1. health and fitness
2. exercise

CORE 2
FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE
(FQ1) HOW DOES TRAINING
AFFECT PERFORMANCE
ATP/PC SYSTEM
 Fuel:
Creatine Phosphate is fuel, only used after
ATP has been used
 Efficiency of ATP Production: ATP is rapidly
available however the supply is very limited if the
demand is high
 Duration: 10-12 seconds. ATP splitting (2sec)
cretin-phosphate (8-10sec following)
 Cause of fatigue: The inability of the body to
continually resynthesise ATP. Occurs when the body
has used up all its stored CP.
 By-Products: heat
CONTINUED
 Recovery
Time: creatine phosphate is naturally
replenished by the body in up to 2 mins
 Intensity of effort: very high, 85-100% of max
effort, explosive actions
 Examples: 100m sprint, weight lifting, discus,
javelin, high jump
LACTIC ACID SYSTEM
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Fuel: glycogen (carbohydrates are broken down in the body
as blood glucose. Stored glucose is glycogen)
Efficiency of energy production: ATP is supplied rapidly
but requires large quantities of glucose
Duration: varies, if working at high intensity, one minute. If
working at moderate intensity up to three minutes. Submaximal even longer
Cause of fatigue: build up of hydrogen ions due to
production of lactic acid
By- Products: pyruvic acid
CONTINUED
 Recovery
Time: 20mins-2hrs to break down lactic
acid, if glycogen all depleted , it takes 24hrs to
replenish glycogen stores
 Intensity of effort: 75-85%. This is the point at
which lactic acid is produced
 Examples: 200m, 400m sprint, 100m swim, 800 run
AEROBIC SYSTEM
 Source
of Fuel: Carbohydrates, fats, glycogen,
protein
 Efficiency of ATP production: Extremely efficient
in the provision of energy for long periods of time
 Duration: From 2-3 minutes to hours depending on
the intensity of effort
 Cause of fatigue: The depletion of glucose to the
working muscles
 Waste Products: Carbon Dioxide which is breathed
out, water which is removed from the body as sweat
and water vapor, cooled as evaporated off skin
CONTINUED
 Recovery
Time: can take up to 48hrs depending on
intensity
 Intensity of effort: low intensity, up to 75%
 Examples: marathon, long distance walking, netball
triathlon
TYPES OF TRAINING &
TRAINING METHODS
Aerobic training
Anaerobic training
Flexibility training
Strength training
AEROBIC
Aerobic training's main objective is to increase an
athlete's ability to use oxygen. This involves training
the larger muscle groups (arms, chest and legs) to
efficiently combine with the cardiovascular system to
supply a higher volume of oxygen to the athlete and
therefore improve performance.
 Continuous training
 Fartlek Training
 Aerobic interval training
 Circuit training
CONTINUOUS
 Continuous
training involves sustained effort – no
rest intervals.
 Training must persist beyond 20 minutes to be
categorised as continuous.
 The heart rate must rise above the aerobic threshold
and remain within the target zone for the entire time
 Examples include jogging, cycling and aerobics.
 The two types of continuous training are:
 LONG SLOW DISTANCE TRAINING
 HIGH INTENSITY, MODERATE DURATION
FARTLEK
 The
word FARTLEK means SPEED PLAY.
 Participants vary their speed and the terrain on
which they are working.
 This engages both the aerobic and the anaerobic
system.
 It resembles a combination of interval and
continuous training.
 It is good for most athletes but particularly beneficial
for games players.
AEROBIC INTERVAL
 Aerobic
interval training involves alternating sessions
of work and recovery.
 An athlete performs a given amount of work, such as
8, 400m runs to repeat every 2 minutes. The the rest
period is very short compared to the time taken to
complete the task. This short rest period does not
allow enough time for full recovery and thus
maintains stress on the aerobic system.
 This training method effectively develops aerobic
endurance.
 Circuit
CIRCUIT
training develops aerobic capacity and has the
potential to make substantial improvements in
muscular endurance, strength and flexibility.
 Participants move from one activity to the next after
completing the required number of repetitions or
allocated time period.
 Circuit training can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature
depending on the type of activity, the time spent at
each activity and the number of circuits required.
 The effectiveness of circuit training relies heavily on
how well the overload principle is applied.
ANAEROBIC
 Anaerobic
training uses high intensity work coupled
with limited recovery.
 Anaerobic training is shorter in duration than
aerobic training, lasting less than two minutes.
 Activity is brief but effort is maximal and short rest
periods.
 Anaerobic training develops greater tolerance for the
lactic acid created as a result of the work.
 Different types of anaerobic training can develop
different energy systems.
ANAEROBIC INTERVAL
 Anaerobic
interval can best be described as sprint
training over short distances using maximal effort.
 Most anaerobic interval training is directed towards
the development of speed. E.g. 100m sprinting and
sports such as touch football.
 To develop speed while focusing on technique, rest
periods need to be extended slightly to allow lactate
to disperse as this build up can inhibit quality
movement.
FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility training is designed to improve the
possible range of motion of a joint and reduce the
likelihood of an injury. There are a number of ways
in which flexibility can be developed including static
stretching, Proprioceptive Neuromuscular
Facilitation (PNF) and ballistic stretching. Each of
these types of stretches can be used to develop an
individual’s flexibility and improve overall
performance as a result.
STATIC
 During
static stretching, the muscle is slowly
stretched to a position(end point or limit) which is
held for about 30 seconds.
 The movement is smooth and performed slowly,
taking the muscle to a point where there is stretch
without discomfort.
 Static stretching is safe and is used extensively in the
rehabilitation of injury and in the warm up and cool
down of training sessions.
BALLISTIC
 Ballistic
stretching involves repeated movements
such as swinging and bouncing to gain extra stretch.
 This is potentially dangerous as it activates the
STRETCH REFLEX.
 Ballistic stretching should only be used by advanced
athletes after a thorough warm up and other styles of
stretching.
 Movements must be executed rhythmically to avoid
jerky actions and too much momentum at the end
point of the stretch.
PNF
 PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEUROMUSCULAR
FACILITATION
 This is a progressive cycle incorporating a static
stretch, an isometric contraction and a period of
relaxation in the lengthened position.
 It is aimed at stretching and strengthening the
muscle in a safe movement.
 Resistance is provided by a partner or a fixed object.
 PNF is useful in rehab as the isometric component
strengthens the muscle.
DYNAMIC
 Dynamic
stretching attempts to mimic movements
experienced in a game.
 It is popular for warm ups and pre-training routines.
 Actions attempt to reduce muscle tightness rather
than lengthen muscle fibres.
 It is more controlled than ballistic but still not as safe
as static and PNF due to the tension placed on
muscles and joints.
 An example is arm circling.
STRENGTH TRAINING
Strength training involves the use of resistance which
helps to increase the amount of force a muscle can
exert. Muscles are required to contract in a number
of ways and each of these needs to be trained in a
specific way. Isotonic contractions require the
muscle to lengthen and shorten against a resistance,
isometric contractions involve no movement, while
isokinetic contractions involve the exertion of force
at all angles of a joint movement.
FREE/FIXED WEIGHTS
 Free
weights are dumbells and barbells.
 Dumbells are two weights of equal size held in each
hand to execute a movement.
 A barbell is a long bar that is weighted or has extra
weights added to each end with a cuff.
 Fixed weights refer to universal pin weight systems
for example where the weights are more secure and
the machine assists with balance
ELASTIC
 Resistance
bands are a cheap and portable form of
resistance training and are commonly used in home
gyms.
 Bands are anchored by a wall fixture or against the
body.
 The strong rubber bands are stretched, creating a
resistance
HYDRAULIC
 The
resistance provided by hydraulic exercise
equipment is directly related to the amount of force
provided by the user.
 The harder you push or pull and the faster you
move, the more resistance you create.
 Instead of free weights or a weight stack, the
machine has a cylinder with a valve you use to adjust
the setting. Most allow you to make a few
adjustments to the cylinder to further tailor the
resistance to your needs.
HYDRAULICS
 They
are designed to apply pressure in both
directions, both lifting and lowering.
 These types of machines are typically designed to be
used in settings in which you participate in a 30minute circuit-training program.
 Each machine is designed to target a specific muscle
group.
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
 Progressive
Overload
 Specificity
 Reversibility
 Variety
 Training Thresholds
 Warm Up
 Cool Down
PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD
Implies gains in fitness will occur only when the
training load is greater than normal and is
progressively increased as improvements in fitness
occur.
Training produces certain physiological changes that
allow the body to work at a higher level of intensity.
As the body becomes familiar with a particular level
of training stress, it adapts to it and further training
at this level will fail to sufficiently stress the system.
SPECIFICITY
Implies that the effects of a training program will be
specifically related to the manner in which the
program is conducted.
The principle implies the greatest gains will be made
when the activity in training programs resemble the
movements in games and the activity.
REVERSIBILITY
This implies that fitness gained can be lost just as
quickly.
Fitness increases with activity and decreases with
inactivity.
The longer the build up of fitness, the slower the
decline will be.
VARIETY
Using the same drills and routines will not be
productive as repetition without creativity leads to
boredom.
Mental well being is vital to maximize effort in
physical training.
Cross training increases interest and motivation.
TRAINING THRESHOLDS
 Refers
to the levels of intensity that can improve our
physical conditions
 Aerobic Threshold: level of exercise intensity which
is sufficient to cause a training effect. This a
approximately 70% of a persons max heart rate
 Aerobic training Zone: a level of intensity which
causes the heart rate to be high enough to cause
significant training gains
 Anaerobic Threshold: a level of intensity in
physical activity where the accumulation of lactic
acid increases very quickly in the blood.
WARM UP
 Reduces
the risk of injury by increasing joint
mobility (flexibility)
 Increases heart rate and body temperature
 Improves mental preparation
 Warm up should consist of:
 General Body warm up e.g. jogging
 Specific flexibility exercises (shouldn’t stretch cold
muscles, flexibility >by 20% when warm)
 Calisthenics-sit ups and push ups
 Skill rehearsal
COOL DOWN
 Minimises
muscle stiffness and soreness
 Helps disperse lactic acid
 Helps prevent blood pooling
 Cool Down should consist of low intensity aerobic
work and some stretching
PHYSIOLOGICAL
ADAPTATIONS IN RESPONSE
TO TRAINING
RESTING HEART RATE
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This is a reliable indicator of how hard the heart
is working
A trained athlete should have a lower resting
heart rate than an untrained athlete
Continued aerobic training should decrease the
resting heart rate
Rates as low as 40 bpm are possible for highly
conditioned athletes
STROKE VOLUME
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A substantial increase in stroke volume is a long term
effect of endurance training
As a result of an increase in blood plasma there is
more blood in circulation following training( can
increase by as much as ½ a litre after eight days of
training). This causes the ventricles to fill more than
in the untrained athlete and will also cause more
forceful contractions which results in less blood
remaining in the ventricles
Regular training causes the left ventricle to more
completely fill during diastole
The increased oxygen available to working muscles
results in improved performance
CARDIAC OUTPUT
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Cardiac output in trained individuals is much
higher during exercise than untrained individuals
This greater output is achieved through increases
in stroke volume
As we grow older decreases in stroke volume will
result in decreases in cardiac output
OXYGEN UPTAKE
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Maximal oxygen intake (VO2 max) refers to the
maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can
absorb and utilise at that level of work
This is relatively easy to estimate using
submaximal tests such as the bicycle ergometer
test or the 12 minute run
Measurements are expressed in ml/kg/min I.e.
How much oxygen is consumed per kilogram of
weight every minute
OXYGEN UPTAKE
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Training appreciably increases VO2 max this is
most evident in untrained athletes who will see
the greatest improvement
The highest recorded value for a female
74ml/kg/min
The highest recorded value for a male is
94ml/kg/min
It would normally take an 8-12 week period of
training to see an appreciable increase in VO2
max
LUNG CAPACITY
No matter how efficient the cardiovascular system is in
supplying blood to the tissues, endurance is hindered
if the respiratory system does not supply enough
oxygen to meet demand
 Total lung capacity is about 6000ml in males slightly
less in females
 Vital capacity is the amount of air that can be
expended after maximal inspiration – this increases
slightly with training
LUNG CAPACITY
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Residual volume is the amount of air that cannot
be moved out of the lungs – decreases slightly with
training
Tidal volume is the amount of air breathed in and
out during a normal respiration – appears to increase
at maximal levels of exercise but is unchanged at
submaximal and rest
HAEMOGLOBIN LEVEL
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Haemoglobin is contained in the red blood cells
of the body. Most oxygen in the body is
transported by the haemoglobin in the red blood
cells
Haemoglobin levels increase as a result of training
and this increases oxygen carrying capacity
Training increases blood plasma as well as
increasing red blood cell numbers.
MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY
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This refers to an increase in muscle size.
As an immediate response to training, the muscle
fibres increase in size as more fluid goes to the
muscle.
As a response to extended training, the muscles used
will increase in size again as the fibres adapt to the
training load and lead to an overall increase in
muscle size.
FAST/SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE
FIBRES
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The effect of training on the type of muscle fibre
developed relates directly to specificity.
Fast-twitch (Explosive Movement).
Slow-twitch ( Longer Slower Contraction).
Low to moderate activity will recruit slow-twitch
fibres and increase the cross sectional area of these
fibres. These fibres have a high aerobic endurance
capacity and they are recruited also in our daily
lifestyle.
MUSCLE FIBRES
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Fast-twitch muscle fibres need to be specifically
developed through particular types of training. E.g.
speed training & plyometrics.
Any training athletes do for fast-twitch fibres must
be maintained, otherwise the effects of training will
be lost due to reversibility.
It is a documented fact that athletes of dark skin
origin have genetically more fast-twitch muscle
fibres.
(FQ2) HOW CAN PSYCHOLOGY
AFFECT PERFORMANCE?
MOTIVATION
Motivation is the increased state of arousal or
excitement an individual experiences when trying
to reach a optimal level of performance.
Motivation greatly influences the amount of
interest and effort an athlete gives to a task.
Motivation is a personal thing and what motivates
one person may not motivate another person at
that point in time.
POSITIVE & NEGATIVE
MOTIVATION
The use of positive motivation tends to be more
effective than negative motivation in improving
an individual’s performance.
It results in higher levels of improvement in
performance, and tends to last longer than any
gains made from the use of negative motivation.
INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC
MOTIVATION
Individuals who are motivated to perform because of
intrinsic (internal) feelings are said to be intrinsically
motivated.
This is believed to be more effective than an athlete
relying upon extrinsic (external) factors for a
successful performance.
REINFORCEMENT
• The type of reinforcement an athlete receives may
also affect an athlete’s motivation. Reinforcement
refers to the consequences that arise as a result of
the behaviour. It can be positive or negative and
internal or external.
• Reinforcement most often comes in the form of
rewards (positive reinforcement). The rewards
reinforce the act and let the athlete know that
further progress will be rewarded in the same
way. Athletes should be continually reinforced as
they progress towards producing the desired
response.
ANXIETY
TRAIT ANXIETY
Trait Anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is
characteristic of each individual.
Trait anxiety varies according to how individuals have
conditioned themselves to respond to and manage stress.
ANXIETY
• STATE ANXIETY
State anxiety is more specific. It refers to a
heightened presence of distress in response to a
particular situation
SOURCES OF STRESS
•
•
•
•
The non specific responses of the body to a demand
placed on it. It can come from a number of places
e.g. parents, media or from within e.g. how you cope
with a certain situation/problem.
Stepping outside comfort zone
Break up of relationship
Change in playing conditions
Making a big decision that could affect others
AROUSAL
• The level of stress under which you operate is
important:
• If you are not under enough stress, then you may
find that your performance suffers because you
are bored and unmotivated.
• If you are under too much stress, then you will
find that your results suffer as you find it difficult
to focus on technique and fail to flow with the
performance.
AROUSAL
• Where stress is too high, your performance can
suffer from all the symptoms of stress. Your flow
can be disrupted, you can be distracted, and
competition can become threatening and unpleasant.
• In the middle, at a moderate level of stress, there is a
zone of best performance. If you can keep yourself
within this zone, then you will be sufficiently aroused
to give a high quality performance, while not being
over-stressed and unhappy.
• Within this zone is called OPTIMAL AEROUSAL
OPTIMAL AROUSAL
• This zone of optimum performance is in a different
place and is a different shape for different people.
Some people may operate most effectively at a level
of stress that would leave other people either bored
or in pieces. It is possible that someone who
functions superbly in a low level competition might
experience difficulties in high level competition.
Alternatively someone who performs only
moderately at low level of competition might give
exceptional performances under extreme pressure.
• Not only will the zones of optimum performance be
in different places for different athletes, they will also
be different heights and different widths. This is why
you must take responsibility for controlling your
own levels of stress, particularly in a team situation:
if the team generally needs motivation, but you are in
an optimum zone, then paying attention to a
motivating team talk may move you to a state of
being over-stressed. Similarly if some team members
need to be relaxed, then relaxation techniques
applied to an entire team may move you to a state of
bored demotivation.
• You may also find that fine and complex skills are
less tolerant to stress than simple skills - your zone
of optimum performance may be narrower for very
difficult skills than for the basic skills of the sport.
FINDING OPTIMAL AROUSAL
LEVELS
• An effective way of finding the stress level at which
you operate best is to keep a training and
performance log. In this record the quality of every
training session or performance, along with the level
of stress that you felt during that performance. If
you have stress monitoring equipment, and can score
your performance, then this gives you hard, objective
figures to use in your training log. If you do not have
the ability to do this, then record your subjective
views of the stress levels you felt and the quality of
• After a time review the training log - this should give
you some good information on the way that you
respond to stress. This information will help you to
decide and implement a stress management program
that is appropriate to the different sporting situations
you find yourself in.
INCREASING AROUSAL
• Increase your rhythm and rate of breathing
• Focus on the task at hand
• Stretch and exercise more prior to play
• Listen to upbeat music prior to play
• Visualize powerful forces (e.g., leaping cheetah,
rocket blast)
• Draw energy from the crowd
DECREASING AROUSAL
(1)Breath deeply and slowly from the diaphragm
(2) Engage in a popular form of meditation
(3) Quietly repeat a key word or phrase to yourself
(e.g., calm, easy, cool)
(4) Direct your focus on performance rather than
outcome
(5) Engage in Progressive Muscle Relaxation-briefly
tensing and relaxing muscle groups, noting differences
between tension and relaxation
DECREASING AROUSAL
Dictate your own pace and take your time between
points
Practice adjusting your level of arousal on a regular
basis until you find the level at which you perform
best. You'll know it when you are optimally aroused!
MANAGING ANXIETY
Athletes need to be able to manage anxiety
effectively if they are to achieve their optimal
performance level.
Anxiety can be defined as the concerns, thoughts
and feelings associated with an approaching
performance
PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION
AND MANAGE ANXIETY
•
•
•
•
Concentration/Attention skills (focusing)
Mental Rehearsal/Visualisation/Imagery
Relaxation Techniques
Goal - Setting
CONCENTRATION/ATTENTION
SKILLS (FOCUSING)
• This refers to the ability of the athlete to focus their
thoughts and energy into the task at hand. It allows
for distractions (e.g. a crowd) to be minimised.
MENTAL
REHEARSAL/VISUALISATION/I
MAGERY
• This involves practising the performance in your
mind.
• When mentally rehearsing you produce a successful
performance over and over again.
• This allows you to picture a performance in your
mind and gives your body a ‘map’ or ‘blue print’ to
produce a movement.
• It helps the performer focus on the movements
required to produce an optimal performance.
RELAXATION TECHNIQUES
• These are ways to reduce the risk of over-arousal
before a performance.
• Relaxation helps lower the stress level of the body
before a performance.
• E.g. Meditation, Progressive muscular relaxation
GOAL SETTING
• Setting goals allows an athlete’s progress to be
planned and monitored over a period of time.
• It can also increase motivation and commitment
levels of the athlete.
• Goals need to be realistic and achievable in the time
frame established.
• Goals may relate to areas such as the overall
performance, specific skills involved, strategies and
fitness.
(FQ3) HOW CAN NUTRITION AND
RECOVERY STRATEGIES AFFECT
PERFORMANCE?
NUTRITIONAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Macronutrients:
 Protein
 Carbohydrates
 Fat
These are the major
nutrients which supply
energy and are essential
for growth and
development.
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Micronutrients
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
These are essential
nutrients but do not
supply energy
CARBOHYDRATES
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Ideal fuel for activity
Complex-cereals, wholegrain, fruit and vegetables
Simple- cakes, sweets, biscuits
Should be predominant energy source
Muscle and liver glycogen is synthesized directly from
carbohydrates
Only source of fuel used during anaerobic Glycolosis
(short, high intensity)
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Brain and nervous system rely on carbohydrates
exclusively as they are unable to use either protein or
fat
Muscle glycogen stores take 24 hrs to restore
Glycogen sparing – this is the metabolism of fat
instead of carbohydrates during endurance work
even though the body has sufficient energy stores of
carbohydrates
Glycogen – this is the storage form of carbohydrates
found in muscles and liver
FAT
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Important for low intensity, long duration
Becomes fuel supplier as glycogen reserves become
depleted
Dense in energy however needs more oxygen for
metabolism and ensuing energy production. Results
in increased respiration, increased body temperature
and increased need for fluid
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Endurance athletes have no need for extra fat
Unsaturated fats are best, found in vegetable and
fish oil
Excess fat, carbohydrates and protein is stored in fat
cells
PROTEIN
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Important for structural role in holding the cells
together and in growth as well as repair and
maintenance of body tissue
Used as energy source under extreme conditions
Athletes need 1mg of protein for every kilogram of
body weight
WATER
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Second to oxygen as an essential life providing
element
Body stores water both within the cells (intracellular)
and outside the cells (extra cellular)
Doesn’t provide energy
Losses higher than 15% can be fatal
PRE-PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
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A high complex carbohydrate meal should be
consumed several hours prior to an event so it has
time to be digested properly. E.g. spaghetti
bolognaise.
Two hours prior a carbohydrate based snack to top
up glucose levels. E.g. muffin
Continued hydration with water or carbohydrate
drinks prior to competing.
CARBOHYDRATE LOADING
Carbohydrate Loading:
This is a process that seeks to maximize the amount
of glycogen stored in the muscles and liver, for use
during aerobic performance.
There are variations in the process for athletes to
consider.
NUTRITION DURING
PERFORMANCE
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Depending on the length of the activity, nutritional
demands will differ.
Any activity under one hour only requires hydration
with water and food is not necessary.
Endurance athletes E.g. Triathlete will require
hydration from water and possibly energy drinks.
They will also need to eat carbohydrate snacks E.g.
bananas during the event.
POST PERFORMANCE
NUTRITION
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After performance nutrition includes a meal that
contains protein (for repair of tissue) and
carbohydrate to replenish blood sugar levels.
Endurance athletes eat basically anything
carbohydrate as soon as possible after the
completion of their event.
Foods with protein are also essential as is hydration
for the next 24-48 hours depending on the length of
the event.
SUPPLEMENTATION
Supplementation is the process used by athletes who
cannot derive sufficient nutrient intake from their
food consumption to meet their needs.
In many cases normal dietary intake is in fact
sufficient and athletes using supplements are then
taking in unnecessarily high amounts of certain
nutrients.
VITAMINS/MINERALS
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Vitamins are essential to maintain bodily functions.
Most athletes get the required amount through their
diet or a multivitamin. Excess vitamin intake is
expensive, wasteful & potentially dangerous.
Minerals are also essential for the body to function
properly. Iron & calcium are the two minerals that
are most commonly deficient in athletes. Inadequate
supplies will affect performance and contribute to
health problems.
PROTEIN
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Proteins function is in the growth, repair &
maintenance of body tissue.
Research supports the idea that most athletes do not
need or benefit from protein supplementation.
Some supplementation in specific cases such as
strength athletes, endurance athletes in heavy
training and possibly adolescents undergoing a
growth spur is acceptable.
CAFFEINE
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Caffeine improves cognitive processes such as
alertness, improved concentration, improved
memory & reasoning following mild consumption.
It does not appear to enhance performance in short
term high intensity activities such as sprinting.
Some studies suggest it should be avoided to avoid
dehydration from its diuretic properties.
Caffeine has ergogenic aid properties as it promotes
“glycogen sparing”
CREATINE PRODUCTS

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Creatine cannot be stored in the body therefore the
idea of supplementation is supported by many
athletes, particularly those involved in predominately
anaerobic programs.
Creatine supplementation may assist with muscle
hypertrophy when weight training but it does have
negative effects such as cramps, weight gain and the
possibility of developing renal disease.
RECOVERY STRATEGIES
PHYSIOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
 NEURAL STRATEGIES
 TISSUE DAMAGE STRATEGIES
 PYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES

PHYSIOLOGICAL STRATEGIES


COOL – DOWN
NUTRITIONAL PLAN
Fluid Recovery
Fuel Recovery
NEURAL STRATEGIES

HYDROTHERAPY

MASSAGE
TISSUE DAMAGE STRATEGIES
CRYOTHERAPY
This involves the use of cooling to treat injury or
quicken recovery from performances, particularly
those that involve collisions and/or sustained
intensity.
ICE, ICER & ICE BATHS



PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
POSITIVE DEBRIEFING SESSIONS
 READING
 LISTENING TO MUSIC
 WATCHING MOVIES
PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR RELAXATION
 MEDITATION VISUALISATION
 FLOATATION
 POSITIVE SELF TALK


(FQ4) HOW DOES THE
ACQUISITION OF SKILL
AFFECT PERFORMANCE?
STAGES OF SKILL
AQUISITION
COGNITIVE
ASSOCIATIVE
AUTONOMOUS
COGNITIVE
–





Also known as the learning stage.
The cognitive stage is the first learning process of
the learner.
It is during this stage when the athlete is first
introduced to the new skill and then attempts to
perform it for the first time.
During this stage mot of the learning process has
been done. The athlete’s skill levels are very low
but they quickly adapt and get better.
There are lots of errors and lots of feedback.
ASSOCIATIVE




Also known as the practice stage.
This stage is when most practice is performed.
There are less errors then in the first stage but
they still occur.
Errors start decreasing and more understanding
begins to be processed by the athlete.
AUTONOMOUS




Also known as the automatic stage.
This stage is the final stage in when there are very
little or no errors.
For the athlete it is no longer necessary to
concentrate on the action so much, and there is
more internal feedback.
They have the correct kinaesthetic movements
involved.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
LEARNER
PERSONALITY
HEREDITARY
CONFIDENCE
PRIOR EXPERIENCE
ABILITY
PERSONALITY
Some individuals possess certain personality traits,
I.e. confidence, curiosity, reliability, are more likely
to learn motor skills quickly.
They are also more likely to attempt new skills and to
strive to achieve their potential
HEREDITARY
It would seem that skill acquisition would not be hereditary
because they younger generation would still have to go
through the learning process.
However important factors in skill acquisition such as slow
or fast twitch muscle fibres are hereditary which helps in a
persons ability to learn. Motivation is also hereditary which
helps in the learning process. Other hereditary factors
include a person’s somatotype (endomorph, mesomorph,
ectomorph), gender and age.
CONFIDENCE
• People with confidence are more likely to attempt a
new skill.
• People with confidence are also more likely to not
be put off by failure at early stages.
• It is important for coaches to build a level of
confidence in every new athlete.
PRIOR EXPERIENCE
• Some skills occur in other sports so it is an
advantage if an athlete has a general idea of the
movement from a past movement. This is known as
a positive transfer of learning.
• When prior learning in another skill makes it more
difficult to learn the new skill this is known as a
negative transfer of learning.
ABILITY
Some athletes, although much hard work is put into
obtaining the skill, have an underlying influence that
makes them perform better or more gracefully.
Ability may come down to one or more of the
following three areas…
 Kinaesthetic sense – an awareness of body
positioning an muscle movement during
performance.
 Multi-limb coordination – the capacity to structure
movements that involve many body parts into a
fluent and effective performance.
 Perceptive sense – the capacity to receive and
interpret information effectively, thus enhancing
the quality of the response.
THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
•
The learning process should take place in a safe
and comfortable environment for the learner.
• By achieving this environment the learner can
focus on the new skill rather than be distracted by
external problems.
NATURE OF THE SKILL
Skills can be categorized into several groups.
Open skills are skills that are performed in
circumstances that are unpredictable and totally
uncontrollable. This may include windsurfing or bull
riding. They tend to externally-paced, which means
the timing of the movement is greatly influenced by
external factors.
Closed skills are skills that take place when
circumstances are always the same and constant.
They very rarely affect the outcome of the skill. Egg,
throwing a javelin, free throw in basketball, chess.
Gross motor skills are skills that involve large groups
of muscles such as running, swimming and hurdling.
Fine motor skills are skills that involve only small
muscle groups, such as knitting, archery release.
Discrete skills have a distinct beginning and end that
can be identified. E.g. Shot put
Serial skills involve a sequence of smaller movements
that are assembled to make a total skill. E.g. Lay Up
Continuous skills are skills that do not have a
beginning and an end. Examples are swimming,
running.
Self Paced skills are movements where the performer
determines the timing & speed of execution.
Externally paced is where an external source controls
the timing.
THE PERFORMANCE ELEMENTS
DECISION MAKING
STRATEGIC & TACTICAL DEVELOPMENT
DECISION MAKING
Productive decision making is best achieved through:
OBSERVATION-coaching boards, demonstrations
& observation of skilled players and their
movements during a game.
QUESTIONING-by the coach for particular
scenarios.
WHOLE,PART,WHOLE APPROACH-A game
strategy needs to be taught as a whole so players can
see the overall plan. Individuals then need to learn
their specific roles. Players then need to walk
through emphasising good technique & execution.
The strategy then needs to be practised against noninvasive opposition.
VARIATION- Exploring variation of strategy is
important. Players need to be encouraged into
innovative & imaginative options.
CREATIVITY-Players need to be involved in all
processes to make worthwhile contributions and feel
valued. This is productive in developing decision
making skills.
STRATEGIC & TACTICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Strategic understanding refers to the way we play,
where we should be and what to do.
Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining
an advantage over an opponent.
Tactical awareness matures gradually through using
drills & mini-games that provide players with matchlike situations.
Strategic & tactical development is built on:
TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY,
UNDERSTANDING & SKILLFULL
EXECUTION
PRACTICE METHODS
MASSED
DISTRIBUTED
WHOLE
PART
MASSED/DISTRIBUTED
Massed practice involves a continuous practice
session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the
practice intervals.
Distributed practice(or spaced practice) involves a
broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or
alternative activities being longer than the practice
intervals.
WHOLE/PART PRACTICE
Whole practice is when movements in a sport are
practiced as a whole. This may be the case when a
tennis serve is practiced through the whole range of
movement to get a feel for it.
Part practice is when the full range of a skill is
broken down and the individual components are
practiced by themselves. E.g. in a tennis serve the
throw up of the ball or just the follow through may
be practiced.
FEEDBACK
Feedback is the information provided to the learner
about the nature or result of their performance.
All learners derive internal feedback from
performing a particular skill and from external
sources such as the coach.
Feedback is provided following analysis of the
output.
INTERNAL/EXTERNAL


Intrinsic or internal feedback is when an athlete
gets a kinaesthetic sense for the movement they
are performing. E.g. such as seeing the ball and
hearing it hit the bat.
Extrinsic, or external feedback is the feedback that
an athlete gets from another person, such as a
coach or parent, on how they are performing the
skill and what they can do to correct it.
CONCURRENT/DELAYED


Concurrent feedback is feedback received during
performance.
Delayed feedback is feedback which is given when
the athlete is finished, after the skill is completed.
KNOWLEDGE OF
RESULTS/KNOWLEDGE OF
PERFORMANCE


Knowledge of results feedback is information
about the outcome of a movement. E.g. what
distance was covered in the long jump.
Knowledge of performance is feedback given to
an athlete about skill weakness that they have,
which is not making them achieve full potential.
This may be the case in tennis when a tennis
player is not getting full power in their shot
because of poor stroke technique. The coach will
advise them on how to improve this.
ASSESSMENT OF SKILL &
PERFORMANCE
To improve performance, assessment needs to be
made.
Each type of performance has a number of ways by
which it can be measured.
An athletes skill can be observed and analysed, tests
can be used and they can be judged in competition.
CHARACTERICTICS OF SKILLED
PERFORMERS
Kinaesthetic sense:
 This is the awareness of body and muscle
positioning while performing a skill, during
performance. A cricket player feels the hit of the
ball was smooth.
Anticipation and timing:
 The athlete’s capacity to accurately predict and
read the game or the movement, and then act
accordingly. This may include an intercept in
football.
SKILLED PERFORMERS
Consistency:
 A skilled performer is likely to always give a
consistent performance whereas the unskilled
performer is not.
Technique
 Technique is a procedure applied to a particular
task. Good techniques have been established
whereby players can learn to carry out the
procedure in the most effective manner.
OBJECTIVE & SUBJECTIVE
PERFORMANCE MEASURES


Objective measurement is when the result is
unanimous based on the fact that they cannot be
changed. E.g. electronic staring and finishing in
swimming, archery.
Subjective measurement is when the results are
influenced by judges etc. the methods of
measurement are not obvious to the user. E.g.,
gymnastics, diving.

Strategies that are in place to make subjective
measurement more even and fair are…
Prescribed judging criteria. Using people with
the required expertise.
Ensure that everybody concerned with the
competition is aware of the criteria.
Use a panel of judges.
Using judges that have no personal affiliation
with any of the athletes.
When a number of scores is presented, the
highest and lowest score are disregarded then
the remaining scores are averaged out.
Using established measurement such as
checklists and rating scales.
VALIDITY & RELIABILITY OF
TESTS


Validity is the honesty of a test – that is, the
degree to which it measures what it is supposed to
measure. E.g. The standing broad jump measures
power. This is valid.
Reliability refers to the degree of consistency of a
test – that is, the ability of the test and tester to
produce the same results on successive occasions.
Again the standing broad jump is reliable as it is
simple and easy to set up and measure accurately
in almost any environment.
PERSONAL V PRESCRIBED
JUDGING CRITERIA



Objective measurement of a performance can
assist in making a subjective or personal opinion.
Subjectiveness is based on a judge or selectors
opinion.
In a dance routine, a judge may view the dancer to
have an aesthetically pleasing performance,
therefore a subjective measurement.
When she makes an objective measurement by
using a scorecard or checklist, it may further
support her argument that the dancer performed a
great routine.