Motivation Any influence that triggers, directs or maintains behavior Research is based upon different variables that affect motivation Individual Differences Organizational Contexts Manager Behaviors Process Theories Content Versus Process Motivation Theories Content theories explain why people have different needs at different times  Process theories  describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior Content Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory Herzberg’s Theory SelfActualization Need for Achievement Growth Motivators Need for Power Esteem Belongingness Need for Affiliation Relatedness Hygienes Safety Existence Physiological McClelland’s Learned Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy Each individual has needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive their behavior Once a need is satisficed, then it is no longer motivating Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as they satisfy levels of needs Practical Implications of Content Theories People have different needs at different times Offer employees a choice of rewards - a flexible reward system Do not rely too heavily on financial rewards they mainly address lower level needs Maslow’s Hierarchy Each individual has needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive their behavior Once a need is satisfied, then it is no longer motivating Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as they satisfy levels of needs 14.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy SelfActualization Esteem Affiliation Security Physiological Adapted from Figure 14.2 Levels of Needs Physiological/Survival needs Food, Clothing, Shelter, Air Security Feel safe, absence of pain, threat, or illness Affiliation friendship, company, love, belonging first clear step up from physical needs Need levels (cont.) Esteem Needs self-respect, achievement, recognition, prestige cues a persons worth Self-Actualization personal growth, self-fulfillment, realization of full potential Where are YOU on the hierarchy??? Alderfer’s ERG Consolidates Maslow into 3 categories Existence-physiological and security Relatedness-affiliation Growth-esteem and self-actualization 14.4 ERG Model of Motivation Frustration-Regression Satisfaction-Progression Growth Needs Relatedness Needs Existence Needs Adapted from Figure 14.3 Frustration-Regression Differs from Maslow When unable to satisfy upper level needs, the individual will revert to satisfying lower level needs Interesting point from research....growth stimulates growth McClelland’s Learned Needs Needs are acquired through interaction with environment Not a higherarchy, but degrees of each type of need or motive Types of Needs N Ach-motive to meet some standard of excellence or to compete N Aff-motive to develop and maintain close and meaningful relationships N Pow-desire to influence and control others and the environment Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Some variable prevent job dissatisfaction and some variables produce motivation Hygiene factors-basic needs that will prevent dissatisfaction light, temperature, pay, parking Motivators when present cause high levels of motivation interesting work, advancement, growth, etc. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory High 14.6 Motivation Low Motivation Low Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction Low High Hygienes Low High Motivators Adapted from Figure 14.4 Process Theories Reinforcement Theory Expectancy Equity Justice Theory Goal Setting Types of Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement-rewards Punishment-Application of a negative outcome Negative Reinforcement-removal of negative outcomes when behavior is performed Extinction-absence of reinforcement (removal of positive reinforcement) Drawbacks 14.9 Reinforcement Process Stimulus (situation) Response (behavior) Consequences (rewards and punishments) Future Behavior Source: From L. W. Porter and E. E. Lawler III. Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Homewood, Ill.: Irwin, 1968, p. 165. Used with permission Adapted from Figure 14.6 Types of Rewards Extrinsic-external rewards such as money, fringe benefits, job security Intrinsic-internal satisfaction outcomes from doing work Satisfaction-employee’s attitude about work situations Intrinsic motivation and Intrigue?????? Equity Theory Individuals try to find a balance between their inputs and outputs relative to a referent other However, a referent other is not always present Results of Inequity Equity-I am being treated fairly Under-rewarded-will look to increase rewards, or decrease inputs to match rewards Over-rewarded-will change referent to match cognitions or increase inputs Leaving and distortion Reinforcement Theory Behaviors are functions of consequences that they produce If a behavior is followed by a pleasant experience it will be repeated In order to change behaviors the consequences must be changed Overreward Versus Underreward Inequity Comparison Other Overreward Inequity Outcomes Outcomes Inputs Underreward Inequity You Inputs Outcomes Outcomes Inputs Inputs Goal Setting Theory Assignment of specific, moderately difficult, and providing feedback will provide motivation to work Employee participation Receive rewards Provide competencies for achievement Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance Task Performance High Low Area of Optimal Goal Difficulty Moderate Challenging Goal Difficulty Impossible Expectancy Theory Combines goal setting and reinforcement theories Three questions drive motivation With effort can I perform? With performance, will I be rewarded? Do I value the rewards? Terms Expectancy-belief that effort will lead to performance Instrumentality-performance leads to rewards (does performance level matter) Valence-value of rewards Expectancy Theory of Motivation E-to-P Expectancy P-to-O Expectancy Outcomes & Valences Outcome 1 + or - Effort Performance Outcome 2 + or - Outcome 3 + or - Justice Theory Procedural Justice - fairness issues concerning the methods, mechanisms, and processes used to determine outcomes Distributive Justice - concerns the fairness of outcomes, includes equity theory Interactional Justice - concerns the way one is treated informally during procedures and distributions How they interact Procedural justice and interactional justice can buffer inequity to some level Above that threshold, procedural and interactional justice do not matter If equity is present, then interactional and procedural do not matter Does order of procedural or interactional justice matter?