to codifythe threatof ethniccontaminationforcedthe usurpation of earlier legend roles, assigning these roles to ethnically
unacceptablegroupsand resultingin the formationof highlyethnocentriclegends.Anyethnicgroupwhichis not Danish is unacceptable
bythetraditionstandards.This attitudeis implicitin theuse ofgeneral
inthelegends.Whentheethnictermssuchas invandrer[immigrants]
ity of the Danes became threatenedin a concreteand observable
mannerthroughtheinfluxoflargenumbersofnon-ethnicDanes, the
reactionwas to assignthesegroupsthe nonhumanrole of Other in
tradition.In thismanner,thethreatto Danish ethnichomogeneityis
underscored.At the same time,the exclusivenatureof legend helps
preserveDanish ethnicidentitythroughdelimitationof the ethnic
theethnoborders.The legendtraditionactsas a meansforcodifying
centricvaluesof thetraditionparticipants.
This examinationof contemporary
legendtraditionin lightof earhasbroughtforthsomeinteresting
liervariants
aspectsoftheprocessof
While contemporary
traditionappearsat firstinspechistoricization.
reveals
closerscrutiny
tionto be in largepartshockingly
ethnocentric,
the process of assigningthe role of Other, previouslyoccupied by
and minority
populations.The
beings,to theimmigrant
supernatural
of theseminority
characterization
groupsis not based on observation
of traits,whichconstitutesone of the
but ratheron thereassignment
in Danish legend tradition.The intermainaspectsof historicization
and
change,however,resultsin a negativeperceptionoftheminorities
is based on thebelief
a perpetuationofthisperception.Ethnocentrism
that"one's own group (be it ethnicor national)is superiorto other
groups" (Thompson 1989: 17). Everyethnicgroup definesitselfby
positioningitselfin oppositionto an Otherwhich,in turn,is always
In nineteenth-century
nonhumancharacteristics.
attributed
Denmark,
the
the mostcommonvictimsweresupernatural
beings.Regretfully,
currenttraditionvictimizeshumanbeings.Like the sociocentriclegends of witchesand klqgcfolk[folkhealers],which resultedin the
legpersecutionof numerousinnocentpeople, currentethnocentric
ends of Greenlanders,Iranians,Pakistanis,Palestinians,and Turks
dehumanizea veryhumanpartof Danish society.
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Danish Legend Tradition
61
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