1. education
2. school

International Journal of Education Administration and Policy Studies Vol. 3(8), pp. 121-128, August 2011
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JEAPS
ISSN 2141 - 6656 ©2011 Academic Journals
Full Length Research Paper
At the roots of the pedagogy of Finnish teacher
training: Practicum as a core of teacher training in
Teacher College of Tornio in the 1920s
Kaarina Määttä* and Merja Paksuniemi
University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland.
Accepted 16 June, 2011
Good teacher training guarantees the functioning of good schools. Finnish schooling is world-widely
known for its international success, which lead us to ask, what kind of roots does the teacher training
pedagogy has and how it was brought out in teaching practicum. The purpose of this research is to
clarify what kind of pedagogical currents influenced teacher training and especially teaching practicum
at the teacher training college of Tornio in northern Finland in 1920s. The research data is based on
archive sources, especially the text books of didactics used between 1921 and 1930. The results show,
how Herbart-Zillerism was adopted as the model for teacher training philosophy. The moral-religious
rearing and tradition, where teacher’s role is to guarantee discipline, order, and security has reflections
in today’s school as well.
Key words: Teacher training, Herbart-Zillerism, Finland, Teacher Training College of Tornio, teaching
practicum.
INTRODUCTION
Finnish schooling is world-widely known for its
international success: in the international programme for
international student assessment (PISA)-research among
the member countries of organization for economic
cooperation and development (OECD), pupils at Finnish
comprehensive school have performed in an excellent
way compared with pupils from other countries (Simola,
2005; The National Board of Education, 2006). Good
teacher training guarantees the functioning of good
schools. Indeed, teacher training has a long history in
Finland (Hyyrö, 2006; Paksuniemi, 2009).
It was not a coincidence that the teacher training for
women was founded in the border of town Finland and
Sweden, Tornio. The locations of previous colleges had
concentrated in the more southern parts of Finland and
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] Tel:
+358 400 696 480.
`
thus, the need for educating teachers for elementary
schools in northern Finland was considerable. The goal
was that the Finnish language would last in the border
area and that the teachers for the northern schools would
be educated among the local young women (Paksuniemi,
2009).
In this article, we dissect through teaching practicum at
the College of Tornio, what kind of pedagogy and
teaching philosophy shaped teacher training in the
1920s. At that time, the foundation for the existing
teacher training was laid as two notable plans were
finished: the Act of compulsory education that came into
effect in 1921 and the plan concerning the development
of teacher training that was finished in 1922 (Kuikka,
2010). Pressed by the above mentioned, many
elementary school teacher colleges were founded in
Finland alongside secondary school teachers colleges.
Elementary school teachers training took 2 years and
qualified as a teacher for 7 to 8 year-old children (Halila,
1950; Hyyrö, 2006; Isosaari, 1966; Kuikka,
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Int. J. Educ. Admin. Pol. Stud.
1978; Nurmi, 1989; Paksuniemi, 2009).
Studies on the existing teacher training (Meri and
Maaranen, 2002; Niemi, 1996; Hansén and Forsman,
2009; Kansanen, 2006; Kynäslahti et al., 2006) have
shown that both classroom practice (Norris, al., 1996:
Simola, 2002, 2004) and curriculum (Jakku-Sihvonen et
2008) lean on conservativeness and tradition where a
teacher as an authority is respected, where his or her role
is in guaranteeing discipline, order, and security, and
where a teacher acts as a relatively distant adult
example. What kind of roots does this kind of practice
has in teacher training?
Herbart-Zillerism as a basis of Finnish teachers’
training
The school system of Finland changed in 1856, when
Emperor Alexander II gave the senate a task to carry out
a wide reform which included the school system and in
1866 the command for establishing the contemporary
elementary school was given (Halila, 1949a; Nurmi,
1966). European liberalism emphasized people´s
individual growth and their economical function and these
purposes influenced the founding of the Finnish school
system (Kuikka, 1991).
According to the command of founding the elementary
school, the senate’s task was to find a person who would
plan it. Uno Cygnaeus (1810-1888) who was a teacher
and an influential person in the schooling field was
selected for that job. He had a strong calling for
developing the basis of the Finnish school system and
indeed, he is commonly referred as the Father of Finnish
elementary school. He travelled to Europe and studied
the school systems of Austria, Denmark, Germany,
Switzerland, and Sweden. He made notes of both
elementary schools and teacher colleges. He found out
that the German school system was the most suitable for
Finland because it was based on the systematic thinking
needed, and therefore would support the best for the
purpose of developing the national aims by schooling.
Since then, it was used as a background for the Finnish
school system (Cygnaeus, 1910; Kuikka, 1991; Nurmi,
1988; Kuikka, 2010) and therefore, the pedagogical style
called Herbart-Zillerism which was used in Germany
affected Finland as well.
Herbart-Zillerism is developed according to Herbart and
Ziller’s thinking. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776 to 1841)
was a German philosopher, psychologist, and a founder
of the philosophical and pedagogical system (Herbart,
1806), which strongly influenced in teaching in Germany
(Blass, 1972; Dunkel, 1970; Nyhart, 2002; Salvatori,
2003).
In the 1860s, Natural Scientist Tuiskon Ziller (1817 to
1882) improved Herbart’s pedagogical system (Ziller,
1857, 1876) and thus it was named as Herbart-Zillernism
`
(Bellerata, 1980; Iisalo, 1989; Kroksmark, 2006; Lahdes,
1961). According to the system, the aim of instruction
was to improve citizens’ morality and Christianity (Müller,
2001; Parker, 1970). These aims formed a part of the
Finnish larger scale goal concerning our own nationhood
(Tamminen, 1998).
Teaching should encourage interest in the different
kinds of activities which would develop citizens’ diligence.
A teacher was clearly the head in the classroom and his
or her role as a model citizen was important. The above
mentioned relates also to teacher-centered instruction.
Religion, literature, and history hold a central position at
school. Together, these subjects formed the culturalhistorical foundation based on which teaching was built
progressively (Bolle and Weigand, 2007; Kühne, 1976;
Parker, 1970; Westbury et al., 2000).
According to Launonen (2000), Herbart-Zillernism was
affecting Finnish school system since the 1890s. Melin
(1980) points out that the curriculum of the Finnish
elementary school was based on that pedagogy. The
curriculum had an emphasis on exciting students to have
hobbies and on developing a strong decent character. In
addition, a common goal was to arouse regionalism
which invokes the love of one’s country among pupils as
well. Previous studies show that Herbart-Zillernism was
the main pedagogy at the teacher colleges of Finland
until the 1940s (Halila, 1949b; Isosaari, 1961; Kuikka,
1978; Nurmi, 1964).
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, DATA, AND METHOD
The aim of this research is to describe how Herbart-Zillerist
pedagogy was applied in teaching provided at the training school at
the College of Tornio. The training school means a model school
that functioned with the Teachers College and where students can
perform their teaching practicum. At the training school, teacher
students practiced teaching the subjects taught at the elementary
school. The subjects were religion, environmental education,
Finnish language, singing, playing, gymnastics, craft, and
arithmetic. As the practicum period was quite short, student teacher
were not able to practice teaching with every subject. Supervising
teachers who observed the lessons held by teacher students
worked at the training school. The supervising teachers gave
feedback after a lesson. Student teacher also had to keep watch
during the breaks at the training school (OMA, TSeA; Ca:1; Ca:2;
Dd:3; De:4.).
The didactics that was used in instruction in teacher training can
be studied based on the text books of didactics. Pedagogical texts
tell about the goals of rearing and education. Text books function as
one of the learning and teaching tools and as a sort of means of
ideology as well. Text books reveal what was considered so
important that it had to be learned. Obviously, these text books
illustrate only a limited picture about the spirit of the teacher training
under research; however, they provide us with their own point of
view. Anyway, it is not possible to interview the teacher educators
of that time any longer.
In this research, we analyzed the contents and emphasis on
didactics in the text books that student teacher studied.
Altogether10 text books of didactics were used between 1921 and
Paksuniemi and Määttä
1930. Some of the text books were printed over a hundred years
ago and reading and examining them was possible only under the
monitoring of library staff.
In this research, we focus on the 1920s because during that
decade, the elementary school teachers training was shaped and
simultaneously established in Finland (See Halila, 1950; Kuikka,
1978; Nurmi, 1989; Tiimonen, 2001). The purpose was to make the
disintegrated primary education equal in Finland. The foundation
that was laid at that time was supposed to last for decades.
Besides text books, we also gathered other literary material from
that period. Archival sources from the Archives of the College of
Tornio stored in the Provincial Archives of Oulu are exploited as
supplementary sources. All the material in the archival data that
covered the research theme was dissected. Those sources are the
following: letters, classroom diaries, the proceedings of teachers’
meetings, the curricula of the training school, the curricula of the
college, as well as officials’ and employees’ personal files. In
addition, the annual reports that include the reviews of the activities
during the study year were used as a source material.
General information about the functioning of the College and
training school has been documented in these reports.
The main research question is:
1. How did Herbart-Zillernism occur in the light of the text books
used in supervising the teaching practicum?
This question is dissected through the following sub questions:
1.1. What kind of focuses appeared in the supervision of the
teaching practicum?
1.2. How were students’ teaching skills evaluated?
The research questions are answered from the point of view of
history of education. This research is educationally historical where
the source material provides the answers. The history of education
has to be based first and foremost on the versatile primary sources.
The purpose of the research on the history of education is to make
use of diverse materials complementary to each other (Kalela,
2000; Kuikka, 2001). In this research, and in educational historical
research in general, the reliability is reviewed in the light of the
source material. The primary sources are principal for the studied
phenomenon and this was taken into consideration when
performing the research. Most of the sources in this research were
primary sources.
RESULTS
The college studies took 2 years. During the first year,
the students studied pedagogy in theory and during the
second year, in practice. In the fall, they observed
teaching in the training school for 6 lessons a week. The
training school was built close to the College. During the
spring, the students observed teaching again and
practiced teaching in classrooms. This teaching practice
lasted 2 weeks. The college teachers gave students their
practice themes beforehand. The students planned the
lessons and showed their plans to the teachers. If a plan
was good enough, a student could teach that lesson. If a
plan was not suitable, a student would have to revise it
(OMA, TSeA, Dd:1; Dd:3; Annual Reports 1921 to 1945).
`
123
The focuses of the supervision of teaching practicum
The principal of the college taught education and
didactics. The goal of the lessons was ”to learn educational
matters that clarify children’s mental life as well as to
familiarize with psychological phenomena in general”
(OMA, TseA, Ae:2; Ae:19; Annual Report 1921 to 1922).
The text books which were used during the lessons were
compiled by the National Board of Education, among
which the teaching staff selected the ones they used
(OMA, TSeA, Da:1; Da:2; Dd:1).
According to Rantala (2002), the Senate and the
National Board of Education supervised the text books
used in elementary and secondary schools in Finland.
With syllabuses, the state’s authority was expanded in
classrooms and authorities did not have to be present in
teaching situations in practice.
Teaching
practicum
(teaching
methods
and
arrangements) were organized according to the
guidelines provided in the text books taught at the
College of Tornio. A text book “Lyhyt kasvatus- ja
opetusoppi [Pedagogy and Didactics Briefly]” written by
Mikael Soininen was in use until the end of the school
year of 1925 to 1926 (OMA, TSeA, Dd:1). Soininen
seemed to build morality on Christianity when he
highlighted:”Love your neighbor as you love yourself” and
he specifies that “the purpose of education according to
Herbart is to bring up a decent character”. In his text
book, Soininen advised the prospective teachers how to
arrange teaching and what they have to notice. He even
provided complete models as teaching examples for the
lessons and recommends the use of teacher´s manuals
in teaching (Soininen, 1911).
A text book “Kasvatuopillista sielunoppia [Educational
Psychology]” written by Bruno Boxtröm was introduced in
the seminar between 1923 and 1925. He uses examples
which are taken from the Bible, Kalevala, and Kanteletar.
Boxtröm justified his choices the following way: ”Excellent
goldmines for knowing especially the mental life of
Finnish People are Kalevala, Kanteletar, and Finnish
stories and fairy tales, Runeberg’s and Topelius’s texts”
(Boxtröm, 1900). Boxtröm defines teaching:”Teaching
strongly affects children’s religious emotions if it comes
from the heart of a religious teacher and is based on the
consistent religious conception of the world” (Boxtröm,
1900). The significance of religiousness and literature
emphasized in Herbart-Zillernism can be seen in
Boxtröm’s text book (Bellerata, 1980). However, the
emphasis on leisure activities remains quite minimal.
Another Soininen’s text book “Yleinen kasvatusoppi
[General Pedagogy]” was taken in use in fall of 1927. In
the introduction, Soininen says: ”Already for years, I have
had in mind a desire to present to the Finnish
researchers the main ideas of that educational trend that
is named after Herbart and Ziller”. According to Soininen,
the goal of education was transmitting the moral-religious
124
Int. J. Educ. Admin. Pol. Stud.
rearing into the bred by a strong authority.
In addition, free time activity was at the core of
teaching. The author highlights patriotism as a one
content of moral education and points out: “A patriotic
celebration may arouse noble enthusiasm” (Soininen,
1923). The book was in use till the end of the school year
of 1929 (OMA, TSeA, Dd:1; Annual reports 1927 to
1930). That Soininen’s book is clearly based on the
tenets of Herbart-Zillerism (Dunkel, 1970). Free time
activity, patriotism, moral-religiousness, and teachercontrolled teaching are on the focus of the book.
Soininen’s interestedness in the teaching methods and
goals emphasized in that educational trend in question
was obvious.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Soininen worked
as the leader of the College of Heinola, as a professor at
the University of Helsinki as well as a chief director of the
National Board of Education and as a minister when he
partly affected the birth of the act of compulsory
education in 1921 (Stormbom, 1991).
Soininen was quite interested in developing the Finnish
school system and he did travel to Germany in order to
meet Wilhem Rein (1847-1929) who was a great
supporter of Herbartism (Raithel et al., 2007). Then,
Soininen had the idea of bringing didactics to Finland. He
molded the method into more suitable for the
circumstances at Finnish school (Halila, 1949b; Iisalo,
1989). Indeed, Isosaari (1964) and Lahdes (1961) state
that Soininen’s textbooks were exactly those ones that
embedded Herbart-Zillerism in Finland.
In 1925, the Leader of Hämeenlinna Seminar Aukusti
Salo’s book “Kasvatusopillisen sielutieteen pääpiirteet
[The Main Features of Educational Psychology]” was
introduced as the basis of teacher training (OMA, TSeA,
Dd:1; Annual Report 1925 to 1926). Salo advises
teachers on how to arrange teaching in class.
According to the author, the goal of education was to
improve patriotic feeling but he also mentioned the
themes of decency and Christianity. Salo introduces
various teaching themes in a student-centered manner
and advises teachers to use observational material in
their teaching (Salo, 1926). Although Salo’s text book has
some features of Herbart-Zillerism also the new trends of
a new school can be seen in it. Salo emphasizes
students’ independent working and the use of
observational materials in teaching. That text was used
until the end of the 1920s.
Other text books written by Salo and that were used for
teaching didactics at the College were ”Alakansakoulun
opetusoppi I [Didactics of the Elementary School I]”,
”Alakansakoulun opetusoppi II [Didactics of the
Elementary School II]”, ”Alakansakoulun opetusoppi IV
[Didactics of the Elementary School IV]”, ”Ensimmäisen
kouluvuoden laskennon opetus [Teaching Arithmetic in
the First Grade]”, and ”Ensimmäisen ja toisen
kouluvuoden lukemisen opetus I [Teaching Reading in
`
the First and Second Grade]”. Those Salo’s books
focused not only on didactics in general but they also
discussed a teacher’s personality and work more
comprehensively (Salo, 1919, 1926). Like Soininen also
Salo emphasized patriotism and regionalism. Salo notes:
”The one who has attached to his or her home and home
district already in his or her childhood can love his or her
great common home, that is his or her native country,
when grown-up” (Salo, 1928).
Equalizing societal rearing is emphasized in Salo’s text
books. A citizen who had adapted the patriotic and moral
spirit was considered as valuable to the society. Like
Soininen, also Salo emphasized the teacher’s
significance as an example (Salo, 1919, 1921, 1926,
1927, 1928, 1929, 1929b. Salo’s text books lean on
Herbart-Zillerism because according to him, a teacher’s
task was besides teaching, to take care of arousing
social, decent, and religious feelings in pupils (Salo,
1926). The trend of the new school can be noticed in
Salo’s text books about subject didactics (see Käis, 1937;
Halila, 1950; Lahdes, 1961). The author highlighted the
pupil-centered working methods: the use of functional
methods and observational instruments in teaching (Salo,
1921, 1926, 1928, 1929, 1929b).
”Äidinkielen opetus [Teaching of the First Language]”,
for one, was a text book written by Frans A. Hästesko
and it was studied at the end of the decade.
Also Hästesko emphasized the significance of a teacher’s
personality in teaching. In his opinion, teaching native
language had to be patriotic, decent, and favorable to
religion by its spirit. In line with Soininen’s and Salo’s
thoughts, Hästesko stressed the importance of teaching
Kalevala as well (Hästesko, 1927).
In the 1920s, people started to talk about the new
school that, in practice, referred to the pupil-centered
working methods (Kuikka, 1991; Lahdes, 1961). The
ideas of the new school originated in the reform
pedagogy (Arfwerson, 2000; Moore, 1997); its supporters
opposed the discipline of Herbart-Zillerism. According to
them, pupils’ individuality had to be noticed and learning
had to include freedom. A teacher had to be an advisor
and teaching how to turn from teacher-centrality into
pupil-centrality.
Individuality
and
independency
constituted the principles of the new school (Bruhn, 1968;
Iisalo, 1989; Käis, 1937; Lahdes, 1961; Simola, 1995).
In the Leader of the College of Tornio Loukola’s
opinion, the educational ideas of the new school did not
become familiar to the teachers at the College as they
had learned the Herbart-Zillerist way of thinking and they
were not ready for the change (Loukola, 1926).
Obviously, Loukola referred to the fact that except for
one, the teachers at the College had graduated from the
Finnish colleges where teaching was carried out
according to Herbart-Zillerism (OMA, TSeA, Ba:1).
Secondly, text books were changed at the College of
Tornio relatively seldom. Salo’s and Soininen’s
Paksuniemi and Määttä
pedagogical text books were utilized in teaching until the
end of the 1920s.
EVALUATING TEACHING SKILLS
Students at the College performed their teaching
practicum at the training school and the practicum lasted
for 2 or 3 weeks. The teaching practicum was evaluated
with 2 grades: the one focused on practical teaching skills
and the other on practical school keeping. The final grade
was the mean of those 2 grades mentioned.
According to Salo’s pedagogical text book, a teacher’s
personality influenced teaching by her tone, dressing,
and behavior (Salo, 1929). On the other hand, Soininen
pointed out that a teacher’s role as a model citizen was
salient (Soininen, 1911, 1923).
Similarly, Boxtröm’s writings emphasize the importance
of a teacher’s outer presence but he also expresses the
importance of a teacher’s Christianity (Boxtröm, 1900). A
teacher’s authoritative position was manifested by placing
a teacher’s desk on the stand in the front of the
classroom. This model for classrooms was illustrated in
Vartia’s text book (Vartia, 1931) and it was based on the
teacher-centrality emphasized by Herbart-Zillerism
(Iisalo, 1989; Lahdes, 1961; Tamminen, 1998.) A student
teacher had to master keeping the discipline and order in
classroom and the college teachers encouraged them to
avoid faked or false behavior because pupils would
surely notice it. (OMA, TSeA, Ca:1; Ca:2.) A teacher was
supposed to internalize teacherhood – not just
masquerade as a teacher.
The college teachers’ task was to educate students as
exemplary teachers and in the teachers’ meetings they
made the decisions of various acts in order to achieve the
desired outcome. Students had to answer with a loud
voice to the questions proposed to them and stand up
briskly when answering. Students were not allowed to
speak in dialect but in standard language like civilized
people do. The college teachers watched students’
behavior during the lessons, breaks, eating, and free time
(OMA, TSeA, Ca:1; Ca:2).
The lessons held in the training schools followed the
instructions from the text books of didactics to a great
extent. The teachers of the college and training school as
well as other teacher students observed the lessons and
gave feedback to students. In addition to the pedagogical
work, a student teacher’s role in the classroom was paid
attention to. Not only was teaching observed but also
student teachers’ personality and appearance.
Furthermore, students’ tone and language as well as
their attainment of the authoritative position in a
classroom were evaluated. They were given complaints
about the methodical errors as well as flaws in discipline
and order. (OMA, TSeA, Ca:1; Ca:2.) Paying attention to
a teacher’s appearance in front of a class originated in
`
125
the demand for model citizenship defined in the
pedagogical manuals; according to which a teacher was
a model example for his or her students (Boxtröm, 1900;
Salo, 1919, 1926, 1928, 1929, 1929b; Soininen, 1911,
1923).
Conclusions
Teacher practicum provided at the College of Tornio
leaned on Soininen’s, Salo’s, Boxtröm’s, and Hästesko’s
didactics that emphasized regionalism, patriotism,
Christianity, and decency. These purposes formed a part
of goals for teaching according to Herbart-Zillerism (Bolle
and Weigand, 2007). Using these text books in the
teaching at the College shows how Herbart-Zillerism was
manifested in Finnish teacher training (Halila, 1949a,
1963; Heikkinen, 1995; Iisalo, 1989; Kuikka, 1978;
Launonen, 2000; Melin, 1980; Nurmi, 1964; Tamminen,
1998).
Although the school system has changed since the
time of almost hundred years ago the traits of HerbartZillerism can still be seen in today’s school and teacher
training.
Finnish teachers still are politically quite conservative
(Rinne et al., 2002) and they are appreciated
exceptionally much among every social class in Finland.
The parents of Finnish pupils are especially satisfied with
the comprehensive school and education provided by it
but in addition they appreciate cooperation, evaluation,
justice, and opportunities to influence in it. Satisfaction is
clearly better than any other Nordic Countries (Räty et al.,
1995; Nordisk, 2001; Simola, 2004).
In addition, Finnish teachers still seem to prefer the old
pedagogical traditions: teacher-led, subject-centered
teaching prevails instead of student-centered studying
(Norris et al., 1996). Simola (2002) noted in his interview
research how teachers did care for their pupils but kept
up the strict discipline and professional distance.
It would be interesting to study how the teachers who
graduated in the 1920s experienced their work and how
satisfied they were with their position. Indeed, teachers
have always been appreciated in the Finnish society.
Even the modern Finnish teachers are content with their
work and consider it as rewarding (Santavirta, 2001);
although they do talk about increased hurry and workload
(Simola and Hakala, 2001).
Although teaching in school is still controlled in many
ways (Määttä, 1989) it involves responsibility for
outcomes and multidimensional evaluation some
mechanisms for controlling teachers’ work have been
given up. In the 1990s indeed no earlier than two
decades ago, school inspections, detailed curricula,
officially approved text books and classroom diaries
where teachers had to write down carefully lesson by
lesson what was taught in the classroom (Simola, 2004).
126
Int. J. Educ. Admin. Pol. Stud.
Learning and teaching obedience and inferiority have
been a central feature of the Finnish school system and
teachers training during its whole history. It had produced
good outcomes; however, it arouses a question where we
could find the courage to break such historical traditions
that hinder us from confronting the future with a totally
new societal reality.
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`
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