kvarter
akademisk
Volume 09. Autumn 2014 • on the web
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
The case of creative learning
Lene Tanggaard
is Professor of Psychology in the Department of Communication and
Psychology at the University of Aalborg, Denmark, where she serves
as co-director of The International Centre for the Cultural Psychology of Creativity (ICCPC), and co-director of the Center for Qualitative Studies. She has published several books and papers in the field
of creativity and learning.
Vlad Petre Glăveanu
is Associate Professor of Psychology in the Department of Communication and Psychology at the University of Aalborg, Denmark, and
Associate Researcher at the Institute of Psychology, University Paris
Descartes, France. He has published several papers and books in the
field of creativity and culture.
Abstract
Creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship are among the most
celebrated concepts in today’s world and this places them high on
the agenda in the educational system. Everyone wants creativity, but
few people have suggestions as to how to proceed developing or
assessing it. This leaves educators around the world with the dilemma of how to integrate creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship into the curriculum. The present paper will discuss how current
definitions of creativity and creativity assessment often stand in the
way of working constructively towards this goal as they typically
disconnect idea generation from idea evaluation and develop creativity measures that focus almost exclusively on divergent thinking.
We will argue for a dynamic type of creativity assessment that considers it a developmental rather than purely diagnostic tool. Practical concerns regarding the assessment of creative learning will support these theoretical and methodological reflections.
Keywords creativity, definition, assessment, intervention, cultural
psychology, education
Volume
09
18
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
Creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship are among the most
celebrated concepts today, globally, and are high on the agenda in
the educational system. Everyone wants creativity, but few people
have suggestions as to how to proceed when it comes to explaining
or enhancing creative expression. While psychological research into
creativity increased considerably in the past decades (Hennessey &
Amabile, 2010), there is still much to be understood in relation to
the nature of creative work and our possibilities to assess and foster
it. At a societal level, these concerns are reflected in the explicit, collective effort to find new ways of using creativity as a resource for
growth and social transformation.
Many politicians, civil servants, and policy makers see creativity
as the key to commercial success and education is supposed “to
produce the kinds of individuals who will go on to succeed in a
knowledge-based economy” (Moeran & Christensen, 2013, p. 2).
Within the management literature, researchers strive to define the
necessary skills of the future leader and many point towards the
need to foster creative, design-thinking among employees in organizations striving to become more innovative. Design-thinking is
here addressed as a particular kind of thinking often employed by
designers, defined by user-orientation when designing new products and services and an abductive, constrains-driven thinking
(Dunne & Martin, 2006). The basic point is that these skills are seen
as relevant for all employees today, and not only for designers. All
of this means that educators around the world are currently trying
to find ways to integrate creativity, innovation and entrepreneurial
skills into the curriculum.
However, our current definitions of creativity and innovation often stand in the way of working consistently towards this aim. For
example, in the psychology of creativity, there has been a long tradition of contrasting idea generation (divergent thinking) and idea
evaluation (convergent thinking), and many people believe that
evaluation and judgment act as eradicators of creativity (Sawyer,
2013). However, we know from studies on design thinking that innovators often employ both abstract and concrete as well as analytic
and synthetic thinking (Beckman & Berry, 2007) and assessment
studies show that evaluation and learning are closely connected because evaluative practices inform and structure what is learned by
students (Tanggaard & Elmholdt, 2008); moreover, a great number
Volume
09
19
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
of different evaluative processes are necessary for good creative
work (Sawyer, 2013). Accordingly, it is timely to reflect on the evaluation of creativity and how this can be seen as integrative to creative
learning processes within the educational environment in order to
coordinate our theoretical efforts of defining creativity and fostering
in within learning communites. We take as a starting point in this
article the broad definition of creativity elaborated, within the educational setting, by Plucker, Beghetto and Dow:
“Creativity is the interaction among aptitude, process, and
environment by which an individual or group produces a
perceptible product that is both novel and useful as defined within a social context” (Plucker, Beghetto and Dow,
2004, p. 90).
In the following, we will proceed by introducing a story of the lack
of assessment of creative learning told by the participants at a
workshop conducted by the first author. The story concerns the difficulties faced by teachers who would like to recognize creative
learning while experiencing that standardized curriculum goals often work against this. Thereafter, examples of assessment of creativity in psychology, mainly in the form of tests of divergent thinking,
are presented. In the final part of the paper, our model of dynamic
assessment of creative learning is introduced and discussed as one
way forward in the attempt to reconcile dilemmas related to the assessment of creative learning in teaching situations. The sociocultural framework of creativity assessment we advance in this paper
moves beyond an exclusive focus on the individual being tested or
the test itself to account for the role of others in the testing situation.
This perspective challenges the existing separation between assessment and intervention and considers them inter-related in an everadvancing cycle of observation, evaluation, and enhancement.
“We would so much like to change the standards….”
The above sentence is a direct quote from a teacher telling the first
author about real-life challenges related to the assessment of creative
learning in a higher education context. Having done more than 100
workshops during the last years with practitioners on the topic of
creative learning, one controversial and difficult aspect tends to
Volume
09
20
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
come up again and again: the assessment of creativity. How to measure creativity, what to look for and what to do as a teacher? Indeed,
teachers do engage in a wide variety of evaluative practices when
they strive to recognize and understand what students do. The main
trouble with assessing creative learning is that this is a process that
generates something new which can therefore be difficult to assess
by using existing standards. At a recent workshop with teachers at a
Nursing College in Denmark, the above issue came across as highly
topical. A group of teachers said that they had begun experimenting
along the lines of inquiry learning often described as facilitating creative learning (Tanggaard, 2014), but they felt the existing curriculum standards worked against this. As they explained it:
“During the last few years, our curriculum has become
more academic. Our students are expected to gain competence in using scientific methodology. They are supposed
to write about this very close to the style used in academic journals. However, our feeling is that it is sometimes
very hard for the students to actually meet these demands.
The quite strict requirements related to the justification
of methodological approaches applied in their projects
sometimes hinder students in approaching their project
topic in more creative ways. Also, we fear that the practice
field does not really gain anything from this. We are currently widening up the gap between school and the field
of practice rather than creating the kind of boundary
crossing and mutual connections we are also aiming for.
We would therefore very much like to change this, to open
up for less restrictive and more open approaches to methodology. In our opinion, this would allow for better relations to the field of practice and more open and improvisational projects. Furthermore, this can actually be part of
ensuring that the students gain competences within creativity and innovation which are highly relevant for a constantly changing practice. But how may we do this?”
This dilemma voiced by the teachers in the workshop was connected to the increasingly academic profile of nursing education in Denmark. The teachers related creative learning very much to student
Volume
09
21
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
projects creating something new, often in collaboration with practitioners, while the official curriculum goals tend to focus on students’
ability to work with research methods in an academic fashion.
The author’s response to the dilemma posed by the teachers was
actually twofold. First of all: Is it a real problem? Would it not be possible to interpret curriculum goals related to research methods so
that they fit the goal of creative learning? Indeed, researchers often
creatively change their research design in response to the requirements of the tasks encountered, so creative work is very often closely intertwined with research. And secondly: What can be done to
change the curriculum goals so that they fit the ambition of promoting students’ creative work? However, while driving home, I (the
first author) began to reflect on the story told by the teachers. Is the
whole act of setting goals or striving towards more academic standards in the curriculum actually detrimental to promoting creativity?
Can teachers do more to dynamically access the potential of students’ creativity as an integrated aspect of learning as such? Would
it actually be beneficial for the teachers and the students to work
with an explicit kind of goal-setting and testing for creativity? Do
they have, in methodology projects, to work within the boundaries
set by a competence-oriented curriculum or are there other ways
forward? In essence, many shortcomings associated with the evaluation of creativity come from a strong association with testing or
from a disconnection between disciplinary subjects within a given
curriculum, on the one hand, and creativity understood as a general
psychological cognitive process on the other. It is therefore important, before questioning current forms of assessment, to understand
better the logic of psychometric evaluations and their use by psychologists as this lays the ground for the above-mentioned problematic in education.
Creativity assessment in psychology
Any effort to assess or measure creativity should necessarily begin
with observing and understanding the everyday activities and discourses that are shaping this practice and, in turn, are shaped by it.
In our case, we should start from an in-depth exploration of the
particular educational contexts and what is specific for them, for
the students involved and for their learning activity. In contrast,
most widely used creativity tests are usually built based on a gen-
Volume
09
22
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
eral conceptual model of what creativity is (e.g., Guilford’s model
of the intellect), rather than take a bottom-up, practice based approach. This leads to the easy assumption that creativity tests assess
something ‘universal’, in contrast to a contextual, situated perspective that would direct researchers towards what children and students ‘do in context’ and how their activity is ‘seen’ by others (Tanggaard, 2014; Glăveanu, 2014).
There is a great consensus among scholars that creative products
are described by both novelty and value (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995).
The exact nature of the process leading to such outcomes is however less clear, and a long tradition points towards divergent thinking (DT) as a key factor of creative potential (Guilford, 1950; Runco,
2010). Paper and pencil tests of divergent thinking are extremely
common in the psychology of creativity and in educational settings
(Zeng, Proctor & Salvendy, 2011) and they typically invite participants to generate as many ideas as they can in response to verbal or
figural prompts. Responses are subsequently scored for fluency
(number of ideas), flexibility (number of categories of ideas), originality (rarity of ideas), and elaboration (completeness). This kind of
practices are becoming more and more common in educational environments, including in Denmark, although access to actual testing instruments – and especially batteries that have been validated
for the local population – is rare and often teachers are left to create
their own tasks or apply the testing criteria to whatever product the
students are working on. This is not an advisable practice for several reasons, most of all the fact that the logic of psychometric measurement, with its strengths and limitations, should be well understood by the teacher before being used as part of any assessment.
For example, the best known instrument in this regard is Torrance
(1966)’s Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT). The TTCT has two forms
(A and B), both including verbal (ask-and-guess, product improvement, unusual uses, unusual questions, and just suppose) and figural tasks (picture construction, picture completion, and repeated figures of lines or circles). It is, by far, the most popular instrument for
assessing creativity (Davis, 1997), particularly in educational settings. The TTCT can be administered as an individual or group test,
from kindergarten up to graduate level (and beyond). Despite ongoing discussions concerning its validity, reviewers tend to agree that
this is “a good measure” for both discovering and encouraging crea-
Volume
09
23
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
tivity (Kim, 2006, p. 11). While a central feature of the TTCT relies on
asking participants to generate ideas and solve problems, it is not
just divergent but also convergent/evaluative capacities that are
important for a comprehensive study of creativity (Rickards, 1994)
and, as mentioned earlier, both divergent and convergent skills appear to be necessary in almost every innovation process (Beckman &
Barry, 2007). This double focus is what distinguishes the Evaluation
of Potential for Creativity (EPoC; Lubart, Besançon & Barbot, 2011)
from other creativity measures. In the words of the authors, this is a
“multifaceted, domain-specific, modular test battery that allows
evaluators to capture the multidimensionality of the creative potential and to derive profiles of potential for creativity” (Barbot, Besançon & Lubart, 2011, p. 58). With tasks covering the graphic/artistic
and the verbal/literary domains (soon to be joined by the musical
and social domain), EPoC can be used with children in elementary
and middle-school – kindergarten to 6th grade.
What teachers should know is that divergent thinking tests, for
as popular as they are, have been also subjected to repeated criticism in psychology (see Simonton, 2003). Zeng, Proctor and Salvendy (2011) listed in this regard six major limitations, namely: lack
of construct validity; not testing the integrated general creative process; neglect of domain specificity and expertise; and poor predictive, ecological, and discriminant validities. Nevertheless, other
scholars responded to these claims (see, for instance, Plucker and
Runco’s, 1998, article ‘The death of creativity measurement has
been greatly exaggerated’) by showing that, although not perfect,
creativity tests are actually valid, reliable, and practical. For Runco
(2010, p. 414), “the research on DT is one of the more useful ways to
study ideas, and therefore creative potential, as well as our more
general everyday problem solving”. And yet, if we are to connect to
the concerns expressed by teachers during creative learning workshops we still need to ask a fundamental question: how can psychological assessment be used practically to help students? How can it
be used to tell us something meaningful about their capacity to create, innovate, or be good entrepreneurs? Moreover, how can this be
done in the context of a rather rigid curriculum constraining what
activities teachers can integrate or evaluate? Our answer to this
pressing question is that it is possible to use assessment as a form of
intervention but, in order to do this, we would first need to reflect
Volume
09
24
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
on the principles behind traditional creativity measurement and rethink them.
A new look on creativity assessment
in education and beyond
Studies of the learning processes involved in innovation (Beckman
& Barry, 2007) point towards the need to give consideration to the
very diverse set of skills necessary to succeed and to teach teams to
pay due attention to both divergent and convergent, analytic and
synthetic skills. The key is to develop teams willing to learn and
collaborate in the complex, real tasks required by producing new
and valuable products and services. This means that they must constantly be willing to assess their own work processes and change
them in a dynamic manner, according to the given task. But how
can we teach students to acquire this kind of adaptive, creative and
flexible thinking?
Focused on dynamic models, cultural psychology, as well as situated accounts of learning, is highly concerned by traditional practices of assessment and their decontextualized approach to individual performance. For example, Cole (1996) challenged the
mainstream psychometric tradition with the means of ethnography,
showing that the instruments we use to assess intelligence propose
a definition that is foreign to non-Western populations. For a psychologist, working in educational settings, assessment is or should
be closely related to learning, not only as a ‘measure’ of its performance, but used as an opportunity for its development (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2002; Shepard, 2000). The novelty of
this approach resides in the fact that, on the one hand, it expands the
traditional focus of assessment from student to ‘learner in context’ (a
context that includes students, teachers, parents, as well as the institutional and cultural frames of education) and, on the other, it proposes to integrate assessment activities within the teaching and
learning process in ways that make evaluation not a separate activity in school but an integral part of educational practices aimed towards understanding and fostering creativity.
How is this possible at a practical level?
In building a sociocultural psychological approach to creativity assessment we could start from a similar premise as Moss, Pullin, Paul
Volume
09
25
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
Gee & Haertel (2005, p. 77) who eloquently argued that “testing
shapes people’s actions and understandings about what counts as
trustworthy evidence, as learning or educational progress, as fairness or social justice, and as appropriate aims for an educational
system”. From this position, unpacking creativity assessment requires an in-depth exploration of its premises and implications. The
test itself is part of a wider network of ‘actors’, including psychologists, teachers, parents, etc., as well as lay and scientific representations of what creativity (or the ‘creative person) is. Moreover, the
activity of testing (creativity evaluation) represents only one moment within a cycle that reunites observation (of current creativity
practices) and enhancement (of creative potential and expression).
In agreement with Houtz and Krug (1995), we share the view that
creativity tests “might best be used to help ‘awaken’ creative thinking in individuals” (p. 290). Figure 1 below captures this intrinsic
relationship that points to the intricate and continuous inter-relation
between processes of observation, evaluation and enhancement of
creativity in educational practice. In addition, it shares some of the
basic premises of design thinking (Dunne & Martin, 2007), in which
the ability to work with ill-defined problems by way of abductive
reasoning is seen as one of the most important skills in the future
and, therefore, of utmost importance for the educational system to
consider developing. Rather than trying to find the ‘creative child or
Figure 1. A framework for creativity assessment as intervention in educational settings
Volume
09
26
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
student’ as a static one-moment-in-time process, the development of
creative capabilities is considered here a dynamic, on-going process
in which any form of assessment becomes an integral aspect of the
learning process rather than a separate activity.
Towards the future of creativity assessment:
Dynamic and formative testing
We started this paper by outlining the importance of creativity and
innovation in educational systems that strive to develop active and
creative students, capable of taking initiatives and seeing them
through (thus having strong entrepreneurial skills as well). However, as we have seen from a brief case of encountering educators during creative learning workshops, these efforts are constantly challenged by different features of testing, of the curriculum, and by the
way some teachers tend to interpret new curricular standards. We
then proceeded to a close analysis of how creativity is being assessed
in psychology as it is primarily this professional groups teachers
look to in search of advice on these issues, in general. And yet, divergent thinking tests, the ‘golden standard’ of creativity assessment,
rarely live up to their promises. First of all, they tend to disconnect
idea generation from idea implementation and focus largely on the
latter which is a major problem considering the evidence that these
skills are integrated in concrete innovation work. Second, there are
many individual and cultural factors that are not taken into account
by these tests, which make them too general to be useful in many
concrete settings.
In this context, a new look at measurement, informed by cultural
psychology and learning theory, was advocated for, one that considered the inter-relation between observing, assessing, and enhancing
creativity in the school context. How can creativity tasks be used as
intervention and not only for purposes of assessment? There is a
strong line of thinking pointing towards this direction, again in psychology. It goes back to the scholarship of Lev Vygotsky (van der
Veer & Valsiner, 1991; Cole, 1996), and is reflected in recent efforts
made to formulate and apply ‘dynamic assessment’ (see Lidz, 1987;
Tzuriel, 2001; Haywood & Lidz, 2006) and ‘formative interventions’
(Engeström, 2011). In essence, dynamic assessment involves adapting the tasks presented to children or students to their level, interest
and needs, and both identifying and expanding their potential by
Volume
09
27
kvarter
akademisk
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
academic quarter
facilitating interaction with others. While this type of evaluation exists for intelligence testing, there are virtually no studies of dynamic
creativity assessment which is not only a theoretical gap but one
with very serious practical consequences1. Dynamic assessment promotes collaboration in working together on a creativity task and this
is what students do most of the time in class. By not paying sufficient attention to these moments, or not structuring them in such
ways that students get the most out of their activity (in line with the
aim of enhancing creative expression) and teachers become capable
of observing and assessing their work as it unfolds, we are missing
valuable teaching and learning opportunities. In the end, it is the
artificial separation between divergent thinking (ideation) and convergent thinking (evaluation) that we are reinforcing when detaching assessment from intervention. A more holistic way of looking at
educational practices is required in order to transcend such divisions for the benefit of all those involved.
References
Barbot, B., Besançon, M. & Lubart, T. (2011). Assessing creativity in
the classroom. The Open Education Journal, 4, (Suppl 1:M5), 58-66.
Beckman, S. L., & Barry, M. (2007). “Innovation as a learning process: Embedding design thinking.” California Management Review 50(1): 25–5
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2002).
Working inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the classroom. London: King’s College London School of Education
Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge: Belknap Press.
Davis, G. A. (1997). Identifying creative students and measuring
creativity. In N.
Colangelo & G. A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (pp.
269–281). Needham Heights, MA: Viacom.
Dunne, D. and Martin, R. (2006). “Design thinking and how it will
change management education: an interview and discussion”
Academy of Management Learning and Education 5(4): 512–523.
Engeström, Yrjö (2011). From design experiments to formative interventions Theory Psychology vol. 21 no. 5 598-628
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5, 444–454
Volume
09
28
kvarter
akademisk
academic quarter
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
Glăveanu, V. P. (2014). Thinking through creativity and culture: Towards
an integrated model. New Jersey, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Haywood, H. C. & Lidz, C. S. (2006). Dynamic assessment in practice: Clinical and educational applications: Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hennessey, B. A., & Amabile, T. (2010). Creativity. Annual Review
of Psychology, 61, 569–598.
Houtz, J. C., & Krug, D. (1995). Assessment of creativity: Resolving
a mid-life crisis. Educational Psychology Review, 7(3), 269-300.
Kim, K. H. (2006). Can we trust creativity tests? A review of the
Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT). Creativity Research
Journal, 18(1), 3-14.
Lidz, C. S. (Ed.) (1987). Dynamic assessment: An interactional approach
to evaluating learning potential. New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.
Lubart, T., Besançon, L. & Barbot, B. (2011). Evaluation of potential
creativity. Paris: Hogrefe
Moeran, B. & Christensen, B. T. (eds.) (2013) Exploring creativity:
Evaluative practices in innovation, design and the arts. Cambridge
University Press.
Moss, P. A., Pullin, D., Paul Gee, J., & Haertel, E. H. (2005). The idea
of testing: Psychometric and sociocultural perspectives. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research & Perspective, 3(2), 63-83.
Plucker, J. A., & Runco, M. A. (1998). The death of creativity measurement has been greatly exaggerated: Current issues, recent
advances, and future directions in creativity assessment. Roeper Review, 21(1), 36-39.
Plucker, J. A., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. T. (2004). Why isn’t creativity more important to educational psychologists? Potentials,
pitfalls, and future directions in creativity. Research, Educational
Psychologist, 39(2), 83-96.
Runco, M. A. (2010). Divergent thinking, creativity, and ideation.
In J. C. Kaufman, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (pp. 413-446). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rickards, T.J. (1994). Creativity from a business school perspective:
past, present and future. In S.G. Isaksen, M.C. Murdock, R.L.
Firestien, & D.J. Treffinger (Eds.), Nurturing and developing creativity: the emergence of a discipline (155–176). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Volume
09
29
kvarter
akademisk
Creativity assessment as intervention
Lene Tanggaard
Vlad Glăveanu
academic quarter
Sawyer, K. (2013). Afterword: Evaluative practices in the creative
industries. In: B.
Schubauer-Leoni, M.-L., Bell, N., Grossen, M., & Perret-Clermont,
A.-N. (1989). Problems in assessment of learning: The social construction of questions and answers in the scholastic context. International Journal of Educational Research, 13(6), 671-684.
Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment in a learning culture.
Educational Researcher, 29(7), 4-14.
Simonton, D. K. (2003). Expertise, competence, and creative ability: The perplexing complexities. In R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), The psychology of abilities, competencies, and expertise (pp. 213–239). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York, NY: The Free
Press.
Tanggaard, L. (2014). Fooling around: Creative learning pathways.
Charlotte: Information Age Publishing.
Tanggaard, L. & Elmholdt, C. (2008). Assessment in Practice : An
inspiration from apprenticeship. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 52 (1), 97–116
Tzuriel, D. (2001). Dynamic assessment of young children. Plenum
Series on Human Exceptionality, pp. 63-75.
Van der Veer, R. & Valsiner, J. (1991). Understanding Vygotsky: A
quest for synthesis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. [Portuguese translation: Vygotsky: uma sintese. São Paulo: Edições Loyola, 1996;
2nd printing in 1998]
Zeng, L., Proctor, R. W., & Salvendy, G. (2011). Can traditional divergent thinking tests be trusted in measuring and predicting
real-world creativity? Creativity Research Journal, 23(1), 24-37.
Notes
1 We are grateful to Todd Lubart for suggesting this new line of theory
and investigation.
Volume
09
30