1. business and industrial
2. company
3. earnings

MAC4861/102/0/2015
Tutorial Letter 102/0/2015
ADVANCED MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
MAC4861
NMA4861
ZMA4861
Year module
Department of Financial Intelligence
This tutorial letter contains important
information about your module.
Bar code
2
MAC4861/102
MODULE PURPOSE
This module is intended for students who are interested in qualifying as registered chartered
accountants (SAICA) or management accountants (CIMA) to develop the necessary competencies.
The purpose of the module is to provide students with knowledge of management accounting and
financial management. Furthermore, the module will create an understanding of and develop skills
with regard to the management and use of costs, control, decision-making and planning approaches
and processes, risk management, sources and forms of finance, the cost of capital as well as
techniques to be applied with regard to managing and investing of funds in a financial environment.
These topics will be dealt with in four separate tutorial letters, of which this is the first.
- WEEK from 28 January to 3 February 2015
Dear student, we suggest that you allocate your time spent on this tutorial letter, according to the
following approximate allocation.
Part 1
Cost accounting bases and allocation (60%)
Part 2
Planning and control (30%)
Part 3
Integrated self-assessment test (10%)
Proposed time allocation
10%
Part 1 - Bases and allocation
30%
60%
Part 2 - Planning and control
Part 3 - Integrated self-assessment
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CONTENT – THIS MODULE
The diagram below contains a schematic presentation of the content of this module.
MAC4861
Advanced Management Accounting
Planning and
general
Management
decision
making and
control
Strategy, Risk
Management,
Financial
Management
Tutorial
letter 104
Tutorial
letter 105
Tutorial
letter 101
Tutorial
letters in
the 3-series
(3**)
Prior exams,
questions and
revision
Tutorial
letter 107
Tutorial
letter 106
Tutorial letter 102
(this tutorial letter)
Topics
Tutorial letter 103
Topics
• Nature, classification
and allocation of cost
(variable and
absorption costing,
ABC)
• Product costing
systems
• Planning, budgeting
and control
• Cost-volume-profit
analysis
• Standard costing
• Performance
management
• Transfer pricing
• Information for decisionmaking (relevant cost &
revenues; pricing
decisions & profitability
analysis; decision-making
under conditions of risk &
uncertainty)
Integrated selfassessment
Integrated selfassessment
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MAC4861/102
MAC4861
ADVANCED MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
TUTORIAL LETTER 102 / 2015
PAGE
MODULE PURPOSE .................................................................................................................. 2
PART 1 – COST ACCOUNTING BASES AND ALLOCATION .................................................. 5
PART 1, TOPIC 1 – Nature, classification and allocation of cost ................................................. 6
STUDY UNIT 1.1 – Nature and classification of cost ............................................................ 7
STUDY UNIT 1.2 – Variable and absorption costing ................................................................... 13
STUDY UNIT 1.3 – Activity-based costing (ABC) ............................................................... 33
PART 1, TOPIC 2 – Product costing systems ........................................................................... 47
STUDY UNIT 2.1 – Job costing .......................................................................................... 48
STUDY UNIT 2.2 – Process costing... ................................................................................ 53
STUDY UNIT 2.3 – Joint and by-product costing... ............................................................. 59
PART 2 – PLANNING AND CONTROL ................................................................................... 67
PART 2, TOPIC 3 – Planning, budgeting and control ................................................................ 67
STUDY UNIT 3.1 – Budgeting and management control systems ...................................... 68
STUDY UNIT 3.2 – Cost management techniques/principles .................................................... 80
STUDY UNIT 3.3 – Cost-volume-profit analysis ................................................................. 85
PART 3 - INTEGRATED SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST ............................................................ 94
2014 TEST 1 AND SOLUTION .............................................................................................. 107
2014 TEST 2 AND SOLUTION .............................................................................................. 119
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING GLOSSARY ........................................................................ 132
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PART 1 - COST ACCOUNTING BASES AND ALLOCATION
PART 1 - PURPOSE
The purpose of part 1 is to equip students with a critical and informed understanding of
•
•
Key terms and guidelines
Concepts and established principles
in order to classify, to record and to present costs for the valuation of inventories and to compile
Statements of Comprehensive Income on different bases.
DEEL 1 - DOEL
Die doel met deel 1 is om studente toe te rus met ‘n kritiese en ingeligte begrip van die
•
•
Sleutelterme en riglyne
Konsepte en gevestigde beginsels
ten einde koste te klassifiseer, te boek te stel en voor te lê vir die waardasie van voorraad en die
opstel van State van Omvattende Inkomste op verskillende grondslae.
TOPICS:
1.
Nature, classification and allocation of cost
2.
Costing of material, labour and overhead
Introduction
Management accounting deals with accounting information within the organisation, focussing on
critical information so that operational and strategic planning can be undertaken, decisions can be
made, control can be exercised and problems addressed. There is no formal framework which
regulates management accounting. A logical mind and approach is however required to deal with the
aforementioned focus areas.
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PART 1, TOPIC 1 – Nature, classification and allocation of cost
TOPIC 1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic, you should be able to:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Describe the definitions relevant to costing terms and systems.
Classify costs and apply cost concepts and cost estimation techniques in various scenarios.
Apply knowledge of variable and absorption costing systems in a case study scenario.
Advise on an applicable method when analysing a scenario.
Apply results of the over- and under-recovery of overheads calculation to a practical case
study and correctly account for it in the Statement of Comprehensive Income.
Apply an activity-based costing approach to costing information in a scenario.
Advise management on which type of costing system is appropriate and how the systems
differ.
ONDERWERP 1 LEER UITKOMSTE
Na bestudering van hierdie onderwerp behoort u in staat te wees om:
•
•
•
●
•
•
•
Die definisies relevant tot kostestelsels te omskryf.
Koste te klassifiseer en koste konsepte en kosteberamingstegnieke toe te pas in verskeie
scenarios.
Advies oor ‘n gepaste werkswyse te gee wanneer ‘n scenario ontleed word.
Kennis van veranderlike- en absorpsiekostestelsels in ‘n gevallestudie/scenario toe te pas.
Gevolge van die berekening van die oor- en onderverhaling van bokoste op ‘n praktiese
gevallestudie toe te pas en dit korrek in die Staat van Omvattende Inkomste weer te gee.
Pas ‘n aktiwiteitsgebaseerde kostebenadering op koste inligting in ‘n scenario toe.
Adviseer bestuur aangaande die tipe kostestelsel wat toepaslik is en hoe die stelsels verskil.
STUDY UNIT
TITLE
STUDY UNIT 1.1
Nature and classification of cost
STUDY UNIT 1.2
Variable and absorption costing
STUDY UNIT 1.3
Activity-based costing
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STUDY UNIT 1.1
Nature and classification of cost
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for the nature, classification and allocation of costs. If not, please refer to your undergraduate study
material and revise the following indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury using the page
numbers below:
Prior learning
Drury 8th ed.
Drury 9th ed.
Before studying this topic, you
should be able to:
Applicable references:
Applicable references:
• Define and illustrate a cost.
• Understand the meaning of the
important cost definitions.
• Distinguish between variable
and fixed costs.
• Apply and describe the different
methods of estimating costs.
• Calculate regression equations
using the least-squares
methods and evaluate the
goodness of fit, using the
coefficient of correlation and
coefficient of determination.
• Application of the high-low
method.
Drury Chapter 2:
An introduction to cost terms
and concepts. Pages 23-39
Drury Chapter 23:
Cost estimation and cost
behaviour. Pages 608-619
Drury Chapter 8:
Separation of semi-variable
costs. Page 184-185
Drury Chapter 2:
An introduction to cost terms
and concepts. Pages 25-41
Drury Chapter 23:
Cost estimation and cost
behaviour. Pages 628-639
Drury Chapter 8:
Separation of semi-variable
costs. Page 188-189
Do crossword puzzle for:
Chapter 2 & 23
Glossary and flashcards:
Chapter 2, 23 & 8
(Note with chapter 8 you will do
(CVP in a later unit ∴ focus
only on separation of semivariable costs for now)
Do crossword puzzle for
Chapter 2 & 23
Glossary and flashcards:
Chapter 2, 23 & 8
Introduction
In this study unit you will revise the nature of costs and the methods used to classify them. You will
specifically revisit the application of the high-low method to distinguish between fixed and variable
costs.
The following are brief descriptions of the critical terms in this study unit. Bear in mind that the
classification of costs will vary between organisations and within a particular organisation according to
a particular management function.
Cost
The cost of any item, whether production or service driven, is determined by a quantifiable
measurement and a value measurement.
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Cost classification
Classification is linked to the intended use of the cost information: i.e. for inventory valuation, planning,
decision-making or control purposes.
Cost behaviour
Cost behaviour is driven by the different levels of activity and a variety of measures.
Cost estimation
Different methods are used for cost estimation, of which the high-low method is found most often in
questions.
High-low method
Note that in practice you would probably not use this method as it is more crude than statistical or
software driven solutions (Drury 7th ed. Pages 600 – 601, Drury 8th ed. pages 613 – 614). We will
highlight a few problem areas in the application of the high-low method as it is often one of the first
steps in answering a question, and is often misconstrued.
This method takes the highest and lowest activity levels and associated costs from the available
information and calculates the change in volume and cost which has occurred between them. The
assumption is that the change in total costs between the two levels is attributable to the variable costs,
because fixed costs stay the same within a normal capacity range (0% - 100%).
Total cost = (Variable cost x units produced) + Fixed costs
Variable cost per unit
=
Cost at highest activity level – Cost at lowest activity level
Units produced at highest activity level – units produced at lowest activity level
Focus notes
1.
The costs should be from the same fiscal period, i.e. the effect of inflation should be negated.
When working with figures derived under different inflationery conditions, all figures should first
be INDEXED to the same year. Thereafter the high-low method can be applied.
2.
The selection of high and low is based on the activity level, not on the cost or value level.
3.
Always remember that a high-low scenario is only applicable where there are different costs for
two different levels of activity, during a specified time period. You CAN’T compare a budgeted
and actual activity and do a high-low method application based on that. The high-low method is
based on two levels of budgeted activity or two levels of actual activity.
4.
If you notice an inconsistent increase/reduction in total costs relative to a specific activity, (nonlinearity,) ignore that activity level in your consideration of the high and low points. It is
important that you review all the data points, before deciding on the high and low levels.
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Online Resources – Drury 8th and 9th ed.
The Drury 8th ed. and 9th ed. include private access to an interactive online site. It provides a student
with the following learning tools:
●
●
●
crossword puzzles
flashcards
glossary
This will assist you when you are studying the notes as part of your revision. Please note that these
entire resources focus on learning the definitions. At MAC4861 level you are required to understand
these definitions and apply in a case study. Focus should be on application.
Activity 1: Basic revision example
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 2.27 p40 (Solution p703) or
9th ed: Question 2.28 p42 (Solution p723)
This question is for revision of sunk and opportunity costs for decision making. Keep in mind that Mrs
J has 2 options: should Mrs J continue with the business or should Mrs J sublet the shop to her friend?
What will the cost/salary involve with the two options.
Activity 2: Basic revision example
Month
July
August
September
October
November
December
Activity level
units
Total
overhead
cost
R
110
90
80
100
130
120
5 500
4 500
4 400
5 000
6 000
5 600
REQUIRED
Determine the fixed and variable costs based on the given activity levels.
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Feedback 1
Step 1: Choose the highest and lowest level of activity
The highest level of activity occurred in November and the lowest in September. The amount of fixed
cost will be constant every month (fixed costs don’t change). Therefore the difference resulting from
the increased activity will be the variable cost.
Step 2: Calculate the variable cost using the difference between the highest and lowest level of
activity.
Activity
level units
November
September
Change
130
80
50
R
6 000
4 400
1 600
The extra variable cost is R1 600. We can use this information to calculate the variable cost per unit.
Variable cost per unit
= 1 600/50
R32/unit
Step 3: Determine the fixed cost
The fixed cost can be determined by substituting the information calculated above as follows:
OR
November (130 units)
Total cost
Variable cost (130 x R32)
Fixed cost
September (80 units)
R
6 000
4 160
1 840
R
4 400
2 560
1 840
Total cost
Variable cost (80 x R32)
Fixed cost
Activity 2 - Extended example
Marthi Ltd presents the following budgeted information for one of their new production facilities:
Total overheads (R)
Total production (units)
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
276 000
12 000
380 000
25 000
420 000
30 000
390 000
35 000
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REQUIRED
Determine the overhead rate.
Feedback 2
In total terms the overhead decreases from the 30 000 level to 35 000 level, thus high-low should be
applied to 12 000 and 30 000 where constant change takes place. One can conclude that between
30 000 and 35 000 either the fixed or variable costs or both are expected to change (probably due to
the experience curve effect).
We will use the abbreviations VOH for variable overhead and FOH for fixed overhead.
VOH per unit
∴ Total FOH
=
R(420 000 – 276 000)
30 000 – 12 000
=
R144 000
18 000
=
R8 per unit
=
R420 000 – (30 000 x R8)
=
R180 000
In substituting the above on the 35 000 level, the total cost is: (35 000 x R8) + R180 000 = R460 000,
corroborating the decision to exclude this level from the process.
Activity 3
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 23.14 p626 (Solution p766) or
9th ed: Question 23.14 p647 (Solution p801)
Feedback 3
The high-low method was used to determine the total cost for a specified quantity.
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Summary
In this study unit, we revisited cost classification, behaviour and estimation with emphasis on applying
the high-low method.
Self-assessment activity
Before you move on to the next study unit, please ensure that you have grasped the following
concepts:
Yes/No
1. What is a cost object? Explain how sales commission will be treated when
(i)
(ii)
the product is the cost object
the customer is the cost object
2. Maintaining a cost database.
3. Cost estimation: Regression analysis and High-Low method. Explain under which
circumstances a particular method may be more applicable.
4. Provide an example of a fixed and a variable cost in a
•
•
•
Manufacturing environment
Retail environment
Service environment
without using the same example more than once.
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STUDY UNIT 1.2
Variable and absorption costing
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for variable and absorption costing. If not, please refer to your undergraduate study material and
revise the following indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury, using the page numbers below:
Prior learning
Drury 8th ed.
Drury 9th ed.
Before studying this topic, you
should be able to:
Applicable references:
Applicable references:
• Describe the various
denominator levels that can be
used with an absorption costing
system;
• Justify why budgeted overhead
rates should be used in
preference to actual overhead
rates;
• Calculate and explain the
accounting treatment of the
under-/over-recovery of
overheads;
• Reallocate service departments’
overheads where service
departments render services to
each other and to production
departments;
• Explain the differences between
an absorption costing and a
variable costing system;
• Prepare profit statements based
on an absorption and variable
costing system;
• Reconcile and explain the
difference in profits between
absorption and variable costing
profit calculations;
• Explain the arguments for and
against variable and absorption
costing.
•
Drury: Chapter 3:
Cost assignment. Pages
47 – 56.
•
•
Drury: Chapter 3:
Budgeted overhead rates
and Under- and overrecovery of over-heads.
Pages 60 – 65.
•
Drury: Chapter 3:
Budgeted overhead rates
and Under- and overrecovery of over-heads.
Pages 64 – 70.
●
Drury: Chapter 3:
Inter-service department
reallocations. Pages 67 –
71.
●
Drury: Chapter 3:
Inter-service department
reallocations. Pages 72
– 76.
•
Drury: Chapter 7:
Income effects of
alternative cost accumulation systems.
Pages 146 – 157.
Leave out the following
sections of Chapter 7:
•
Drury: Chapter 7:
Income effects of
alternative cost accumulation systems.
Pages 151 – 162.
Leave out the following
sections of Chapter 7:
o Appendix 7.1.
Derivation of the profit
function for an
absorption costing
system. Pages 158 –
159.
Drury: Chapter 3: Cost
assignment. Pages 51 –
60.
o Appendix 7.1
Derivation of the profit
function for an
absorption costing
system. Pages 163 –
164
● Now study IAS2 again.
• Now study IAS2 again.
Online Resources:
Do crossword puzzle and
study glossary and flashcard to
revise definitions.
Online Resources:
Do crossword puzzle and
study glossary and flashcard
to revise definitions.
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Introduction
In the previous study unit, we used the nature of a cost to classify it as either fixed or variable,
although in practice many costs will have a dual nature or follow a step pattern. We will now use these
classifications to assign overhead cost to products.
In this study unit, we revisit types of cost accumulation systems, namely absorption costing and
variable / direct costing systems, specifically those using traditional volume-based measures. In the
next topic we will look at another absorption costing system, namely Activity-based-costing (ABC).
Under absorption costing ALL manufacturing costs, including fixed overhead, are included in the cost
of the product. Under variable costing only variable manufacturing costs (including variable
overheads) are included in the cost of the product.
International Accounting Statement (IAS2) makes absorption costing compulsory for external
reporting. For internal use, variable costing gives a clearer picture for the evaluation of the
performance of divisions and for certain short-term decision-making scenarios.
Critical topics:
Bases of assigning overheads to cost objects
•
Absorption vs variable costing
•
Traditional volume-based measures
•
Selecting an appropriate denominator level for the allocation of fixed production
overheads
•
Accounting treatment of over/under recovery of fixed production overheads and
expenditure variances
Cost accumulation
systems
Extensive
costing
systems for
tracking costs
Variable / Direct
costing
(Study unit 1.2)
Backflush
accounting
Absorption costing
(Study unit 1.2)
Traditional volumebased measures
Activity -BasedCosting (ABC)
(Study unit 1.3)
Focus notes:
Financial accounting perspective
According to IAS 2:10 Measurement of inventories, costs should include all:
•
•
Costs of purchase (including taxes, transport and handling), net of trade discounts received.
Costs of conversion (including fixed and variable overheads)
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•
Other costs incurred in bringing the inventory to its present location and condition.
Inventory costs should not include: (IAS 2.16 and 2.18)
•
•
•
•
Abnormal waste (Refer to topic 2 study unit 2: Process Costing)
Storage costs
Administration overheads unrelated to production
Selling costs etc.
From the above it is clear that for IAS accounting purposes the Statement of Comprehensive Income
(SCI) and Statement of Financial Position (SFP) is prepared on the absorption costing basis, i.e. fixed
production overhead is included in the cost of inventories.
This means that the cost of inventory includes the following production costs:
Material - included directly in production costs.
Labour - included directly in production costs (Refer to further note on why labour can be a fixed cost).
Overhead - allocated to production using a selected basis.
Absorption costing
Variable costing
used for financial accounting
used for some management accounts and decision-making purposes
Refer to the two different Statement of Comprehensive Income (SCI) below for an illustration of how
the profits are determined under each basis and how the presentation differs.
Illustration of the difference between absorption and variable/direct costing
Absorption costing
Turnover
Less: Cost of sales (including fixed manufacturing overhead)
Opening inventory (fixed and variable manufacturing costs)
Production cost (fixed and variable manufacturing costs)
Less: Closing inventory (fixed and variable manufacturing costs)
Over- / (under-) recovery of fixed manufacturing overheads / labour
(if treated as a period cost)
Expenditure variance
Gross profit
Less: All non-manufacturing costs (fixed and variable) (period cost)
Profit
R
5 000
(3 600)
720
3 320
(440)
1 400
(120)
(10)
1 270
(500)
770
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Variable/Direct costing
Turnover
Less: Variable cost of sales (no fixed manufacturing overhead included)
Opening inventory (variable manufacturing costs)
Production cost (variable manufacturing costs)
Less: Closing inventory (variable manufacturing costs)
R
5 000
(3 000)
660
2 740
(400)
2 000
Less: Other variable costs (non-manufacturing)
Contribution
Less: Fixed costs (manufacturing and non-manufacturing) (total actual amount)
Profit
(250)
1 750
(860)
890
Additional information:
•
Contribution = Turnover – ALL variable costs
•
Under-recovered overhead means that actual production volume is less than the budgeted
allocation base used. Over-recovered: actual production volume is more than the budgeted
allocation base used.
•
Over/under recovery of overhead/labour should be included ABOVE the gross profit line, as part
of the production cost for the period under review (due to different teaching applications,
under/over recovery below the line will still earn marks when clearly shown).
•
The over/under recovery and expenditure variances are only calculated when doing a SCI on the
absorption costing method. The expenditure variance is covered in tandem with the over/under
recovery as they are often confused with one another.
The discussion which follows covers questions and answers that students generally experience
problems with:
Why is labour in most instances a fixed cost? Should I treat labour the same way that I treat
other fixed manufacturing production overhead?
“Labour costs have traditionally been regarded as variable on the assumption that management can
retrench workers in the event that production levels decline. In practice, downsizing and retrenching
workers is not a unilateral decision and negotiations are required with unions before wide-scale
retrenchments can be implemented. In any event, retrenchments are not an everyday occurrence. To
assume that labour costs are variable because of the potential to reduce these may be
inappropriate.” Machines or plant can also be taken out of production. That does not make costs
relating to machines or plant variable!
Furthermore, in many production facilities, employees oversee automated machines. Their labour
effort cannot be traced to individual units. This type of labour would then also be classified as
overhead and usually fixed due to the same reason as explained above.
Therefore labour is often a fixed cost and should then be treated in the same manner as fixed
overheads. In scenarios presented to you, we will clearly indicate if some labour is variable, i.e. piece
work. In the absence of this you may assume that the manufacturing labour component is included in
fixed production overheads.
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So why are you using the estimated/budgeted fixed overheads and calculating a rate? When do
you calculate the cost of your product? Do you need to know the cost price as you sell it
throughout the year or do you calculate it when you have all the information at the end of the
year?
You don’t know what your actual overhead is going to be until the end of the year, but you can’t delay
your cost calculations until the end of the year. How will you quote the selling price of your products if
you don’t know the cost price? We estimate the activity level to calculate a budgeted overhead rate
because we need to know, more or less, what the cost price of our production is and we need to know
this before the end of the year. (Refer also to budgeted overhead rates page 60 in Drury 8th ed. Or
page 64 in Drury 9th ed. for a full explanation of why budgeted overhead rates are used).
How do we allocate manufacturing overheads to products?
Manufacturing overheads cannot be traced directly to products. They are assigned to products using
cost allocations. A cost allocation is the process of estimating the cost of resources consumed by
products that involves the use of surrogate rather than direct measures, as set out in study unit 2.
To calculate the budgeted overhead rate:
Overhead rate =
Budgeted overhead
Appropriate allocation base
Focus note:
Please study Drury (8th ed.) pages 155 – 157 and (Drury ed. 9th) pages 159 – 162 in depth. The most
appropriate allocation base (denominator) is the AVERAGE long-run (= life of the plant) capacity
utilisation. In the absence of information on this, you may use the next period’s budgeted activity.
Refer to IAS2 par 13 on the dangers of over- or under costing products when using next period’s
budgeted activity level.
The following activities are popular for allocating overheads because they are simple to calculate:
•
•
Direct labour hours
Machine hours
Other traditional bases used may be:
•
•
Labour cost Rand
Units produced
 SAICA 2008 QE 1: Amandla Engineering
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Activity 1 – Traditional bases applied
The budgeted fixed production overhead for 20x2 is R900 000. The average long-run utilisation and
related costs for this plant are:
•
•
•
•
Direct labour hours – 36 000 hours
Machine hours – 22 500 hours
Units produced – 45 000 units
Labour cost – R540 000
REQUIRED
Calculate a budgeted fixed overhead rate for each of the traditional measures above.
Feedback 1
FOH rate based on direct labour hours
FOH rate based on machine hours
FOH rate based on units produced
FOH rate based on direct labour R cost
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
R900 000 ÷ 36 000 hours
R25 per DLH
R900 000 ÷ 22 500 hours
R40 per MH
R900 000 ÷ 45 000 units
R20 per unit
R900 000 ÷ R540 000
R1,667 per R1 direct labour
Or 166,67% of labour
Calculating fixed production cost variances
FIXED PRODUCTION COST
VARIANCE
Volume variance
Expenditure variance
Under-/over-recovery
(difference between appropriate allocation
base used and actual production in terms
of volume)
Only applicable if there is a difference
between budgeted and actual cost in Rand
terms.
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Focus note
You can calculate an expenditure variance even if you do not apply a full standard costing system.
Basic example:
Activity 2 – Overhead recovery and variances – Budgeted activity = normal average long-run
capital utilisation
Budgeted fixed production overheads
Budgeted annual activity
Actual overheads
Actual activity
R2 000 000
1 000 000 direct labour hours
R2 125 000
900 000 direct labour hours
REQUIRED
Use the above information to calculate the volume and expenditure variances.
Feedback 2
STEP 1: Calculation of budgeted rate = Budgeted OH appropriate allocation base
Budgeted rate = R2 000 000/1 000 000 hours
= R2/hour
STEP 2: Rate x actual production volume
Therefore, absorbed into production (R2 x 900 000 actual hours)
R1 800 000
Budget (based on 1 000 000 hours)
Volume variance (difference between absorbed and budgeted hours)
R2 000 000
R 200 000
Is this an over- or under-recovery?
If all goes according to plan, we would have allocated all fixed production overhead costs to the
production account. However, due to the volume variance this does not happen.
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The T-accounts would look like this:
Dr
Cr
Dr
Actual Production overheads
R
Bank/creditors
2 125 000
R
Production costs
To expenditure
variances
Closing balance
Dr
2 000 000
R
From actual
Cr
R
1 800 000
R
To production
1 800 000
To under
Dr
200 000
Cr
Under/over recovery
R
To Inventory
2 000 000
125 000
Production
All overheads
Cr
Production overheads control (=Budget)
R
Prod o/h
R
200 000
If there is a debit balance left in the production overheads control account, it means the costs are
under-recovered. A credit balance means it was over-recovered.
Therefore, I have an under-recovery of R200 000 (an unfavourable variance). This is treated as a
period cost, not a product cost, therefore the under-recovery should not be debited to production costs
(expense account).
Expenditure variance
This is a separate calculation and is NOT an over- or under-recovery of fixed overheads.
Expenditure variance = Actual overhead expense – budgeted overhead expense
Expenditure variance = R2 125 000 – R2 000 000
= R125 000 Unfavourable
This is treated as a period cost and should not be debited to production costs (expense account).
Activity 3 – Overhead recovery
Use the same information as in Activity 2, but now assume that:
Actual annual activity
1 050 000 direct labour hours
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REQUIRED
Calculate the volume and expenditure variances.
Feedback 3
Charged to production (R2 x 1 050 000 actual hours)
Budgeted overheads (Based on 1 000 000 hours)
Volume variance
R 2 100 000
R 2 000 000
R 100 000
This is an over-recovery and would usually be a credit or negative period “cost”. Refer to page 26 for
the accounting treatment where the over-recovery is “unusually” high.
Activity 4 – Overhead recovery
The Rubber Company’s Cape Town factory budgeted that their 20x2 overhead would be R4 800 000.
Their normal average long-run manufacturing level is 80 000 fan belts. The actual costs for 20x2 were
R4 890 000 and 75 000 fan belts were manufactured.
REQUIRED
Calculate the over- or under-absorbed (the same as recovered) overhead and explain how it will be
treated.
Note:
Your budgeted production can equal actual and you would still (!) have a under- or over-recovery if:
Budgeted activity greater than or less than average long-run activity is used in determining allocation
rate!
If the above is the case, you would have budgeted for an over- or under-recovery, which would be the
equal to the actual under- or over-recovery if actual different to the budgeted activity.
Budgeted activity NOT equal to average long-run capital utilisation.
Feedback 4
The fixed overhead rate is determined based on the normal average capacity level, in this case
80 000 units.
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= R4 800 000 ÷ 80 000 fan belts
= R60/fan belt
Budgeted overhead rate
Expenditure variance
Actual incurred
∴ Budget
Variance: Expenditure
R4 890 000
R4 800 000
R90 000 Unfavourable
Over- or under-recovery variance
Manufactured units are less than the allocation base, there is thus an under-recovery of cost as
each unit manufactured will receive the budgeted rate.
∴ Under-allocation
R300 000
[80 000 units – 75 000 units] =(5 000 units x R60)
OR
Detailed disclosure:
Budgeted
Allocated to production
R4 800 000
4 500 000
Alternative:
R4 800 000 – R4 500 000
R300 000 under-recovery
It appears as if there is a favourable variance (in Rand terms), but you should consider the units
manufactured, which are less than budget and therefore unfavourable. Under absorption costing the
under-recovery is unfavourable and must be treated as a period cost.
Please note that the above activities use overhead. If a question states that labour cost is
FIXED, labour cost should be treated in exactly the same manner as overhead.
FOR MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING PURPOSES YOU MUST SHOW THE EXPENDITURE
VARIANCE AND OVER OR UNDER-RECOVERY SEPARATELY ON THE SCI FOR ABSORPTION
COSTING, BECAUSE THAT IS WHAT NEEDS TO BE MANAGED. DON’T JUST INCLUDE
ACTUAL OVERHEADS EXPENSE.
Long-term capacity:
Example: Give 5 years of forecast capacity usage (10 000 up to 15 000) – calculate long-term
average, say 12 000. Budget for 1st year is 10 000 units.
Budget for under-recovery of 2 000 units x R – FOH rate
Dr
Cr
Actual Production overheads
R
Case 1 – actual is
Case 2 – actual is
then
# Actual underrecovery is
2 000 x Rate
Actual under-recovery
is 1 500 x Rate
10 000
10 500
R
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# Can you see that here is an under-recovery of 2 000 x Rate EVEN though actual activity levels =
budgeted actual levels for year one with a different under-recovery for year two.
C1: Note mark
allocation and
calculate how long
it should take you
to answer this
question.
Activity 5 – Advanced scenario
What topics does this activity cover?
*
*
*
*
High-low method
Absorption costing
Over- and under-recovery of overheads
Variable costing
Question (C1)
22 Marks
You were involved in the preparation of the budget at the beginning of this
year. The company manufactures only one product. Estimates of annual sales,
production and costs for a one-year period, on which your plans were based,
are set out below:
Activity level
Sales and production (C2)(C2.1)
Sales
Production costs
Sales, distribution and administration costs
80%
720 000 units
R5 760 000,00
R2 970 000,00
R1 864 000,00
100%
900 000 units
R7 200 000,00
R3 420 000,00
R2 080 000,00
The production costs and the sales, distribution and administration costs are
total costs, therefore include both variable and fixed costs (C3). Fixed costs are
incurred evenly throughout the year.
The normal average long-run level of activity used for allocating fixed
production overheads is 900 000 units per annum. (C4)
The following information pertains to inventory for the first quarter which has
just ended: (C4.1)
C2: Please
note that there
are two levels
of production
and 2 costs,
therefore you
should use the
high-low
method to
determine the
fixed and
variable parts.
C2.1 Sales =
Production
Therefore, no
movement in
inventory
forecasted
C3: Production
and sales and
distribution have
BOTH fixed and
variable
components. You
have to split these
costs. High-low
method. Fixed
costs incurred
evenly
throughout the
year. Make a note
of this – refer to
reporting period.
C4: Make a note
of this. You will
need it to calculate
fixed overheads
absorbed in part
(a).
C4.1: This is the
actual figures.
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•
Opening inventory of finished goods
•
Units manufactured
240 000 units
•
Units sold
228 000 units (C5)
•
The actual fixed costs incurred equal budgeted amounts. (C6)
5 000 units
Required:
(a)
Calculate the following for the first quarter if absorption costing
(C7) is used:
C5: You can use
this information to
calculate closing
inventory.
C6: No expenditure variance.
This applies to ALL fixed costs.
C7: Fixed production overheads
allocated to production. Budgeted
overheads divided by appropriate
allocation base.
1.
The total amount of fixed production overheads absorbed during
the quarter (C8) that has just ended.
(5 ½)
2.
The over/under-absorption (C9) of fixed production costs for the
quarter, and
(2 ½)
3.
The profit for the quarter, as shown in the Comprehensive
statement of income (an income statement should be
prepared). (C10)
(8)
(b)
Prepare the journal entry to record the over- or under-absorption
calculated above. The narration may be omitted.
(1)
(c)
Calculate the net profit or loss for the quarter if variable costing (C11)
(direct costing) is used. (You are advised to simply adjust the
absorption costing profit figure already calculated, (C12)
rather than drawing up an income statement on a contribution basis.)
(3)
What should the value of inventories be in terms of IAS 2 (International
Accounting Standards), given that the high level of production is
considered to be materially different (C13) from the budget?
(2)
(d)
You may assume that sales revenue and variable costs per unit equal
budgeted amounts.(C14)
Ignore all forms of taxation.
C8: What was
produced for the
quarter, not sold.
C9: Compare
budget to actual
production.
C10: Prepare
detailed SCI.
C11: What is
variable costing?
Note the different
terms in brackets for
variable costing.
C12: Time saving.
Don’t waste time
drawing up a new
income statement.
Exam technique.
C13: Value of
closing inventory
per the Statement of
Financial Position.
Please note the high
level of production
comment. Will one
have to adjust
closing inventory?
(AGA)
C14: No variances from budget
– can value inventory at
budgeted cost per unit, except
for adjustment may be required
as result of production volume.
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Feedback 5
High-low method for Production costs and Sales distribution and admin costs:
Calculations:
Production
costs
R
Total costs @ 900 000 units
Total costs @ 720 000 units
3 420 000
2 970 000
450 000
Variable cost per unit
= 450 000/(900 000 – 720 000)
= R2,50
Total costs
Variable costs
Fixed costs
3 420 000
2 250 000 (900 000 x 2,50)
1 170 000
Sales, distribution and
admin costs
Total costs @ 900 000 units
Total cost @ 720 000 units
Variable cost per unit
Total costs
Variable
Fixed costs
Opening inventory
Units produced
Unit sold
Closing inventory
2 080 000,00
1 864 000,00
216 000,00
High- low method
used to separate
fixed and variable
costs
= 216 000/(900 000 – 720 000)
= 1,20
2 080 000
1 080 000 (900 000 x 1,20)
1 000 000
5 000 units
240 000 units
(228 000) units
17 000 units
Budgeted fixed production overhead rate = R1 170 000/900 000 units
= R1,30 per unit
Cost per unit = R2,50 (VC) + R1,30 (FC) = R3,80
High- low method
used to separate
fixed and variable
costs.
Normal average
long run level of
activity used for
rate.
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(a) 1. Fixed production overhead amount absorbed = 240 000 units x R1,30
= R312 000
2.
Fixed production overhead incurred
(= budget therefore : R1 170 000 x ¼)
R 292 500
Overhead absorbed
R 312 000
Over-absorption (favourable volume variance) R 19 500
3.
Profit using absorption costing
Sales (228 000 x R8)
Cost of sales:
Opening inventory (5 000 x R3,80)
Production (240 000 x R3,80)
Closing inventory (17 000 x R3,80)
Sales less Cost of sales =
Add: Over-absorbed overheads
Expenditure variance
Gross profit
Selling, distribution and admin costs:
Variable (228 000 x R1,20)
Fixed (1/4 x R1 000 000)
(b)
(c)
Use fixed
overheads for the
quarter only!!!
R
1 824 000
866 400
19 000
912 000
(64 600)
957 600
19 500
977 100
(250 000)
453 500
Dr Production overhead control R19 500
Cr Profit and loss/Cost of sales
R19 500
Variable costing profit
As per part 2
VC now linked to
number of units
sold.
(273 600)
Net profit
Absorption costing profit (N1)
Fixed overhead deferred in Inventory (N2)
(12 000 x R1,30), now expensed
Units manufactured
drive absorption of
cost.
Used fixed
overheads for
the quarter
only!!!
N1: Start with
absorption costing
profit per above.
453 500
(15 600)
R437 900
The difference between profits will always be the fixed production
Overheads component per unit multiplied by the inventory
movement in units:
Opening inventory units x fixed production overheads
per unit
= R xxxx
Less closing inventory units x fixed production
overheads per unit
= R yyyy
Difference in profits
R zzzz
N2: This is
calculated as
follows: 5 000
(opening
inventory) –
17 000 (closing
inventory)
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Note:
Remember that where you are working with annual profits, the
fixed production overheads component per unit of the opening
inventory will be different to that of the closing period as it is derived
from different production periods. You may need to do some
calculations to compute the operational inventory values.
The over/under recovery as well as the expenditure variance are
“exposed” under both systems and will not make a difference.
(d)
Inventory value (17 000 x R3,80)
Less: Deferred volume variance
64 600
(1 381)
63 219
Workings:
Inventory on hand (17 000 units) to be written down as follows:
17 000 x (R1,30 – R1 170 000 / 960 000) = R1 381,25
Dr Income
Cr Inventory
R1 381,25
R1 381,25
Additional explanation: - Abnormally higher levels of production
IAS 2 par 13, states that the allocation of fixed production overheads to the costs of conversion is
based on the normal average capacity of the production facilities. However, in periods of
abnormally high production, the amount of fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production is
decreased so that inventories are not measured above cost.
Activity 5 states that the normal level of activity used for budgeting purposes is 900 000 units per
annum and this is what was used to determine the overhead rate of R1,30 per unit.
The information may state that “the high level of production is considered to be materially different
from the budget”. The production level for the specific quarter should then be compared to the normal
level of activity of 900 000 per annum. The production for the quarter is converted to an annual figure:
240 000 (quarter) x 4 = 960 000 units per annum. This is abnormally high (+6,67%) compared to
900 000 and therefore the overhead rate should be decreased by using 960 000 units instead of
900 000. Using 900 000 has resulted in a higher rate and therefore overstated the inventory value.
The rate is recalculated: R 1 170 000 / 960 000 = R1,21875 per unit.
Difference between new rate and previous rate: R1,30 - R1,21875 = R0,08125
Closing inventory (17 000 units) already includes R1,30 per unit which must be written down:
= 17 000 units x R0,08125 per unit = R1 381,25
Note: The fixed production overheads component of units sold has already been expensed. It is only
the value of inventory carried in the SFP that is affected, as it is overstated.
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Activity 6
Attempt questions:
Miozip Company
Mahler Products
Bittern Ltd
Question 7.7 (Drury Student Manual 8th ed.) pages 37 – 38.
Question 7.9 (Drury Student Manual 9th ed.) pages 41.
Question 7.8 (Drury Student Manual 8th ed.) pages 38 – 39.
Question 7.10 (Drury Student Manual 9th ed.) pages 42.
Question 7.16 (Drury textbook 8th ed.) pages 161-162, answer pages 711-712.
Question 7.17 (Drury textbook 9th ed.) pages 166-167, answer pages 732-733.
Feedback 6
Question 7.7 (Drury 8th Edition) Question 7.9 (Drury 9th Edition) - Miozip Company
Part A
Where do I start?
Explain why budgeted outcome in 2015 is different from 2013 if sales revenue is the same for both
years.
•
•
Tip: The difference lies in the cost of sales. Why?
The fixed overheads carried in opening and closing stock have an effect on the profits.
Look at the cost of goods sold for the 3 years:
£
2012
2013
2015
Opening stock
100 000
200 000
Production
1 000 000
975 000
Closing stock
(200 000)
(357 500)
900 000
817 500
Cost of Sales
(Note the above table is in monetary value and NOT units)
357 500
650 000
(130 000)
877 500
Old rate (fixed overheads): Opening stock, Production and closing stock 2012. Opening stock 2013
New rate (fixed overheads): Production and closing stock 2013. Opening stock, production and closing
stock 2015
•
To compare the 2013 year to 2015 year we must ensure that the same rate has been used for
all the stock for both years. The opening stock rate in 2013 is different (based on 2012 rate).
We need to convert this to the NEW rate.
•
Note that the opening stock of 2012 (£100 000) is exactly half of the closing stock
(2012)/opening stock (2013) (£200 000).
The question states that the closing stock units 2015 =opening stock 2012.
The opening stock of 100 000 (2012) is at the old rate. The closing stock of 130 000 (2015) is
at the new rate. The units are EQUAL.
•
•
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•
•
Therefore, the opening stock of 2013 = 130 000 x 2 = 260 000
Difference in opening stock valuation = 260 000 – 200 000 = 60 000
Ensure that you have revised the examples in Chapter 7 that explain why there are differences
between the profits of a variable and absorption costing system.
Variable costing: As sales INCREASE, Profits INCREASE- it is straightforward.
Absorption costing: it depends on production and sales. If you produce excess in one year (sales <
production) then the “leftover” stock is carried in the current year closing inventory and carried forward
to next year’s opening inventory, therefore affecting the cost of sales value which has an effect on the
profit.
•
Additional under-recovery = 300 000 – 150 000
= 150 000
Part B
You area given the total production cost. You will be able to calculate what amount of fixed cost was
charged to production from the information given in the question. Using this information you will be
able to ascertain which portion of your costs are variable. Total costs (given) – Fixed costs (calculated)
= Variable costs.
Question 7.8 (Drury 8th Edition) ,Question 7.10 (Drury 9th Edition) – Mahler Products
Part A
The question asks you to” explain the situation in the last paragraph”. The last paragraph basically
tells you that the sales revenue has increased in the second half of the year, so it was assumed that
the profits were increased. However, the profits have decreased in the second half. Explain why this
has happened.
What information has been given in the scenario?
•
•
•
•
2 departments- A and B
Each department makes one product
Cost per unit is given? What costs are included in the cost of each product? Material, Labour,
Variable overheads and fixed overheads, therefore the SCI (Statement of Changes in Income
and Expense) has been prepared on an absorption costing basis.
6-monthly Profit and loss accounts for Departments A and B- 1 July 20XX to 30 June 20XX.
From the information given above it is clear what the problem is. The SCIE is prepared on an
absorption costing basis and therefore the fixed overhead expenses carried in opening and closing
stock is distorting the actual cost of sales which affects the final profit figure.
The question also asks you to illustrate the answer with appropriate supporting calculations.
What calculations should I show to prove that the absorption costing system distorts the profits? What
is an ideal costing system? Variable costing. This is because profit varies directly with sales. As sales
increase, profit increases.
Time management: Don’t prepare an entire SCIE. What is the difference between a variable costing
system and absorption costing system? Fixed overheads are included in opening and closing stock in
the cost of sales of the absorption costing system. Calculate how much fixed overheads have been
included in opening and closing stock and recalculate what your profit would have been if the effect of
fixed overheads was excluded.
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Tip: You are given the total opening and closing stock (in pounds). You know what is the cost per unit
(given in the scenario), therefore you will be able to calculate the units for opening and closing stock.
Reflection
What should I learn from Q7.7/7.9 and 7.8/7.10?
In a variable costing system, fixed overheads are a period cost and are thus charged directly against
profits
In an absorption costing system, fixed overheads are a product cost and are therefore included in the
valuation of stock (part of cost of sales). This means that cost of sales and thus profits will be affected
by the changes in stocks. Therefore the stock movements can have an unfavourable effect on profits
even though sales/revenue increases.
Question 7.16 Drury Textbook 8th ed. and 7.17 Drury Textbook 9th ed. - Preparation of variable
and absorption costing statements and an explanation of the differences in profits – Bittern
Ltd.
What information has been given in the scenario?
•
•
•
Variable costs
Semi- variable costs (high-low?)
Fixed overheads (What do they want me to do with this?)
The company uses a variable/ marginal costing system? Management wants to compare this to an
absorption costing system. How is an SCI prepared on a variable costing basis?
What does it mean to prepare an SCI on an absorption costing basis? What should I keep in mind?
•
•
•
The fixed overheads are included in the cost of the product
To assign overheads I have to calculate and overhead rate: Overhead rate = Budgeted
overheads (Rands) / Allocation basis (labour hrs, machine hrs, units)
Expenditure variance? Is there an expenditure variance? There will be an expenditure variance
if there is a difference between budgeted and actual overheads.
Required
A: The following information was obtained from the required section:
•
•
Calculate profit for a 3 year period
Normal production level -1 000 units – will I used this to allocate my overheads?
•
3 different scenarios : 1. Stable Production, Sales and Inventory
2. Fluctuating Production and Inventory
3. Fluctuating Sales and Inventory
•
The scenarios given above are a guidance for how your answer should be structured. How will
your calculations look in each of the 3 scenarios?
Where do I start?
•
•
•
Sort out your costs per unit. What is my product cost? What is the variable product cost? What
is the fixed product cost? (Remember that you will have to allocate the fixed overhead cost to
each product using an overhead rate.)
What are my units?
Note: there is no under or over recovery in the absorption costing SCI in part i) of the solution.
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•
Guidance for the absorption costing SCI in part ii) of the solution:
T1: Cost per unit = 10 (materials) + 2 (labour) + 10 (fixed overhead) = 22
The variable distribution cost of R1 is excluded because it is not a product cost. It is a
selling cost.
Calculations:
Opening stock = 100 units x £22 = £2 200
Production = 1 500 units x £22 = £33 000
Closing stock = 600 units x £22 = £13 200
Over recovery = (1 500 units – 1 000 units ) x £10 (£10 000/ 1 000units)
= 500 units x £10 = £5 000
T2:
Under recovery = (800 units – 1 000 units ) x £ 10 = £ 2 000
Compare your answers to the solutions on the pages as indicated above.
Where you have gone wrong, reflect upon why it has happened, as that will improve the learning
process. Is there anything specific/strange/unusual in the solutions that you want to point out?
Summary
In this study unit we covered the calculation of an appropriate fixed overhead rate and the preparation
of the SCI using the absorption and variable costing methods.
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Self-assessment activity
Before you move on to the next study unit please ensure that you understand and can apply the
following concepts:
Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Difference between variable and absorption costing
Definition of manufacturing overheads
Treatment of fixed labour costs
Calculation of appropriate fixed production overhead allocation rate
Proper accounting treatment of over/under recoveries and expenditure variances
Present SCI on the variable and absorption costing basis
Reconcile profits derived from different costing bases
Explain why profits differ on variances and absorption costing basis.
Calculation of under/over recovery of overheads/labour
Calculation of the expenditure variance.
Yes/No
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STUDY UNIT 1.3
Activity-based costing (ABC) and related concepts
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for the topic of activity-based costing. If not, please refer to your undergraduate study material and
revise the following indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury, using the page numbers below:
Prior learning
Drury 8th ed.
Drury 9th ed.
Before studying this topic, you
should be able to:
Applicable references:
Applicable references:
• Drury: Chapter 11:
Activity-based costing.
Pages 251 – 268.
LEAVE OUT: ABC IN
SERVICE
ORGANISATIONS
● Drury: Chapter 3:
Illustration of the two stage
process for an ABC system.
Pages 57 – 60.
• Drury: Chapter 15:
Activity-based budgeting.
Pages 377 – 379.
• Drury: Chapter 11:
Activity-based costing.
Pages 257 – 274.
LEAVE OUT: ABC IN
SERVICE
ORGANISATIONS
● Drury: Chapter 3:
Illustration of
the two
stage process for an ABC
system. Pages 60 – 64.
• Drury: Chapter 15:
• Activity-based budgeting.
Pages 388 – 390.
• Describe the differences
between activity-based and
traditional costing systems;
• Explain why traditional costing
systems can provide
misleading information for
decision-making;
• Identify and explain each of the
four stages involved
in designing ABC systems;
• Apply an activity-based
costing approach to
costing information;
• Describe activity-based
budgeting.
Critical topics:
•
Activity-based-costing and cost drivers
•
ABC profitability analysis
•
Activity-based budgeting and Activity based management (resource consumption models)
Introduction
Even though activity-based costing (ABC) is presented as a separate topic in management
accounting, it is in reality an extension of the previous topic: ‘Absorption Costing’. The reason is that
ABC is quite simply a different absorption costing method for the allocation of fixed manufacturing
overheads to products. The only difference between ABC and the traditional methods is that ABC
makes use of different activities as its allocation base, whereas the traditional methods made use of
volume-related bases, such as machine or labour hours, for the allocation of overheads to products.
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Why do we use ABC?
ABC is used as it may lead to more accurate pricing of products, which will therefore influence all
decision-making with regard to those products, e.g. whether or not to withdraw a product or what price
to charge for it.
Traditionally, overhead costs were small in comparison to directly measurable and traceable costs,
such as material costs, and the method of allocation of those costs to products was therefore largely
unimportant. However, in the advanced manufacturing environment that companies are currently
trading in, fixed overhead costs have escalated dramatically, and now make up a substantial portion of
the cost of a product. It is therefore becoming increasingly important to allocate the cost of the
overheads correctly to the products involved, to ensure the continued success and competitiveness of
a firm.
ABC is also useful in the costing of cost objects separate from products. When ABC is applied to
support activity hierarchies, costs for diverse cost objects such as a whole product line a production
plant, a customer, customer groups (geographic area) etc. can be computed. This is important for
analyses of profitability of the diverse cost objects in support of management’s decisions regarding
allocation (or withdrawing) of resources. ABC and its related concepts are therefore a very handy
arrangement tool in optimising the fixed production and other support activity infrastructure of an
entity.
How to attempt an ABC question
What information should you be looking for?
•
STEP 1: ABC calculation questions often ask a student to compare an ABC system with an
existing method of costing products. You should thus separate the information for the existing
method of costing and the ABC method.
•
STEP 2: Existing method – the company could, for example, be using a traditional absorption
costing method or direct/variable costing. You has to ascertain what the existing method of
costing is as this will be the first calculation. Every question is different because every company
is different.
•
STEP 3: ABC – Identify the activities and their relevant cost drivers and decide which cost driver
matches with a specific overhead cost. Calculate the cost per activity using the cost drivers and
then allocate costs to products/cost objects based on their usage of the activity.
•
Always remember that the difference between all the costing methods i.e. variable costing,
absorption costing and ABC costing lies in the treatment of the fixed overheads.
OVERHEADS ONLY
Existing method
ABC method
#
#
#
#
# Activities
# Cost drivers?
# Large variation in consumption of
support activities
# Support activity costs are a
substantial part of total overhead
costs
Variable costing?
Absorption costing?
Consume support activities equally
Support activity costs are small
when compared to total overhead
costs
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Activity 1 – Comparative overhead rates
Company A manufactures 100 000 reams of paper, consisting of 70 000 reams of white paper, 20 000
reams of blue paper and 10 000 reams of green paper. Manufacturing is arranged in such a way that
it only requires one set-up per type of ream (i.e. white, blue and green) regardless of the volume
produced. Each set-up activity costs R50 000. Overhead cost is allocated on a unit basis.
Use the above information to calculate and compare the set-up cost per ream per type of paper using
traditional costing and ABC analysis.
Feedback 1
Traditional costing
In a traditional costing system, the total cost of the set-up activities, i.e. R150 000 (R50 000 x 3 setups) will be allocated on a volume-based measure (units) to the different products.
The calculation, will be:
R150 000 set-up cost / 100 000 reams manufactured = R1,50 per ream (irrespective of type).
ABC analysis
ABC realises that each type of paper leads to a set-up activity being incurred, and allocates the cost of
that activity to the product that caused the cost.
The allocation will therefore be done as follows:
White paper: Set-up cost R50 000 / 70 000 reams manufactured = R0,71 per ream
Blue paper:
Set-up cost R50 000 / 20 000 reams manufactured = R2,50 per ream
Green paper: Set-up cost R50 000 / 10 000 reams manufactured = R5,00 per ream
Comment
Traditional costing methods over-cost fixed overhead cost of high-volume products. The manufacturing
of the white paper gives rise to the same cost as the manufacturing of the green paper, but many more
reams of white paper are produced for the activity (and cost) than is incurred in comparison to the
green paper. In order for the company to remain competitively priced, it is important to ensure that the
high-volume products are not subsidising the costs of the lower-volume products.
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Activity 2
FHM has recently introduced an ABC system. It manufactures 3 products, details of which are set out
below:
Product
F
H
Budgeted annual production (units)
Batch size (units)
Machine set-ups per batch
Input units per order placed
Processing time per unit (minutes)
300 000
300
9
1 200
6
M
300 000
150
12
750
9
150 000
75
18
600
9
Three costs pools have been identified, with budgeted costs for the year ending 28 February 20x2 as
follows:
Machine set-up costs
Purchasing of materials
Processing
R450 000
R210 000
R 80 000
REQUIRED
What are the total budgeted overhead cost per unit for each product?
Feedback 2
STEP 1: The batch size and annual production are given.
Budgeted annual production
Batch size
Number of batches
F
H
M
300 000
300
300 000
150
150 000
75
1 000
2 000
2 000
STEP 2: Use the number of batches to calculate number of machine set-ups and orders
Machine set-ups per batch x number of batches
Number of purchase orders for annual
production
9 x 1 000
= 9 000
12 x 2 000
24 000
18 x 2 000
36 000
300 000 ÷1 200
= 250 given
300 000 ÷ 750
400 given
150 000 ÷ 600
250 given
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STEP 3: Calculate the total minutes per unit
Number of units x minutes per unit
6 x 300 000
= 1 800 000
9 x 300 000
2 700 000
9 x 150 000
1 350 000
STEP 4: Allocate to costs
Purchase orders = 250 + 400 + 250 = 900
R
F = 250 / 900 x R210 000 = 58 333
H = 400 / 900 x R210 000 = 93 334
M = 250 / 900 x R210 000 = 58 333
This is a short cut method. The theoretically pure
approach is to calculate the cost/activity and then multiply
with activity usage of each product – See note 1.
Total set ups = 9 000 + 24 000 + 36 000
= 69 000
F = 9 000/69 000 x R450 000
H = 24 000/69 000 x R450 000
M = 36 000/69 000 x R450 000
R
= 58 696
= 156 522
= 234 783
Total processing time = 1 800 000 + 2 700 000 + 1 350 000 = 5 850 000 minutes
F = 1 800/5 850 x R80 000
H = 2 700/5 850 x R80 000
M = 1 350/5 850 x R80 000
R
= 24 615
= 36 923
= 18 462
Note 1:
The cost can be expressed per activity eg for purchase orders this will be R210 000 ÷ 900
= R233,33
Note 2:
The full (100%) of overhead cost should be addressed. Where the given activities recover
less than 100%, the missing portion or percentage should be allocated using the traditional
basis.
Note 3:
The total costs remain unchanged, but the allocation to the three products is now different.
Total costs:
F
H
M
Purchases
Set ups
Processing
TOTAL
58 333
58 696
24 615
141 644
93 334
156 522
36 923
286 779
58 333
234 783
18 462
311 578
Number of units
Overhead cost per unit
300 000
0,4721
300 000
0,9559
150 000
2,0772
Note:
Do you see that the low volume product M consumes disproportionally more of the support activities
and therefore carry a higher overhead per unit cost?
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Under the traditional allocation method, all 3 products would have carried the same overhead cost per
unit (if number of units were used as the allocation base).
Activity-based budgeting (ABB) (Pages 377 – 379 – Drury 8th ed. – page 388 – 390 – Drury 9th ed.)
Activity based budgeting is a logical progression from activity-based costing and management. The
following are the approaches to or benefits gained by using activity-based budgeting and conventional
budgeting:
1.
ABB focuses on the appropriate value chain necessary for the organisation to meet its strategic
needs.
2.
The forecast workload is specifically determined from a customer’s perspective rather than from
an organisational constraint perspective.
3.
Conventional budgeting normally follows the convention of budgeting for cost elements (expense
items) within cost centres or departments and “rolling” these up (or consolidating them) into
organisational budgets. ABB questions the existence of each process and each activity in
requiring it to be classified as value-adding or not. The ABB may be the trigger to start business
process redesign.
4.
Conventional budgets classify costs primarily between fixed and variable costs. The
classification of cost into the activity levels of unit, batch, product, process or facility variable
costs provides a new insight into cost behaviour.
5.
ABB requires the same detailed level of understanding of the process and product structures
that a proper ABC & M system would require. Conventional budgets usually do not require this
type of detailed analysis.
6.
ABB specifically focuses on the customer, marketing and distribution channels as cost objects.
7.
ABB focuses on those elements of a business that may give it a competitive advantage.
Benchmarking is normally an integral part of ABB.
8.
ABB specifically focuses on support costs and their relationships to primary activities.
9.
One of the strongest advantages of a conventional ABC system is its preoccupation with nonfinancial information whereas ABB focuses primarily on the requisite activities to operate an
effective organisation.
10.
When an ABB system is linked to a quality management system, a specific focus on wastage
can be incorporated into the budgeting process.
Activity-based management (ABM)
Study Drury 8th ed. p549 – 542 or Drury 9th ed. p567 – 571.
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Activity 3 – Comparative methods and product profitability
Benco Limited manufactures two types of 'Twizzle'
products are given below.
standard and deluxe. Details of the two
Standard
Deluxe
12 000
R65
1 000
2
R8
R22
1
1
50
12 000
R87
50
2,5
R8
R32
4
3
240
Annual sales – units
Selling price per unit
Batch size – units
Labour time per unit – hours
Labour rate per hour
Material costs per unit
Special parts per unit
Set-ups per batch
Number of sales invoices issued per year
In recent months Benco Limited has been trying to persuade customers who buy the standard type
to purchase the deluxe version instead. An analysis of overhead costs for Benco Limited has
provided the following information.
Overhead analysis
Set-up costs
Special part handling costs
Customer invoicing costs
Material handling costs
Other overheads
R
73 200
60 000
29 000
63 000
108 000
Cost driver
number of set-ups
number of special parts
number of invoices
number of batches
labour hours
REQUIRED
Marks
(a) Calculate the profit per unit and the return on sales for standard and deluxe Twizzles
using:
(i)
(ii)
Traditional labour-based absorption of overheads;
Activity-based costing methods.
(10)
(b) Write a brief report to the management of Benco that:
(i)
(ii)
Recommends managerial action in the light of the information calculated in (a)
above, and
Explains how activity-based techniques can be used to improve performance.
Note:
Both manufacturing overhead and sales overhead are incorporated into this activity.
(10)
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Feedback 3
(a)
Calculation of labour based costs and activity based costs
The layout of this answer follows the pattern of a spreadsheet. You may choose not to follow this
format
R
Overheads
Set-up
Special part
handling
73 200
Drivers
Total
Driver
volume
Driver
Rate
R
Std
volume
Deluxe
volume
R for
Std
R for
Deluxe
732
100
12
720
1 200
72 000
60 000
Set-ups
Special
parts
60 000
1
12 000
48 000
12 000
48 000
Customer invoices
29 000
Invoices
290
100
50
240
5 000
24 000
Material handling
63 000
Batches
252
250
12
240
3 000
60 000
Other overheads
Total cost
Unit cost
(÷ 12 000 units)
108 000
333 200
54 000
2
24 000
30 000
48 000
69 200
60 000
264 000
5,77
22,00
Hours
The driver volume is obtained by taking the annual sales units and dividing or multiplying that by
the activity. Eg. for Delux set-ups: (12 000 ÷ 50) x 3 = 720 STD set-up (2 000 ÷ 1 000) x 1 = 12.
Total volume then 720 + 12 = 732.
The driver rate is obtained by taking the total cost and dividing that by the total driver volume. Eg.
for set-ups: R73 200 ÷ 732 = 100. This value is then multiplied by the usage for the particular
product: 720 times for the Delux thus R72 000.
(i)
Labour based rate – used as given in required section
Overhead cost
R333 200
Number of hours
54 000 (12 000 x 2 + 12 000 x 2,5) as above
Overhead rate
R333 200 / 54 000
=
R6,17 per labour hour [Remember: combined overhead]
(2)
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Profit Calculation
Materials
Labour
Overheads at R6,17
Total cost
Selling price
Profit per unit
Return on sales
Contribution
(ii)
Standard
Deluxe
22,00
16,00
12,34
50,34
65,00
14,66
22,55%
27
32,00
20,00
15,43
67,43
87,00
19,57
22,50%
35
(1)
(1)
(1)
Activity-based costing rate
Materials
Labour
Set-up
Special part handling
Customer invoices
Material handling
Other overheads
Total cost
Sale price
Profit per unit
Return on sales
(b) Report to management
Standard
Deluxe
22,00
16,00
0,10
1,00
0,42
0,25
4,00
43,77
65,00
21,23
33%
32,00
20,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
5,00
5,00
74,00
87,00
13,00
15%
These are calculated from the
costs and individual costs, in the
table in (a), divided by 12 000 units
(the volume) or it can be done per
total.
(1)
Where a discussion is required, it will often be more timeefficient to show the overhead cost per activity and use
that information in the discussion.
A formal report (not produced here) is required and marks will be allocated for
the report header.
(i)
(3)
(1)
(1)
Recommendations in light of calculations made in (a) above
In the report to the management of Benco the following points can be made:
Using the traditional basis, the return on sales (ROS) is the same for both
versions. With a higher absolute (per unit) margin for Deluxe, it is sensible to
attempt to sell Deluxe at the expense of Standard. This decision should be
based on the contribution (as fixed costs are already committed), subject to
market constraints, and production capacity!
(1)
ABC indicates that the return per unit on Standard is higher and the ROS is
double that of Deluxe. It appears that the wrong marketing strategy is being
advanced because the contribution on Standard is still higher!
(1)
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To make Deluxe as profitable as Standard one or both of two strategies are
required:
Increase price - success will depend on market. However, for a return similar to
Standard a price of around R106 will be needed for Deluxe. This is unlikely to
allow increased sales, unless marketing can persuade customers that price
indicates quality etc.
Cut costs - the activity analysis indicates where overhead cost is being expended.
Thus cost-cutting will require changes in production. Set-ups are expensive for
Deluxe, as are the special part handling costs, and general handling costs. Could
the production process be improved to reduce set-ups?
• ABC unit costs imply long-run variability only (fixed in short-term) and thus costs
may not change quickly or without positive management decisions.
(ii)
(1)
(1)
(1)
How activity-based techniques can be used to improve performance
Activity-based techniques can be used to improve performance in the following ways:
Comparing prices with the cost of resources used to produce goods and services,
management will usually wish to earn a profit in excess of the activity-based costs, but
there are circumstances where this will not apply.
(1)
Firms usually benefit from ABC when they have a range of products with varying
degrees of complexity, particularly in their consumption of differing firm resources as
ABC costs often reveal the degree of cross-subsidy that occurs. Refer labour hours vs
the difference in driver volumes.
(1)
Products with very different production volumes produce different costs under ABC.
(1)
Benefit only arises if the ABC information can be used to change practices, either by
changing prices and/or cutting costs. Resources should only be supplied to the extent
that it is required.
(1)
Activity-based analysis can be used to identify where excessive costs are being
incurred, and lead to changes that will reduce these costs.
(1)
ABM can be used to examine the overhead cost base and identify areas for cost
reduction, by eliminating activities that are not needed (non-value adding).
(1)
Problems arise from: availability of data, particularly cost driver data, cost of
implementation and whether it exceeds the benefit.
(1)
Implementation problems may result in none or less of the potential benefit being
achieved.
Maximum
(1)
10
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Activity 4
Attempt questions: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 11.3 pages 68 – 69 [Note: The layout of the profit statements is not the layout
preferred by Unisa, but focus on the calculations.]
9th ed: Question 11.5 pages 74 – 75
8th ed: Question 11.4 pages 69 – 70
9th ed: Question 11.2 pages 72 – 73
8th ed: Question 11.7 page 72
9th ed: Question 11.4 page 74
Feedback 4
Question 11.4 (8th ed.)
Where do I start?
This question is a nice example of how to sort out the information given to you in an ABC
question. The question takes a step by step approach in the ABC solution. This shows you
how easy an ABC question can be.
What type of a business is this?
They receive goods which they (the company) puts into packaging and then they distribute it. They are
a packaging company.
What has been given in the scenario?
Current method and ABC method
You are required to calculate the budgeted average cost per cubic meter on the current method and
then on ABC method.
Tip: use 2 different colours pens or highlighters to underline which part of the given information relates
to the basic budget information and which relates to the additional information given for ABC. If you
sort this out now it will limit confusion when you are writing out your solution.
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Basic budget information
Given:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Products handled in cubic meters
Costs: packaging materials, labour, occupancy and administration
The question states that packing material is used in re-packing each cubic meter of product for
John, George and Paul in a ratio 1:2:3. The products are similar in nature but some products
are more fragile than others. (if a product is “fragile” it means that it would break easily.
Therefore more care would be taken when packaging a fragile product so that it doesn’t break
when being transported).
The only difference is how each product is packed. If a product is more fragile it would
obviously require more packaging so that it doesn’t break when it is transported. Which product
is the most fragile? Paul, because it uses the most packaging.
How many units of packaging does Paul use? 25 000 cubic meters x 3 = 75 000 units.
On what basis should I calculate the rate charged for labour and overheads? Cubic meters
What are the total cubic meters for all 3 products? What is the total labour and overheads?
ABC information
Given:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Labour and overheads have been analysed and are attributed to 3 work centres: Receipt and
inspection, storage and packing.
The have given you what percentage of each type of labour and overhead costs relates to
each of the 3 work centres.
Information is also given on the requirements PER CUBIC METER i.t.o. minutes or square
meters required for each company.
What should you do first? :
STEP 1: Calculate what are the total receipt and inspection, storage and packing costs in
pounds.
STEP 2: Calculate how many minutes or square meters each company (John, George and
Paul) requires.
STEP 3: Calculate the cost hour rate per hour or meter
STEP 4: Calculate product cost per cubic meter based.
Question 11.7 (8th ed.)
Part A
Straight forward – The question asks for the activity-based recovery rates for each cost pool. The cost
pools are:
•
•
•
•
Production set ups
Product testing
Component supply and storage
Customer orders and delivery
Therefore, Recovery rate = Cost/number of drivers
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Part B
What is required?
The TOTAL UNIT cost and selling price
What costs does each unit consist of?
•
•
•
Component cost,
Labour (Take note of what information has been given to you. The question states that each
unit takes 10 minutes to produce but the labour rate in £ is given per hour (60minutes), and
Overheads (Recovery rates were calculated in part A)
How do I get to the selling price? Have they given a selling price or mark up?
Costs: I have calculated a recovery rate per driver in part a).
For example: Cost per set-up = £350 each (for ONE set up), So how many set ups does product ZT3
consist of?
What information have I been given for Product ZT3? Let’s go through it step-by-step. I will show you
what to do with every piece of information you read in the question. All the “given” information is in
bold font.
100 orders of 60 units per order
This therefore means that I will need 100 x 60 = 6 000units
60 orders of 50 units per order
I will need 60 x 50 = 3 000units
Total number of orders = 100 +60 = 160 orders
No opening stock of ZT 3, therefore all required stock will need to be produced
Therefore I will need to produce 6 000 + 3 000 = 9 000units
Production runs of 900 units and a component order is placed before each production run
In total for ZT 3 how many production runs will I have? 9 000/900 = 10 production runs, therefore 10
orders will be placed. There is one set up before each production run. Therefore there will be 10 set
ups.
4 tests are made during each production run for quality control
Therefore how many tests will be required for Product ZT3? 10 production runs x 4 per run = 40 tests
Lighting and heating costs are based on labour hours. Total direct labour hours for next year =
300 000 hours
Read this carefully. They are not saying that the labour hrs for ZT3 = 300 000hrs. This is for all the
products produced in the factory.
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How do I calculate the labour hours for ZT3?
I know that it takes 10 minutes per unit.
Therefore it takes 10 x 9 000 units = 90 000 minutes to produce everything. However, to make my
calculations easier I will convert this into hours. (All other information has been given in hours)
There are 60 minutes in 1 hour. Therefore, 90 000 minutes / 60 = 1 500 hours.
Therefore we will use 1 500 hours to make all the orders for ZT3 next year.
This is how you sort out information in the question. You have calculated the costs per order and set
up etc. in part a). Now you know how many units of ZT3 will be produced and how many set -ups etc.
it will use so you can use this information to calculate the cost per unit.
The mark-up has also been given in the question. Once the total cost per unit is calculated then the
selling price can be calculated using the given mark up.
Don’t forget to show all your calculations. You will receive marks for the calculations.
Reflect upon differences and use this process to improve your knowledge level and skill.
Summary
In this study unit we focussed on the application of activity-based costing and related concepts in
terms of fixed overhead allocation, reduction and product pricing.
Self-assessment activity
Before you move on to the next study unit please ensure that you have grasped the
following concepts:
Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
An activity
Cost driver
Cost driver rate
Activity (resource) demand
Activity hierarchies
Profitability analyses using ABC
ABM and ABB
Yes/No
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PART 1, TOPIC 2 – Product costing systems
TOPIC 2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic, you should be able to do the following in a case study/scenario:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Record and account for material, labour and overhead costs in the general ledger.
Value purchased and manufactured inventory using the FIFO or weighted average cost
methods.
Cost specific jobs (manufacturing or service)
Value work-in-process in a process costing system involving more than one process
Determine whether separate products should be processed further after split-off point.
Apply back flush accounting in a JIT environment
Correctly account for the treatment of normal and abnormal losses.
Consider the allocation of joint costs and treatment of by-products and their proceeds.
ONDERWERP 2 LEER UITKOMSTE
Na bestudering van hierdie onderwerp behoort u in staat te wees om die volgende in ‘n gevallestudie/scenario te doen:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Teboekstelling en verantwoording van grondstowwe, arbeid en bokoste in die grootboek toe te
pas.
Gekoopte- en vervaardigde voorraad te waardeer met die gebruik van die EIEU of die
geweegde gemiddelde metode.
Bepaal die koste vir spesifieke take (vervaardiging of dienste).
Bepaal of afsonderlike produkte na die skeidingspunt verder verwerk moet word.
Terugvoer rekeningkunde in ‘n net-betyds omgewing toe te pas.
Die hantering van normale en abnormale verliese korrek te verantwoord.
Die toedeling van gesamentlike koste en hantering van neweprodukte en hul opbrengste te
oorweeg.
STUDY UNIT
TITLE
STUDY UNIT 2.1
Job costing
STUDY UNIT 2.2
Process costing
STUDY UNIT 2.3
Joint and by-products
Introduction
This topic deals with the recording and allocation of costs using job, process and joint costing systems
to value products manufactured or services rendered. It will largely follow a revision route with closer
focus on areas where students’ past assessments indicated shortcomings in knowledge.
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STUDY UNIT 2.1
Job costing
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for the topic job costing. If not, please refer to your undergraduate study material and revise the
indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury, using the page numbers below:
Drury 8th ed.
Prior learning
Before studying
should be able to:
this
topic,
you Applicable references:
• Describe the materials recording •
procedure;
• Distinguish between first-in-first-out
(FIFO), and average cost methods of
stores pricing;
• Describe the accounting procedure
for labour costs;
• Describe the accounting procedure
for manufacturing
and
nonmanufacturing overheads;
• Describe accounting procedures for
jobs completed and products sold.
Drury 9th ed.
Applicable references:
Drury: Chapter 4:
• Drury: Chapter 4:
Accounting entries for a
Accounting entries for
job costing system.
a job costing system.
Pages 85 – 98.
Pages 80 – 93.
Introduction
The bulk of this chapter in Drury focuses on the accounting entries for the acquisition of materials,
labour and various overhead expenditures in the general ledger. These initial accounting entries are
common to most entities regardless of their costing system. The valuation of raw materials and other
start items is also common to all. The next step is the allocation of these costs to cost objects and at
this point the costing system used by an entity will make a difference. In this study unit we look at job
costing which is used when an entity produces products or services where each unit or batch of
output is unique or customised and the cost of each unit needs to be calculated separately, e.g.
building contracts, book publishing and an audit engagement. Another practical example of job costing
will be the servicing of a car where the required parts and the time spent is booked to the car’s job
card and then invoiced.
Process costing is used when entities continuously produce large quantities of homogeneous or
similar products or services and it is unnecessary to assign costs to each unit produced. Process
costing is discussed in the next study unit.
Costs are classified as direct or indirect costs. Indirect costs are recorded in an overhead account.
The indirect costs will include the costs of service departments, which may be apportioned to different
cost centres or products. Production overhead is then absorbed into production.
The most common way of absorbing overhead into products in a traditional costing system was
covered in study unit 1.2. In study unit 1.3 the overhead was absorbed on the basis of a cost per
activity based on an activity-based costing system.
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Focus note
The basic recording process for the car service in the costing system:
Direct parts

Direct labour
Overheads


On completion

Goes directly to WIP (work-in-progress – Job 123 GP (from inventory –
parts section)
Goes directly to WIP (work-in-progress from time spent/clocked)
Absorbed into WIP (using absorption basis where traditional absorption
costing or activity-based costing)
Job cost for 123 GP transferred to Completed Jobs and invoiced. In a
manufacturing set-up the cost would be transferred to finished goods,
ready for sale/delivery.
Note:
The invoice that the customer sees contains only parts and labour AFTER the appropriate mark-up
has been applied to each to cover the overheads and profit margin!
Study
Summary Drury 8th ed. page 95 – 96, Drury 9th ed. page 100 – 101.
Activity 1
Revision
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 4.17 p99
9th ed: Question 4.18 p104
This question will revise what you have already learnt on integrated accounting in undergraduate.
This exercise is done to revise the flow of accounting entries in an integrated accounting system.
What is an integrated accounting system? Refer to page 96 (8th ed.) or page 101 (9th ed.).
Study figure 4.1 on page 96 (8th ed.) or page 101 (9th ed.) and refer to it whilst doing the question so
that you have a better illustration of the flow of accounting entries.
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Activity 2
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 4.7 p17
9th ed: Question 4.7 p18
Feedback 2
Question 4.7 (8th and 9th ed.)
What is given?
•
•
•
•
•
2 products – A and B
Selling price per unit
Opening stocks of raw materials and finished goods
Information on Raw materials, labour and overheads for the year.
Non-production overheads
What is required?
•
•
•
•
•
•
To prepare raw material stock account, production overheads and finished goods stock
account.
Tip: Draw up the 3 T-accounts and fill in the opening balances and purchases/amount charged
for the year for each account. Then start doing your calculations.
Prepare a profit and loss account.
Tip: You need to show the profit therefore you will put in sales, cost of sales (this should be
calculated in part A), expenses- it’s like an SCIE.
Calculate and explain the difference between profit and loss if marginal costing method is
employed.
What is marginal/direct costing? How would you SCIE be prepared if it was done on this basis?
Please also note that the question asks for a calculation AND an explanation. Many students
lose marks unnecessarily because they don’t do both.
Where do I start?
Part A
Note the following:
Labour is charged at £8 per hour. Overtime is 1.25 times. Therefore Labour = £8 x 1,25 = £10
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The question states that the overtime premiums are treated as an indirect production cost. Therefore
this must be included in the overhead control account. So this means that the premium portion must
be included in the overhead account. The overtime rate (£10) – normal rate (£8) = £2 per hour.
What should be debited to overhead control account?
Debit:
Overhead premium 3 250hrs x £2 =
£
6 500
Other indirect labour costs –given
£186 470
Production overhead costs-given
£549 630
£192 970
This question states that overheads are absorbed at a rate of £10 per hour. This was
calculated for you.
How many hours does it take to produce Product A? 1 hour
How many hours does it take to produce Product B? 1.2 hours
Therefore £10 x 1 hr = £10 per unit A – 41 000 units of A were produced, 41 000 x 10 =
£410 000
£10 x 1.2hrs = £12 per unit B – 27 000 units of B were produced, 27 000 x 12 = £324 000
Units:
Opening stock
+ Production
- Sales
Closing stock
Product A Product B
3 200
3 100
41 000
27 000
(38 000)
(28 000)
6 200
2 100
Part B
Calculations
Sales:
Product A: 38 000 units x £35 = £1 330 000
Product B: 28 000 units x £39 = £1 092 000
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Cost of sales:
This was calculated as follows in part A:
Product A: 38 000 units x (7.20 materials + 9.60 labour+ 12 overheads)
= 38 000 x 25.20
= £957 600
Product B: 28 000 units x (11.60 materials + 9.60 labour + 12 overheads)
= 28 000 x 33.20
Specifically note the valuation of the closing inventory and the treatment of the over/under absorbed
overhead. This variance forms part of the production costs. This is a good integration question,
combining accounting entries and different costing bases.
Summary
In this study unit we reviewed the recording process in general and how it would apply in a job costing
system.
Self-assessment activity
Before you move on to the next study unit, please ensure that you have grasped the following
concepts:
Topic
1.
2.
3.
How to record materials, labour and overheads
The treatment of inventory for FIFO and weighted average cost methods.
The accounting treatment for jobs completed and products sold.
Yes/No
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STUDY UNIT 2.2
Process Costing
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for process costing. If not, please refer to your undergraduate study material and revise the following
indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury, using the page numbers below:
Prior learning
Drury 8th ed.
Before studying this topic, you Applicable references:
should be able to:
•
Drury: Chapter 5:
Process Costing.
• Explain when process costing
Pages 102 – 122.
systems are appropriate;
• Explain the accounting treatment
of normal and abnormal losses;
• Prepare process, normal loss,
abnormal loss and abnormal gain
accounts;
• Prepare a process costing
statement; and value inventories.
Drury 9th ed.
Applicable references:
•
Drury: Chapter 5:
Process Costing.
Pages 107 – 127.
Introduction
In the previous study unit we looked at job costing which is a costing system used when the cost of
each unique unit produced needs to be calculated separately. On the other end of the scale are
entities that continuously produce large quantities of homogeneous or similar products or services,
making it unnecessary to assign costs to each unit produced. Process costing systems are therefore
used to calculate the average cost per unit by dividing the total costs for a specific process for a period
by the number of units passing through the process for that period, e.g. oil refineries, breweries and
paper manufacturers.
Measurement in a process costing system takes place by way of equivalent and completed units. To
do this work-in-progress must be converted to the ‘equivalent’ of fully completed units. The study unit
will be dealt with by way of revision.
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Focus note
Treatment of Losses in Process Costing
Normal
Unavoidable and part of
the production process.
Product cost in
cost of inventory
Losses
Abnormal*
Avoidable and not part of
the normal production
process.
Period cost/
Expense
Larger than expected.
*
In real life manufacturing, there is no abnormal gain. If in a particular period more units are
produced than anticipated, the difference is treated and explained as a positive variance in
respect of the normal loss anticipated.
The following activities will be annotated with comments/notes highlighting critical information and
issues.
Activity 1 – Basic revision
Edible Oils Ltd manufactures sunflower cake, a product used as live stock feed. The sunflower cake is
manufactured in two different, consecutive processes.
The output of process 1 is used in process 2 and the output from process
2, which is the final product, (C1) is sent to the packaging department.
The following information related to the week ended 5 October 20x1 with
regard to process 1 (C2):
C1: 2 processes.
Completed output of
process 1 goes into process
2. Completed output of
process 2 is packaged and
sold.
Input:
Sunflower seed
Ingredient X
Labour
Normal loss
Selling price of scrap
Output
60 000kg at R8 per kg
20 000kg at R3 per kg
1 840 hours at R25 per hour
5% of input, considered to be scrap
R2,80 per kg
77 500kg
During this week there was neither opening nor closing work-in-progress
in process 1 (C3).
Total overheads charged to process 1 and 2 amounts to R280 000 for the
week and were absorbed on the basis of labour hours. The labour hours
worked in process 2 were 1 660 hours (C4).
C 2: Make a note that this
information is for 1 week.
C 3: No equivalent units.
C 4: Total labour hours
required.
C5: This income must be
recorded.
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All scrap was sold for cash on the last day of the week (C5).
REQUIRED
(a)
Prepare, using only the information provided above, the following accounts for the week ended
5 October 20x1.
1.
2.
3.
(b)
Process 1 account
Abnormal loss/gain account
Scrap proceeds account
(14)
Briefly explain how to distinguish a by-product from a joint product [Study unit 2.3].
(4)
(Source: AGA)
Feedback 1
QUANTITY STATEMENT TEMPLATE – First-in-first-out (FIFO) & Weighted average method
(WAM)
a. Quantity Statement for 5 October 20x1 (weighted average method) – Process 1
Physical units
Input
(kg)
80 000
Equivalent units
Output
Raw material
Detail
Opening work-in-process
Put into production
Completed and transferred
(kg)
Kg
77 500
77 500
100%
77 500 100%
Normal loss
Abnormal loss
4 000
(1 500)
80 000
(1 500) 100%
76 000
(1 500) 100%
76 000
80 000
Conversion cost
%
Kg
%
Production Cost Statement for 5 October 20x1 – WAM – Process 1
Total
R
Sunflower seed
Ingredient
Labour
Overheads
Proceeds Net loss
Total
Cost per unit
Material
Conversion cost
480 000
60 000
46 000
147 200
722 000
(11 200)
528 800
193 200
9,50
= 6,958
+ 2,542
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Cost allocation statement – Process 1
Completed goods
736 250 (77 500 x R9,50)
Abnormal gain
(14 250) (1 500 x R9,50)
722 000
Workings and notes and notes
1.
2.
Normal loss = 5% x (60 000 + 20 000) kg = 4 000 kg. As there was no opening or closing
inventory, ALL units put into the system in this period passed the wastage point.
The abnormal loss or gain is the balancing figure between the input (80 000 kg) and the output
(77 500 + 4 000).
∴ 4 000 + 77 500 – 80 000 = 1 500 (positive = gain). An abnormal gain means we did not in
fact lose/scrap as many PHYSICAL kg as expected. In this case we anticipated scrapping
4 000 kg (the normal loss), but it was only 2 500 (4 000 – 1 500) kg. It is this physical quantity
of 2 500 kg that can be sold.
3.
Because ALL production passed the wastage point in this period, we can apply the “short”
method for spreading the normal loss to all other output. No separate allocation is required.
4.
Expected scrap proceeds
4 000 kg x R2,80 = R11 200.
Note the word “expected”. This is based on the anticipated normal loss. As there was an
abnormal gain of 1 500 kg, only 2 500 scrapped kg were in fact sold.
5.
In the absence of further information you may assume that the proceeds on the sale of
scrapped units are off-set against material costs.
6.
Remember that proceeds from sale of abnormal LOSS units are NEVER credited to production
costs, but only offset against the value of the abnormal loss.
Process 1 Account
Kg
Seed
Ingredient X
Labour
Overhead
Abnormal gain
60 000
20 000
1 500
81 500
R
480 000
60 000
46 000
147 200
14 250
747 450
Kg
Proceeds (scrap)
Process 2
R
4 000
77 500
11 200
736 250
81 500
747 450
Kg
R
Abnormal gain account
Kg
Scrap proceeds
(@2,80)#
Income
1 500
1 500
R
4 200
10 050
14 250
Process 1
(@R9,50)
(when cleared)
1 500
14 250
1 500
14 250
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Scrap proceeds account
Kg
Process 1
(@R2,80)
R
4 000
11 200
4 000
11 200
Kg
R
Abnormal gain#
1 500
4 200
Bank (2 500 x 2,80)
2 500
4 000
7 000
11 200
# Note: we adjust the proceeds for the “notional” units that do not physically exist (the
abnormal gain units) as you can’t sell something that does not exist. This “loss” of income is
debited to the Abnormal gain account.
(b)
Where more than one product is the output from a production process there may be either
joint- or by-products or both. The distinction between a joint- and a by-product is usually made
by a comparison of their respective sales values. A joint product would be one with a relatively
high sales value. A by-product on the other hand would have a relatively low sales value in
comparison to the main product or products. Joint products are essential to the commercial
viability of the process whereas by-products are incidental. [Learning note: Apply to study unit
2.2]
Activity 2
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 5.18 p125 (Solution p708)
9th ed: Question 5.19 p130 (Solution p729)
Feedback 2
There is no abnormal loss. The scrap sales proceeds from the normal loss is set-off against the
materials cost, as that was the link provided.
Activity 3
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 5.20 p125 (Solution p709)
9th ed: Question 5.21 p130 (Solution p729)
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Activity 4
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 5.10 p25
9th ed: Question 5.13 p27
Feedback 4
Note the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Difference in layout of Quantity Statement and Production Cost Statement
Output is dependent on the initial input
Output includes reworked units
Reworked units are not subject to the normal 10% loss, being reworked
Completed and equivalent units are required
Possible integration with standard costing system
Summary
In this study unit we revisited the determination of cost per completed and equivalent unit in a process
costing system.
Self-assessment activity
Before you move on to the next study unit, please ensure that you have grasped the following
concepts:
Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The difference between a job costing system and a process costing system
Equivalent units
Normal loss
Abnormal loss or gain
The FIFO and weighted average methods of inventory valuation
Allocation of normal loss – when to use “short” or absorption method and when to
use the “long” or allocation method.
Value output from the process.
Treatment of proceeds from the sale of normal and abnormal units scrapped or
“off-cuts” or by-products.
Yes/No
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STUDY UNIT 2.3
Joint and by-products
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for joint and by-products. If not, please refer to your undergraduate study material and revise the
following indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury, using the page numbers below:
Prior learning
Drury 8th ed.
Before studying this topic, you Applicable references:
should be able to:
•
•
•
•
Drury 9th ed.
Applicable references:
•
Distinguish between joint- and • Drury: Chapter 6:
Joint
and
by-product
by-products;
costing.
Explain the alternative methods
Pages 129 – 138.
of allocating joint costs to
•
Drury:
Chapter 4:
•
products;
Accounting
entries
for
a
Describe
and
apply
the
job costing system –
accounting treatment
of byBackflush accounting
products;
Pages 93 – 95.
Describe backflush costing.
Drury: Chapter 6:
Joint and by-product
costing.
Pages 134 – 143.
Drury: Chapter 4:
Accounting entries for a
job costing system –
Backflush accounting
Pages 98 – 100.
Introduction
In the previous study unit we dealt with cost allocation and loss valuation in a process costing system.
Joint and by-products are easily integrated with process costing as the joint products are not
identifiable until a specific point, the split-off point, in the production process. The output of the joint
process is then transferred to separate processes for processing the separate products until complete.
In some production processes e.g. ore refinery, there is an unavoidable result that certain additional
products are produced unintentionally called by-products. In the platinum refining process, palladium
and gold may for example be recovered as by-products.
As per part (b) of activity 1 of study unit 2.2, sales values play a defining role in deciding on joint and
by-products. The two main measures of allocating cost to joint products are by physical measure and
by relative sales value. This study unit will again follow the revision and amplification route.
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C 1: This paragraph
explains:
What types of service the
lodge offers iro hunting:
Activity 1 - Joint and by-product costing
Bundu Lodge is amongst others a game farming and hunting concern. The
farm also hosts nature lovers, bird watchers and offers conference facilities
throughout the year. Game like kudu and eland are made available to
trophy hunters who pay a trophy fee to hunt the specific game. Taxidermy
(Taxidermy is the act of mounting or reproducing dead animals or parts of
animals for display – Wikipedia) and slaughtering facilities are available on
the farm and the trophy is processed and mounted for the hunter. Curios in
the form of coasters are made out of the skins and sold to the general
public. The meat is not utilised by the hunter but is processed on the farm
and sold in the form of biltong and game steaks to retail butchers. (C1 and
C2)
1. Accommodation and
meals
2. Conference facilities
3. Hunting game
4. Taxidermy and
slaughtering
5. Curios
6. Biltong and game
steaks sold to
butchers.
C 2: Distinguish which
costs relate to
accommodation, trophies,
meat and curios and
which costs are joint
costs.
The following information in respect of the two months June and July 20x1
(the main hunting season) was recorded:
Income (C3)
R
Daily fees and accommodation income from trophy hunters and
other visitors
Trophy fees received
Curio sales
Processed meat sales (R82,50 per kg)
130 000
200 000
20 000
82 500
C 4: Distinguish
between fixed and
variable costs.
Costs (C4)
Food – dependent on number of lodge visitors and support staff
Wages – permanent cleaning personnel of the lodge
Lodge repairs and maintenance, (ongoing)
Additional fodder and lick allocated to game hunted
Salaries and wages
Trackers and drivers – permanent employees used for all activities
Hunting guides – paid per hunt
Slaughtering personnel – local butcher staff paid per animal
Trophy mounting personnel – paid per animal requisitioned by
Hunters
Curio manufacturing personnel – paid for period – (fixed amount)
Meat processing and packing personnel – as for slaughtering
C 3: Can be used to
identify joint and byproducts: sales
values and required.
(a) assist where
specific information
not given.
25 000
15 000
10 000
10 000
113 000
10 000
10 000
15 000
55 000
8 000
15 000
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Fuel for hunting vehicles
Salt, spices, and vinegar for the meat processing
Formalin, artificial eyes and clay for trophy mountings
Curio manufacturing costs – other ad hoc costs
Maintenance of game fence – annual expenditure
Salary-farm manager – proportionate to the hunting period for
this permanent employee
7 500
3 500
9 000
7 000
50 000
50 000
Only one type of curio, namely coasters, is manufactured and sold.
Details for curios are as follows:
Inventory on hand was as follows:
•
•
Inventory - 31 May 20x1
5 000 units @ 50c per unit
Inventory - 31 July 20x1 (C5) 9 000 units
Sales price per unit: R1 (C6)
C5: Closing inventory
requires a value.
Production quantity the
missing number.
C6: Use to calculate sales
quantity.
What is the accounting
treatment for by-products.
C7: Basis of valuation.
Management gave you the following additional information:
•
•
Inventory is valued on the first-in-first-out basis. (C7)
Apart from coasters, no other inventory was on hand at the beginning or end of the period.
REQUIRED
(a)
Calculate the contribution (C8)(C8.1) for the following sources
(C9) of income:
•
•
•
(b)
Daily fees and accommodation
Trophy income
Processed meat
An offer has been received to supply a local hotel with all the
processed meat at R100 per kg (C10). This would however
require the trimming of meat fat which is estimated to be 10% of
the current slaughtered yield (C11) and with an additional cost
per kilogram required for the trimming process, as follows:
Fixed
Variable
R5,25
R7,50
Should this offer be accepted?
(c)
Discuss the process when both curio manufacturing and meat
processing are considered to be by-products.
C8: Sales – variable cost is
required.
C8.1 Allocation of variable
costs depend on classification
as a separate or joint
process.
C9: Keep the 3 types
separate. A combined
income statement is not
required.
C10: The higher price and
additional cost indicate an
incremental approach. The
fixed cost is not dealt with as
the required deals with the
marginal cost.
C11: This is important. The
kg of meat will decrease by
10% if the fat is extracted.
How many kg currently?
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Feedback 1
The joint process comprises:
•
•
•
•
Hunting and slaughtering the animal
Mounting the trophy – joint product
Making of a curio – by-product
And processing of meat – joint product
Based on the relative sales values and when sections (a) and (c) of the required are read together.
1.
Cost allocation
Joint cost
Trophies
Additional fodder and licks
Hunting guides
Slaughtering personnel
Trophy mounting
Curio manufacturing
Meat processing
Petrol – Hunting vehicles
Salt, Spices for meat processing
Trophy mountings
Curio manufacturing
Curios
10 000
10 000
15 000
55 000
8 000
15 000
7 500
3 500
9 000
42 500
2.
Separate cost
Processed
meat
64 000
18 500
7 000
15 000
Relative sales value
Sales
Less: Separate costs
Net realisable value
Trophies
Processed
meat
200 000
(64 000)
136 000
82 500
(18 500)
64 000
136 000/200 000
68%
64 000/200 000
32%
Total net realizable value (136 000 + 64 000)
= 200 000
Then, relative values:
Refer to Drury p131 – 136 (8th ed.) or p136 – 141 (9th ed.) for additional examples of methods of
allocating joint costs.
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3.
Number of curios produced
Units
Opening inventory
Closing inventory
Sales (R20 000/1)
Production
(5 000)
9 000
20 000
24 000
NB:
The normal expression of the above is 5 000 + 24 000 – 9 000 =
sales of 20 000. Ensure that you do not use the numbers in the
incorrect sequence, as this will have an impact right through.
4.
Cost per curio item = R15 000 ÷ 24 000 = R0,625 per item
[depending on decision re R8 000 being fixed or not]
5.
Income from the by-product
Sales 20 000 x 1
Less: Cost of sales
R
20 000
11 875
Opening inventory (5 000 x 0,50)
Separate cost (Calculated per 1)
Closing inventory (9 000 x 0,625)
2 500
15 000
(5 625)
Net income
6.
8 125
Joint cost allocated to trophies and meat
R42 500 – R8 125 = R34 375
The net income from the by-product is set off against the joint cost before the allocation to the
products is made.
Trophy: R34 375 x 68% = R23 375
Meat: R34 375 x 32% = R11 000
Apply the percentages per calc 2
7.
Direct (variable) accommodation costs
Food
Repairs – fixed
Wages – fixed
25 000
- Does not change with number of visitors
- Does not change with number of visitors
25 000
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REQUIRED
(a)
Accommodation
Trophy
Meat
130 000
25 000
25 000
105 000
200 000
87 375
64 000
23 375
112 625
82 500
29 500
18 500
11 000
53 000
Contribution income per income source
Sales/Income
Less: Variable cost
Separate
Joint
Net income
Note: The question required calculation of
contribution. Therefore all fixed costs are ignored.
(b) New offer
Sales value after further processing (900kg x R100)(see calc.)
Less: Current sales of processed meat
Incremental sales offered
Less: Additional cost 1 000 x (5,25 + 7,50)
Net loss
R
90 000
82 500
7 500
12 750
(5 250)
Calculation:
Current kg sold = R82 500 ÷ R82,50 = 1 000 kg
10% is lost through trimming of fat  900 kg lean meat sold
The offer should thus not be accepted because no additional income would be earned.
Note – the additional cost is based on the input quantity, whilst sales are the output quantity:
normal loss in process costing.
(c)
Two by-products
The net income from the two by-products will be set-off against the ‘joint’ cost, which becomes a
cost only for the trophy mounting process.
Activity 2
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 6.15 p142 (Solution p710)
9th ed: Question 6.15 p147 (Solution p731)
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Feedback 2
Joint costs, similar to fixed cost, must be judged from an overall perspective, not in isolation. The
process often does not allow a decrease in cost when one of the joint products is discontinued.
Activity 3
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 6.11 p32
9th ed: Question 6.12 p35
Feedback 3
Note the following:
•
•
•
•
•
The processes, mixing and distilling, yields the same output
Carefully work through the profit and cost calculation
The mixing process yields a saleable residue
Distilling causes an evaporating loss
Parts of the distillation used for further processing
Backflush accounting
Training costs to inventory
Large inventories

Elaborate costing systems tracing
Costs to products
Study
•
•
Drury 8th ed. p93 – 95 or Drury 9th ed p98 – 100.
Note the following from the studied information:
Backflush costing is used in a JIT manufacturing system
JIT (no or very low inventories)

Backflush accounting
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•
Accounting for completed units is triggered by:
○ the manufacture of finished goods – the most simple method
○ the purchase of raw materials and components
Summary
In this study unit we focussed on the determination of joint and by-products, the allocation of joint
costs and the accounting treatment of by-products. The circumstances for applying Backflush
Accounting were described.
Self-assessment activity
Before you move on to the next study unit, please ensure that you have grasped the following
concepts:
Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Conversion costs
Identifying joint products
Allocating joint product costs
Further processing costs
Measures for allocating joint costs
Treatment of by-product and their sales value and further processing costs
Backflush accounting situations
Yes/No
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PART 2 – Planning and control
PART 2 PURPOSE
The purpose of part 2 is to enable students to have a critical and informed understanding
of the key terms, rules, concepts and established principles of planning and control
techniques.
PART 2, TOPIC 3 – Planning, budgeting and control
TOPIC 3 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic, you should be able to
•
•
•
Design and compile fixed and flexible budgets
Explain how costs are controlled using various management tools
Calculate and interpret the break-even point and margin of safety of a business under different
scenarios and advise management based on your calculations.
ONDERWERP 3 LEER UITKOMSTE
Na bestudering van hierdie onderwerp, behoort u in staat te wees om
•
•
•
Vaste- en veranderlike begrotings te ontwerp en op te stel
Te verduidelik hoe koste beheer word deur verskeie bestuurstegnieke te gebruik
Die gelykbreekpunt en veiligheidsmarge van ‘n besigheid in verskeie scenario’s te bereken, en
die bestuur op grond van u berekeninge raad te gee.
STUDY UNIT
TITLE
STUDY UNIT 3.1
Budgeting and management control systems
STUDY UNIT 3.2
Other cost management techniques / principles
STUDY UNIT 3.3
Cost-volume-profit analysis
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STUDY UNIT 3.1
Budgeting and management control systems
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for the topic of budgeting and management control systems. If not, please refer to your undergraduate
study material and revise the following indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury, using the page
numbers below:
Prior learning
Drury 8th ed.
Drury 9th ed.
Before studying this topic, you
should be able to deal with:
Applicable references:
Applicable references:
•
•
Drury: Chapter 15:
The budgeting process
Pages 358 - 387.
•
Drury: Chapter 15:
The budgeting process
Pages 368 - 398.
●
Drury: Chapter 16:
Management Control
systems.
Pages 400 - 409.
●
Drury: Chapter 16:
Management Control
Systems.
Pages 411 - 420.
Corporate strategy and long-term
planning
o
o
o
o
•
Competitive advantage
Porter’s models
Value chain
Supply chain
Budgeting
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Master, capital, cash and
subsidiary budgets
Fixed and flexible
budgeting
Zero-base budgeting
Activity-based budgeting
Stages in planning
functions etc.
Responsibility centres
Behavioural aspects
●
Management control systems
●
Rolling forecasts
Drury: Chapter 15:
Criticisms of budgeting.
Page 383.
Drury: Chapter 15:
Criticisms of budgeting.
Pages 393 - 395.
Introduction
In your prior learning you looked at the long-term planning aspect of the planning and control process.
In this study unit we will study budgeting or short-term planning. A basic revision activity dealing with
flexible budgeting will be followed with sections to be studied, highlighted core issues and further
activities. We will then look at criticisms against budgeting and alternative ways to determine
budgeted figures. Lastly we will cover other management control systems (apart from the budget).
Budgets are driven by the organisation’s long-term planning. A budget is defined as a formal plan to
co-ordinate the use of different resources to achieve a pre-set and desired goal whilst taking company
strategy into account.
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In using budgets as a controlling mechanism, management should always be aware of the impact of
the controllability principle. We will now first investigate that concept.
The controllability principle
An important aspect of responsibility accounting is the principle of holding the manager of the
responsibility centre accountable only for the items that are significantly influenced (controllable) by
the manager. There are various methods for dealing with the distorting effects of uncontrollable factors
including amongst others, the use of flexible budgets and ex post budget adjustments.
Flexible budgeting helps to obtain meaningful results by removing the uncontrollable impact of volume
changes on expenses. The originally budgeted variable and semi-variable costs must be flexed to the
actual level of activity achieved during the period under review. Fixed expenses are not flexed.
Flexible budgets are also a very important aspect of standard costing which is discussed in the next
topic.
Forecasting errors may arise due to the environmental and economic conditions not realising as
anticipated. Ex post budget adjustments can be made to remove the effect of forecasting errors
(uncontrollable factors) from the manager’s performance reports. Ex post variance analysis will also be
discussed further in the next topic, i.e. standard costing.
Study
•
Drury (8th ed.) pages 403 – 406 or Drury (9th ed.) pages 414 – 417.
Note the following from the studied information:
•
•
•
The meaning of the controllability principle.
Dealing with the effects of uncontrollable factors before and after the measurement period.
Guidelines for applying the controllability principle.
You will notice that flexing the budget is one way of acknowledging factors that influence volume
which were outside the control of the manager/entity. We will now do a revision activity for compiling a
flexed budget.
Activity 1 – Basic revision example
Siyahlala Lodges is a grouping of guest houses in Khayelitsha and Langa townships that are very
popular with overseas tourists. Mama Khuzwayo is the owner of the guest houses. The facilities
offer clean and highly competitive budget accommodation. There is a standard charge per room per
night with each room accommodating up to two guests. For each guest house there is a restaurant
facility that specialises in indigenous South African foods. You have been assigned to assist Mama
Khuzwayo with the introduction of a budgetary control system.
You establish that sometime in early 20x2, Mama Khuzwayo’s niece had attempted to assist with the
implementation of a budgetary control system, but did not complete the exercise as she had to
return to her university studies in Canada. You establish the following from her notes:
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Operating Statement of Siyahlala Guest Houses for week 4 of 20x2:
Room Occupancy
Sales:
Accommodation sales
Restaurant sales
Total sales
Budget
75%
R
Budget
100%
R
Actual
90%
R
22 500
7 200
29 700
30 000
9 600
39 600
27 500
5 800
33 300
1 125
2 400
2 600
6 125
1 500
3 100
2 600
7 200
1 375
3 400
2 500
7 275
3 600
1 900
5 500
4 800
1 900
6 700
4 700
1 975
6 675
1 700
1 300
3 000
15 075
1 700
1 300
3 000
22 700
1 650
1 300
2 950
16 400
Accommodation costs:
Laundry
Cleaning
Wages
Total accommodation costs
Restaurant costs:
Food and beverages
Wages
Total restaurant costs
Common costs:
Building maintenance
Management salaries
Total common costs
Operating profit
Additional operating information:
1.
Together the guest houses have 100 rooms in total, all with the same charge per night.
Occupancy is expressed as a percentage of full capacity.
2.
The guest houses and restaurants open for 7 nights a week and for 52 weeks per year.
3.
Budgeted restaurant sales are assumed to be a fixed percentage of accommodation sales.
4.
All staff are permanent employees.
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Marks
REQUIRED
(a)
(b)
Calculate the number of room nights sold per week for 100%, 90% and 75%
occupancy levels.
Using the budgeted figures prepared by Mama Khuzwayo’s niece as a basis, calculate
(i)
(ii)
(c)
(e)
The variable cost per room-night for cleaning
The fixed cost per week for cleaning
(3)
(1)
Prepare a flexed budgeted operating statement for the guest houses for week 4 for an
occupancy level of 90% showing the following:
●
●
●
(d)
(3)
The budgeted contribution for each profit centre;
The budgeted attributable profit for each profit centre
The budgeted profit for the guest houses in total
(16)
Based on your flexed budget in (c) above and any other information you deem
necessary, calculate the budgeted break-even sales value for the accommodation
profit centre.
Calculate, for the restaurants only, the total variances between the actual results for
week 4 and the flexed budget figures you have calculated in part (c). Comment on the
performance of the restaurants.
(2)
(9)
Feedback 1 – Basic flexed budget revision example
(a)
Calculate the number of room nights sold per week for 100%, 90% and 75%
occupancy levels.
Room Occupancy
Room nights
75%
100%
90%
100 rooms x 7
nights x 75%
100 rooms x 7
nights x 100%
100 rooms x 7
nights x 90%
= 525 room nights
per week
= 700 room nights
per week
= 630 room nights
per week
(3)
The hospitality industry, amongst others, uses occupancy levels to indicate their capacity
usage. Full capacity is expressed as room nights, 700 as calculated above. This level is
seldom reached as (some) rooms may require maintenance or refurbishment.
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(b)
Using the budgeted figures prepared by Mama Khuzwayo’s niece as a basis,
calculate
(i)
the variable cost per room-night for cleaning
R3 100 - 2 400
Variable cost per unit
=R4 per room night
700 – 525
(3)
Number of the same grouping: in this case the specified budgeted figures, should be used for
the high-low exercise.
(ii)
the fixed cost per week for cleaning
Total cost
Fixed cost
Fixed cost
Fixed cost
(c)
=
=
=
=
Fixed cost + variable cost
Total cost - variable cost
R3 100 - (700 x R4 per room night)
R300
(1)
Prepare a flexed budgeted operating statement for the guest houses for week 4 for
an occupancy level of 90% showing the following:
• The budgeted contribution for each profit centre;
• The budgeted attributable profit for each profit centre
• The budgeted profit for the guest houses in total
The level of 90% impacts on the variable cost, therefore is the flexing exercise. 90% is implied
by the actual results being 90% of the budget. Fixed costs remain unchanged.
Sales (Notes 1 and 2)
Accommodation
R
Restaurant
Total
R
R
27 000
8 640
35 640
(3)
23 130
4 320
4 320
1 350
2 520
4 320
27 450
(2)
(2)
(2)
(3)
300
2 600
20 230
1 900
2 420
300
4 500
22 650
(3)
Variable costs:
Laundry (Note 3)
Cleaning (Note 4)
Food and beverages (Note (5)
Contribution
1 350
2 520
Attributable fixed costs:
Cleaning
Staff wages
Attributable profit
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Common costs:
Building maintenance
Management salaries
Operating profit
Note 1
Note 2
Note 3
Note 4
Note 5
(d)
1 700
1 300
19 650
Accommodation sales
Sales at 100%
Sales at 90% (90% of R30 000)
30 000
27 000
Restaurant sales
Sales at 100%
Sales at 90% (90% of R9 600)
9 600
8 640
Laundry variable costs
Costs at 100%
Costs at 90% (90% of R1 500)
1 500
1 350
Cleaning variable costs
Costs at 90% (630 room nights x R4)
2 520
Food and beverages variable costs
Costs at 100%
Costs at 90% (90% of R4 800)
4 800
4 320
(1)
Based on your flexed budget in (c) above and any other information you deem
necessary, calculate the budgeted break-even sales value for the accommodation
profit centre:
Alt.
Sales
Contribution
Contribution ratio
Fixed costs
Break even sales value (2900/0,86)
R3 385
R
27 000
23 130
0,86
2 900
3 372
(1)
(1)
(e) Calculate, for the restaurants only, the variances between the actual results for
week 4 and the flexed budget figures you have calculated in part (c). Comment on
the performance of the restaurants.
Variances based on a flexed budget are the first step towards the analysis of standard cost
variances. The orientation must be clearly indicated.
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Occupancy Level
Restaurant sales
Restaurant costs:
Food and beverages
Wages
Operating profit
Budget
90%
R
8 640
Actual
90%
R
5 800
Variance
Orientation
R
2 840
Adverse
(1)
4 320
1 900
2 420
4 700
1 975
(875)
380
75
3 295
Adverse
Adverse
Adverse
(1)
(1)
(1)
Comment:
• There is a significant adverse variance in restaurant sales. Either the budgeted quantity of
meals is not being achieved (volume) or actual prices of meals are below that budgeted.
In the case of volume, overseas tourists may not be fully acquainted with the meals and
hence opting to eat out. In the case of prices there could be competition from nearby food
outlets. In either case there may be a need to review menus or to offer only breakfast and
let the residents have lunch and supper elsewhere.
• There is a small variance in food and beverages. This could be a result of inefficiencies in
preparing dishes – excessive spoilage, poor management of recipes, etc. This finding
contradicts the volume or mix argument as we would have expected large savings here.
• An insignificant variance was recorded in wages. If this is a once-off occurrence due to
under-budgeting for payroll on costs such as UIF, etc a correction will be needed the next
time around. If this, however, is a result of over payment of wage costs in say overtime
entitlements – corrective action is needed.
(3)
(1)
(1)
Activity 2 - Advanced
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 16.13 p110-111
9th ed: Question 16.13 p115-116
Feedback 2
The controllable variable costs are all flexed to the actual output, rendering different variances to those
initially presented. The comments deal with circumstances common to this activity.
Note: When commenting on variances, pay special attention to the scenario sketched in the question
to determine what part of the variance was controllable and by which manager. There are usually 3
aspects to every variance:
-
Quantity
Quality (may include mix)
Price
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Refer to the guidelines on page 406 of Drury 8th ed. or page 417 of Drury 9th ed. again.
Activity 3 - Advanced
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 16.15 p112-113
9th ed: Question 16.15 p117-118
Feedback 3
Question 16.15 - Rivermede Ltd
Section A
Remember that if you are asked for a variable cost and the question is not clear whether it is in total or
per unit then give the variable cost per unit.
Original Budget
Revised
Difference
24 000 units [A]
20 000 units [C]
4 000 units
Material
£216 000
£180 000
£36 000
Per unit = [B]/[A]
= 216 000/24 000
= £9/unit
OR
Labour
£288 000 [E]
Per unit = [E]/[A]
= 288 000/24 000
= £12/unit
OR
[B]
[D]
= [C]/[D]
= 180 000/20 000
= £9/unit
= [F]/[A]
= 240 000/20 000
= £12/unit
Semi-variable costs - “High-low method”
Pounds: 31 000 – 27 000 = 4 000 [G]
Units: 24 000 – 20 000 = 4 000 [H]
Variable cost per unit = [G] / [H] = 4 000/ 4 000 = £1 per unit
Total variable costs =1 x 24 000 units = 24 000
Fixed cost = £31 000 – £24 000 = £7 000
£240 000 [F]
£48 000
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The budgeting process in non-profit-making organisations
The budgeting process in a non-profit-making organisation normally focuses on determining the costs
of maintaining current activities and adding the costs of any planned expansions.
Study
•
Drury (8th ed.) page 380 – 381 or page 390 – 391 (9th ed.).
Note the following from the studied information:
•
•
The difference between budgeting in non-profit organisations and profit organisations.
The use of line-item budgets in non-profit organisations.
Zero-based budgeting (ZBB)
Zero-base budgeting is a process where budgets are drawn up from scratch each year. The process
is time-consuming and costly to implement, and is therefore frequently carried out on a three- to fiveyear interval, rather than annually.
Study
•
Drury (8th ed.) page 381 – 382 or page 391 – 393 (9th ed.).
Note the following from the studied information:
•
•
•
The difference between zero-based budgeting and incremental budgeting.
The implementation of zero-based budgeting.
The advantages and disadvantages of zero-based budgeting.
Activity 4
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 15.23 p389 (Solution p736)
9th ed: Question 15.26 p401 (Solution p764)
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Feedback 4
Take particular note of the benefits from and problems with the implementation of ZBB.
Criticisms of budgeting
Critics have in recent years called for the abandonment of traditional budgeting and suggested that
organisations should move “beyond budgeting”.
Study
•
Drury (8th ed.) page 383, or Drury (9th ed.) page 393-395.
Note the following from the studied information:
•
•
The main criticisms of the traditional annual budgeting process.
The use of rolling forecasts as the main alternative to annual budgeting.
Activity 5
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 15.10 p103
9th ed: Question 15.13 p108
Summary
In this study unit we focussed on further aspects related to budgeting other than those covered at the
undergraduate level. We studied the controllability principle, budgeting in non-profit organisations,
zero-based budgeting and criticisms of budgeting.
Self-assessment activity
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 16.20 p415-416 (Solution p737)
9th ed: Question 16.20 p427 (Solution p764-765)
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Feedback
Question 16. 20 (8th and 9th Ed.)
What information have you been given?
A variance has been calculated between budgeted and actual figures.
What is the problem with this calculation? The budget is based on 6 400 units and the actual is based
on 7 140 units. You are not comparing apples with apples. To make a proper comparison with the
actual figures you must convert your budget into a budget that is based on 7 140 units (since the
actual units are 7 140). In other words “flex” your budget. The fixed costs will remain the same in the
flexed budget but the variable costs will have to be restated. You have to determine the fixed and
variable costs.
Assembly labour hours
Overhead costs
5 000
7 500
10 000
$54 500
$76 500
$90 000
Made up of $9 000 of fixed overheads
Stepped fixed overheads change after 7 000 units. Therefore the stepped fixed cost included in the
overhead cost for 5 000 hours is different from that included in the overhead cost for 7 500 and 10 000
hours. The stepped fixed cost included for 7 500 and 10 000 hours is the same and therefore they can
be used for the high-low method to split the variable and fixed costs.
High low
$
units
90 000
10 000
76 500
7 500
13 500
2 500
Variable cost per unit = $13 500/2 500 units
= $5,40 per unit
Fixed costs
= 76 500 – (5.40 x 7 500)
= $76 500 - $40 500
= $36 000
Less:
( $9 000) (included in the $36 000 is this fixed cost amount)
$27 000 Stepped fixed cost
Variable overheads flexed budget = 7 140 x 5,40 = $38 556
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Original budget – 6 400 units
Assembly labour
= $51 970 (given) – $2 050 (manager)
= $ 49 920 variable cost
Per unit = $49 920/6400 units = $7,80 per unit
Total overheads given in scenario
$62 060
Variable overheads ($5,40 x 6 400 units)
($34 560)
Fixed costs (central headquarters)
($9 000)
Stepped fixed cost
$18 500
Flexed budget – 7 140 units
Assembly labour
= $49 920/6 400
= $7,80 per unit x 7 140
= $55 692
Furniture packs
= $224 000/ 6 400
= $35 per unit x 7 140 units
= $249 900
Other materials
= $23 040/6 400
= $3,60 per unit x 7 140
= $25 704
Variable overheads = $5,40 x 7 140
= $38 556
Budgeted stepped fixed cost = $27 000 = Actual stepped fixed cost, because the question states that
the actual fixed costs for April = Budgeted fixed costs.
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STUDY UNIT 3.2 – Cost management techniques / principles
Introduction
In the previous study unit we covered the budgeting process (including reporting on variances to the
budget) and other management controls as tools to ensure that objectives are achieved. However,
these controls will not necessarily lead to improvements in sales and reduction in costs on their own.
In this study unit we will study some of the changes in the operating environment of companies and
some of the developments in cost management necessitated by these changes.
Changes and developments in the business environment
The modern business environment exposes organisations to increased competition, shorter product
life cycles, greater customer demands and the increased use of information technology. As part of
these developments, management accounting practices are converging internationally.
Study
Drury chapter 1:
8th ed.
pages 9 – 11
page 11
pages 13 – 15
Drury chapter 1:
9th ed.
pages 9 – 11
page 11 – 12
pages 13 – 15
pages 12
pages 15 – 16
pages 12
pages 16
Global competition / Growth in the service industry.
Changing product life cycles
Focus on customer satisfaction and new management
approaches; Ethical behaviour
The impact of information technology
International convergence of management accounting
practices
Note the following from the studied information:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The changes experienced by manufacturing companies due to international competition and
imports competing with their products in terms of innovation, variety, quality, cost and customer
service.
The increased competition experienced by service organisations due to privatisation and
deregulation leading to more focus on cost management and information needs.
The dramatic decrease in product life cycles due to global competition, technological innovation
and increased customer demands and requirements.
The key success factors that affect customer satisfaction, namely, cost efficiency, quality, time and
innovation.
New management approaches to achieve customer satisfaction, namely, continuous improvement,
employee empowerment, social responsibility and corporate ethics.
The impact of information technology on customers and on the way that companies produce and
sell products and services and record business information.
Differences in international convergence of management accounting practices at the macro and
micro levels.
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Management control systems
Control is a process aimed at ensuring that an organisation follows its planned activities and meets its
objectives. Management accounting control systems (which includes the budget) are only one of the
various control mechanisms that companies use in the overall control process. We shall first look at
different types of controls used by companies in the overall control process.
Study
Drury chapter 16
8th ed.
pages 394 - 396
pages 396 – 397
pages 397 – 398
pages 398 – 399
Drury chapter 16
9th ed.
pages 405 - 407
pages 407 - 408
pages 408 - 409
pages 409 - 410
pages 409 – 410
pages 421 - 422
pages 411
pages 422 - 423
Different types of controls
Feedback and feed-forward controls
Harmful side-effects of controls
Advantages and disadvantages of different types of
controls
Side-effects arising from using accounting information for
performance evaluation
Alternative uses of management accounting information
Note the following from the studied information:
•
•
•
•
The three categories of controls included in the management control process, namely, action
controls, personnel and cultural controls and results (output) controls.
The difference between feedback and feed-forward controls.
The harmful side-effects of controls.
The advantages and disadvantages of the different categories of control.
Activity 1
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 16.26 p418 (Solution p740)
9th ed: Question 16.27 p430 (Solution p767)
Feedback 1
The focus is on negative behavioural consequences as employees should be ‘incentivised’ to counter
these. Link the issues to the budgeting process in your organisation.
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Cost management techniques
Cost management is synonymous with cost reduction and focuses on continuous improvement and
change. Cost management tends to be used on an ad hoc basis when the opportunity for cost
reduction arises and often does not involve the use of accounting techniques. In contrast, traditional
cost control systems are applied on a continuous basis and rely heavily on accounting techniques.
The emphasis is on cost containment and tends to preserve the status quo without questioning the
way existing activities are performed. A typical example is the comparison of actual results against the
budget.
Ideally cost management should reduce costs but not at the expense of customer satisfaction.
Study
Drury chapter 21:
8th ed.
Pages 543 – 544
Pages 544 – 548
Pages 549
Pages 549 – 552
Pages 553
Pages 553
Pages 553 – 557
Pages 557 – 562
Pages 562 – 564
Pages 564 – 566
Drury chapter 21:
9th ed.
Pages 561 – 562
Pages 562 – 567
Pages 567
Pages 567 – 571
Pages 571 – 572
Pages 527
Pages 572 – 576
Pages 576 – 581
Pages 581 – 583
Pages 584 – 585
Life-cycle costing
Target costing
Kaizen costing
Activity-based management (see also Study unit 1.3)
Benchmarking
Business process re-engineering
Just-in-time systems
Quality Cost Management
Environmental cost management
Cost management and the value chain
Note the following from the studied information:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Life-cycle costing determines the costs and revenues over a product’s entire life-cycle including
the pre-manufacturing stage (i.e. research and development and design) and the postmanufacturing stage (i.e. post sales service, abandonment and disposal costs).
The use of target costing as a cost management tool in addition to a mechanism for determining
selling prices.
The difference between target costing and kaizen costing.
The use of activity-based management to manage activities and thus manage costs in the long
term.
The goals and main features of just-in-time (JIT) production methods.
The use of back flush costing to do the accounting entries for a JIT manufacturing system.
The use of a cost of quality report as well as an environmental cost report. Notice the similarities
in the type of costs as well as layout.
The use of value chain analysis to increase customer satisfaction and manage costs more
effectively.
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Activity 2
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 21.4 p148
9th ed: Question 21.2 p151
Attempt question: (Drury textbook)
8th ed: Question 21.21 p575 (Solution p760)
9th ed: Question 21.26 p595 (Solution p793)
Enrichment activity
Google ‘JIT’ and ‘Toyoto’ and read about the real life impact of this policy on the company, before and
after the 2011 quakes that hit Japan.
Benchmarking
External and internal benchmarking can be used to compare key activities or processes in order to
improve them.
Study
•
Drury (8th ed.) p553 or Drury (9th ed.) p571 – 572 (Benchmarking)
Note the following from the studied information:
•
The advantages and disadvantages of benchmarking.
Activity 3
Attempt question: (Drury Student Manual)
8th ed: Question 21.6
9th ed: Question 21.3
Strategic management accounting (SMA)
CIMA defines strategic management accounting as “A form of management accounting in which
emphasis is placed on information which relates to factors external to the entity, as well as nonfinancial information and internally generated information.”
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Study
•
Drury pages 578 – 584 (Drury 8th ed.) or pages 598 – 601 (Drury 9th ed.)
Also refer to the study unit in Finance tutorial letter 104 regarding Strategy:
Summary
In this study unit we looked at changes in the business environment and developments in cost
management techniques and philosophies. We also investigated other management control systems
and their influence on employee behaviour. The use of benchmarking was also explained.
Self-assessment activity
Ensure that you can describe the following concepts briefly in a paragraph:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Action or behavioural controls
Personnel, cultural and social controls
Results or output controls
Feedback and feed-forward controls
Life-cycle costing
Target costing
Kaizen costing
Activity-based management
Benchmarking
Business process re-engineering
Just-in-time systems
Quality cost management
Environmental cost management
Cost management and the value chain
Strategic management accounting
Enrichment Activity
Google the following concepts and read about a company that employs them:
•
Life-cycle costing
•
Kaizen costing
•
Just-in-time systems
You can also look it up in Wikipedia at http://www.wikipedia.org for more background on the history
and applications.
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STUDY UNIT 3.3
Cost-volume-profit analysis
Prior Learning
This course assumes that students have already mastered the work equivalent to that presented in
Unisa’s preceding undergraduate degree. Please ensure that you are up to date with the prior learning
for cost-volume-profit analysis. If not, please refer to your undergraduate study material and revise the
following indicated pages of the textbook, namely Drury using the page numbers below:
Prior learning
Drury 8th ed.
Drury 9th ed.
Before studying this topic, you
should be able to:
Applicable references:
Applicable references:
•
Drury: Chapter 8:
Cost-Volume-Profit analysis.
Pages 168 – 185.
Drury: Chapter 8:
Cost-Volume-Profit analysis.
Pages 172 – 190.
•
Calculate a break-even point
and margin of safety
Calculate sensitivities for
changes in any variables in
the CVP model.
Introduction
In previous study units, we have looked at cost accumulation for inventory valuation and profit
measurement using different bases. In this study unit, we will consider the use of the same basic
financial information for decision-making by means of cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis. CVP is
especially valuable during planning and budgeting as it gives a broad indication of expected outcomes
at different levels for different variables in the CVP model. The breakeven analysis and margin of
safety are also very useful tools in measuring the riskiness of various plans or scenarios in the budget.
Focus notes
Why does a business have to calculate a break-even point?
•
When you start a business you want to determine what sales level is required for it to survive.
•
For a typical start-up business, it is critical to ensure that ongoing operating costs are
covered by sales revenue in the short-to medium-term.
•
In the long-term, the business can focus on making a profit. Once again the breakeven point
and margin of safety will indicate the riskiness or sensitivities of various plans or strategies.
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Application of CVP
•
Please note that ALL variable costs and ALL fixed costs (production AND non-production costs)
are included in the break-even calculation.
•
Contribution per unit equals the sales price per unit less ALL variable costs per unit. The
contribution margin ratio is the contribution expressed as a percentage of sales.
•
The net profit figure in a break-even calculation is ALWAYS BEFORE TAX. Therefore if you are
told in a question that you are trying to achieve a net profit AFTER tax of, for example
R50 000, you must first convert the R50 000 to a BEFORE tax amount before you use it in the
break-even calculation.
•
Remember that a break-even point (in units) should always be ROUNDED UP as one less unit
sold will lead to a small loss.
•
Unit information usually indicates a break-even in units and value/monetary information (eg
Rand or a ratio based on rand) a break-even in Rand.
•
The net profit is derived from the units sold in excess of the breakeven point, i.e. the contribution
from the margin of safety sales.
•
The margin of safety % indicates by how much sales volume can decline before the entity
makes NIL profit.
•
Sensitivity % for other variables in the model indicates how big a change can be absorbed
before the entity makes no profit.
- ∆ in selling price/unit
- ∆ in variable cost/unit
- ∆ in total fixed costs
Impact of factors
All other factors remaining the same:
•
•
•
An increase in selling price per unit will increase the contribution per unit and decrease the
break-even sales required.
An increase in variable cost per unit will decrease the contribution per unit and increase the
break-even sales required.
An increase in total fixed cost will increase the sales required to break even.
Generally, you will first have to determine the nature of the costs before proceeding with the breakeven calculation.
Activity 1 – Basic revision principles
Work through example 8.1 in Drury (8th ed.) on page 172 or page 176 (9th ed.)
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Feedback 1
The contribution is: per unit £20 - £10 = £10 or on a value basis £10/£20 = 50%
The break-even: (units) then
60 000
10
= 6 000 tickets
The break-even: (revenue) then
60 000
0,5
= £ 120 000
Or 6 000 tickets at £20 each
To make a profit of £30 000, the profit is treated as a ‘given’ and becomes equivalent to a fixed cost
for that event (or period).
The equation now becomes (in units)
60 000 + 30 000
10
= 9 000 tickets.
A sale of 8 000 tickets will tickets will yield a profit of: 8 000 x 10 (contribution pu) – 60 000 = £20 000.
The required selling price for 8 000 tickets with a required profit of £30 000 becomes:
8 000x
x
= 170 000 with
= 170 000 ÷ 8 000
= £21,25
NB: Note that in this example you were presented with the variable and fixed costs. Generally, you
will first have to determine the nature of the costs before proceeding with the break-even calculation.
Activity 2 – Basic application
The founder and majority stakeholder of Tekkie Town explained in a 2011 press interview that he
started the business by buying 12 000 pairs of tekkies and boots at R100 per pair. He sold 80% of
this inventory at double the cost price from selected venues and special events to keep the fixed cost
as low as possible. Assume the fixed cost to be R240 000 for this event. The balance of the inventory
could not be sold and was donated to various charities.
REQUIRED
Calculate the break-even in Rand and the margin of safety for this event.
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Feedback 1
1.
Calculate the contribution %
Selling price (R100 x 2)
Cost price (R100 ÷ 0,8)
Contribution
•
Per unit Or
R
200 (80% x 12 000 x R100)
125 (12 000 x R100)
R75
Contribution MR (%)
(75/200 or 720/1 920)
Total
R
1 920 000
1 200 000
720 000
(9 600 units)
37,5%
NB: You should note that in cost accounting and especially so where decision-making is
concerned more than one approach is feasible. It is important that you follow those approaches
which are more logical to yourself and which you will be comfortable with in identifying in a more
complex scenario.
2.
Calculate the break-even – Rand
BEP =
3.
240 000
0,375
= R640 000
Calculate the margin of safety
MoS =
1 920 000 – 640 000
1 920 000
= 66,7%
In units, this represents: 9 600 – 3 200 = 6 400 pairs
Note that for any organization with relatively low fixed costs, there will be less concern about
the margin of safety, or in other words it will be easier to get to their break-even.
Activity 3
Question
22 marks (C1)
ABC Ltd manufactures product A which is sold directly to retailers. The
company is experiencing strong competition and the management report for
the last trading year indicated that the company produced the lowest profit in
five years. The forecast for the next year indicates that the present
deterioration in profits is likely to continue. The company considers that a
profit of R90 000 should be achieved to provide an adequate return on capital
(C2).
C1: Note mark
allocation and calculate
how long it should take
you to answer this
question.
100 marks = 150
minutes
C2: Target profit to be
added to FC.
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C3: Different proposals.
Calculate the effect of
both.
The financial director is of the opinion that a change in the present pricing
and marketing policies will have the necessary effect. He has two proposals
(C3) for improving the profit situation.
Proposal 1
C4: Make a note of
this. You will have to
adjust selling price per
unit and units sold.
Market research indicates that a 10% reduction in selling price would
increase demand by 40% (C4).
Proposal 2
C5: Quantity and own
transport, some
saving.
Sell 55 000 units of product A annually to XYZ for resale in Namibia. XYZ will
transport these products from ABC Ltd to their own warehouse (C5).
While ABC Ltd would not pay any sales commission, the company will
provide special packaging at a cost of 40c per unit. (C6) ABC Ltd would also
contribute R66 000 per annum towards the marketing campaign (C7) of the
product in Namibia.
The marketing director is of the opinion that in 20x2 the sales from existing
business would remain unchanged at 120 000 units, based on a selling price
of R10 if this special order is undertaken.
ABC Ltd has a maximum production capacity of 180 000 units (C8).
C6: Dropped
commission and then
additional variable
cost.
C7: Consider the
impact of this on the
fixed cost.
C8: Use given quantity and
price and consider the
constraint.
ABC LTD
MANAGEMENT STATEMENT OF COMPREHENSIVE INCOME
31 DECEMBER 20x1
R
Sales revenue: (120 000 units)
Factory cost of goods sold
Direct materials
Direct labour
Variable factory overheads
Fixed factory overheads
Gross profit
Administration overheads
Selling and distribution overheads
Sales commission (2% of sales)
Delivery cost (variable per unit sold)
Fixed costs
Net profit (C9)
R
1 200 000
(878 000)
144 000
420 000
64 000
250 000
322 000
(168 000)
(132 000)
24 000
60 000
48 000
22 000
C9: Read through the
information in the
income statement
carefully. Separate
fixed and variable costs.
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REQUIRED
(a) Calculate the break-even sales value (C10) based on the
statement of comprehensive income for 20x1.
(b) Do a financial evaluation of proposal 1 and calculate the
number of units that ABC has to sell at the new price to
achieve the target profit of R90 000 (C11).
Assuming that proposal 2 is implemented,
calculate the minimum price (C12) that XYZ Ltd has to pay
for the product (i) To ensure that ABC Ltd would break-even (C13) on
the special contract; and
(ii) If the target profit (C14) for ABC Ltd must be achieved.
(iii) How would your answer in (c)(i) differ if the special
order was for 65 000 units.
Round figures off to two decimals.
Marks
(4)
(10)
(c)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
C10: Value in RANDS – do
not stop at units. See IS
C11: Make note of the
following: Proposal 1 and
the answer has to be in
units. Time saving. Note
target profit of R90 000.
You are not calculating
break even sales units
where profit = R0
C12: A minimum of fixed and
variable costs must be
covered.
C13: Profit = R0.
C14: Target profit, therefore
profit = R90 000
Feedback 3
(a)
Break-even sales value
Fixed costs
= Contribution margin ratio
= R 466 000/0,4067
= R 1 145 808
(4)
Calculations
Fixed costs
Fixed factory overheads
Administration overheads
Fixed selling and distribution overhead
Fixed costs
R
250 000
168 000
48 000
466 000
The mark allocation is
as follows: 2 marks
for fixed costs
(numerator) and 2
marks for contribution
ratio (denominator)
Directly from income
statement
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Contribution
R
1 200 000
Sales
Less: Variable costs
Direct materials
Direct labour
Variable factory overheads
Sales commission
Delivery costs
Contribution
Contribution margin ratio
(b)
Contribution = Sales –
variable costs
(712 000)
144 000
420 000
64 000
24 000
60 000
Directly from income
statement
488 000
40,67%
Make note of the
following:
Proposal 1: units to achieve target profit
Revised selling price
Less: Variable costs
Direct materials
Direct labour
Variable overhead
Delivery expenses
Sales commission (2% x R9)
Contribution per unit
Number of units sold (1,40 x 120 000)
Total contribution (R’000)
(168 000 x R3,09)
Fixed costs
Profit from Proposal 1
Contribution p/u (R488 ÷ 120 000)
Reduction in SP 10% x R10
Saving in commission 2% x R1
New contribution p/u
9,00
(5,91)
(1)
(2)
1,20
3,50
0,53
0,50
0,18
1. Decrease in selling
price to R9 i.e. 10%
reduction in selling
price.
2. Calculation of sales
commission-based
on R9.
3,09
168 000
519 120
466 000
53 120
(1)
(1)
3. Increase in demand
of 40% to 168 000
units.
(1)
R4,0667
(1,0000)
0,02
3,0867 round off R3,09
Evaluation
The profit of R53 120 is still less than the R90 000 needed to provide an adequate return on capital.
Therefore, although it increased the net profit situation, it is not an adequate solution for ABC Ltd’s
financial problems.
(1)
Required units to be sold in order to earn target profit
Desired contribution (R90 000 + R466 000)
Contribution per unit for proposal 1
Therefore, required units to be sold = R556 000 ÷ R3.09
= 179 935,27 units
R556 000
(1)
Calculated in part
(a).
R3,09
179 936 units (1)
The profit will not be achieved as the market can only absorb
168 000 units at the higher price and not the 180 000 required!
Always round UP. If
you sell 179 935
units you will not
make target
because according
to the calculation
you are required to
sell 0,27 more than
179 935 to make
target profit.
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(c)(i) Variable costs when selling to XYZ Ltd
OR ∆ Cost = SP – Contribution
= R10 – R4,07
Alternative
R
5,93
Direct material
Direct labour
Variable overhead
Delivery expenses
Sales commission
Additional packaging cost
Variable cost per unit
R
1,20
3,50
0,53
0,40
5,63
(0,50)
(0,20)
0,40
5,63
Please note that
delivery expenses
and sales
commission won’t be
paid anymore if you
take the decision to
sell to XYZ Ltd.
Required contribution to break even
=
=
=
Fixed costs/ units sold
R66 000/ 55 000 units
R1,20 / unit
(2)
The contribution to
XYZ Ltd is treated as
a fixed cost.
Thus, selling price to break even
=
R1,20 + R5,63 = R6,83
(ii) Normal profit from 120 000 units sold
Target profit
Profit to be earned from special order
(2)
22 000
90 000
68 000
See part (a):
(1)
R488 000 – R466 000
To earn R68 000, a contribution of R134 000
(R68 000 + R66 000) is needed.
That is R2,44 (R134 000/55 000) per unit.
Thus, selling price for special order:
R2,44 + R5,63 = R8,07
(iii)
Production capacity is limited to 180 000 units 120 000 +
65 000 = 185 000 units: 5 000 units from existing sales
would have to be sacrificed.
Opportunity cost to be covered 5 000 x R4,07 = R20 350
Spread over 65 000 units (R20 350 ÷ 65 000)
Other variable costs
Fixed costs R66 000/65 000
Selling price for special order
R0,31
5,63
1,02
6,96
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
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Activity 4
Attempt question 18, only parts (d) and (e), in the Question Bank (South Ltd).
Summary
In this study unit we focused on the calculation of the break-even point, the margin of safety and the
impact of changes in calculation components on profit.
Self-assessment activity
Knowledge check:
Before proceeding to the next study unit, ensure that you are on par with the following concepts:
Yes/No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Classification of costs
Determination of fixed and variable costs
Definition and calculation of contribution
Calculation of the break-even point
Interpretation of margin of safety and other sensitivity percentages
Effect of change of a given factor on profit or other relevant issue.
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PART 3 – Integrated self-assessments
As mentioned in the Introduction you will now have the opportunity to assess whether you can apply
your technical knowledge of individual topics, in an integrated scenario. We will start with an easier
case study and then progress to a more advanced one.
General Guidelines
You should attempt the case studies under exam conditions. Time yourself.
In real tests, you receive the scenario first and have reading time before receiving the required section.
You should attempt the case studies in this tutorial letter in the same manner.
Read the information in the scenario at least twice
Ensure that you have read every line in the scenario. Remember that you have to use all the
information that is given to you. Read the scenario line by line and highlight important information,
relating this as far as possible to particular topics and principles even though you do not yet know the
content of the required section.
Read the ‘required’ very attentively. Note specifically what you should present in the answer, i.e.:
-
budget, actual or forecast amounts – what advice is required
for the year, month or week
standard or actual
costing basis (variable or absorption)
This is the methodology that you should use for every question that you attempt.
We will now take you through activities to illustrate the approach. You are also advised to work
through as many questions as possible in the Drury Student Manual. Use information encountered for
the first time to build up a data base of ‘info statements’ linked to ‘what to do’s’. This is what you need
to look for when reading a test or examination scenario.
Once you have read and understood the scenario and the ‘required’ you can start answering the
question.
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Activity 1
Ruf Ltd is a medium-sized company in the confectionery business. They sell jelly-based sweets by the
kilogram. The directors of Ruf Ltd have decided to apply for a listing on the Altx sector of the JSE
Securities Exchange SA.
The management accountant has extracted the following trial balance as at 28 February 20x2:
Note
Sales
Delivery costs
Depreciation – factory and equipment
– administrative
Interest paid
Materials purchased
Overhead costs
– fixed
– variable
Salaries
– administrative
– sales
Packaging costs
Travelling
Wages
– manufacturing
Current assets
Current liabilities
Inventory
Loans – long term
Non-current assets
Reserves
Share capital
Taxation
1
2
3
4/5
6
7
DR
R’000
CR
R’000
100 320,0
401,3
4 800,0
820,0
2 457,6
58 000,0
4 794,2
2 280,1
10 100,2
3 009,6
1 824,0
490,7
6 020,3
10 994,0
5 829,3
8
1 200,0
20 480,0
58 288,0
9
10
165 480,0
17 940,0
20 100,0
810,7
165 480,0
Additional information
1.
Sales for the year were made at an average price of R8,80 per kilogram.
2.
Delivery costs vary with sales.
3.
Interest is paid at a fixed rate of 12% p.a. on the long-term loans.
4.
Materials were purchased at an average cost of R4,00 per kilogram.
On 28 February 20x2, 250 000 kilograms of raw materials were in inventory (stock).
The material usage variance for the period was RNIL, due to efficient usage of material.
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5.
Ruf Ltd has determined the standard cost of one kilogram of sweets
(from 1 March 20x1 to 28 February 20x2) to be:
R
Material (1,25 kg input @ R3,96 / kg
Depreciation – manufacturing
Overheads – fixed
Overheads – variable
Packaging
Wages
4,95
0,40
0,40
0,20
0,15
0,50
6,60
The standard cost per kilogram was based on production of 12 000 000 kilograms sweets.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Administrative salaries are considered to be of a fixed nature.
Manufacturing wages are considered to be of a fixed nature.
Inventory on 1 March 20x1 consisted only of completed product, valued at R6,00 per kilogram
- no raw materials were held on this date.
Valuation of closing inventory: Raw materials at cost and completed products at standard cost.
REQUIRED
Marks
Calculate Ruf Ltd’s profit before taxation for the year ended 28 February 20x2. (No variances
are required.)
(20)
The given information can also be used for break-even calculations and standard costing analysis
•
•
Consider what information you would have used in such a case
If you were a lecturer, what other areas could you have assessed with the given information, or
by adding some extra information?
(Test 2006: adapted)
Feedback 1
Note 1: What were you provided with in this question?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A trial balance – take note of all the balances that are given to you in this question
Sales @ average net price
Materials @ average net cost
Opening and closing inventory of raw materials and finished goods  always a good starting
point for a question. Questions often give 3 of the 4.
Cost per kilogram of sweets (fixed overheads are included in this balance)
Fixed and variable expenses
20 marks equal 30 minutes based on 40 test marks in one hour
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Note 2: Read the required carefully
Even if you don’t immediately understand what the question is asking, it will still be a guide for what to
look for in the scenario. Keep in mind:
1.
2.
That the required section usually follows the flow in the scenario and
That the marks shown will be indicative of the time to be spent on a particular section. Pay
attention to the critical words eg calculate, evaluate, advise and so on.
Note 3: Calculate Ruf Ltd’s profit before taxation for the year ended 28 February 20x2.
(No variances are required). All inventories are valued at standard cost.
What do you understand from this?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Year end – 28 February 20x2 (check what are the dates of the information given to you in the
question, note that your year end is 28/02/x2)
On what basis should the profit be determined and closing inventory valued? The standard cost
includes fixed cost per kg, therefore the absorption method applies.
No variances are required – what do they mean? Even though standard costs are provided (for
inventory valuation purposes), it will not be necessary to calculate an over or under recovery of
fixed overheads or any other variance.
Closing inventories at actual and standard cost – make note of this.
The material usage variance is RNIL. This implies that all material issued to production was used
efficiently, that is at the required standard!
You can therefore use the materials issued to determine how many units were manufactured!
Note 4:
•
●
●
●
●
•
The first objective is to split the costs between manufacturing and non-manufacturing, as only
manufacturing costs may be taken into inventory.
Quantities for sales and production must be determined to get the impact on inventory.
In this case production is less than normal capacity of 12 000 000 kg; however no
volume variance was required – over or under recovery of fixed overhead.
Inventory at 28 February 20x2 consists of both material and completed product.
Sales cost is usually a function of total sales value.
The inventory in the trial balance relates only to completed units (opening balance) per note 8.
Note 4 states that there were raw materials on hand in 20x2. The implication is that one must
determine whether there were also completed units on that date (20x2).
Statement of Comprehensive Income for Management Purposes
Sales (11 400 000 kgs @ 8,80)
[Good practice to show quantity and price]
Opening inventory (200 000 @ 6,00 – given note 8)
Materials
Depreciation – manufacturing
Overheads – fixed
Overheads – variable
Packaging
Wages
Closing inventory
Cost of sales
Gross profit
R’000
100 320,0
1 200,0
58 000,0
4 800,0
4 794,2
2 280,1
1 824,0
6 020,3
(2 320,0)
76 598,6
23 721,4
(1)
(2)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
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401,3
820,0
10 100,2
3 009,6
490,7
Delivery costs
Depreciation – admin
Salaries
– admin
– sales
Travelling
Operational costs
Operating profit
Finance charges
Net profit
14 821,8
(2)
8 899,6
2 457,6
6 442,0
(1)
Calculation
1.
2.
Materials purchased
58 000 000 ÷ 4
= 14 500 000 kg
(1)
RAW
kg
Production
Opening inventory (given in Note 8)
Purchased
Closing inventory (note 4)
Issued production
(÷ 1,25 kg standard)
0
14 500 000
250 000
14 250 000
(1)
COMPLETE
Kg
Opening (Note 8: R1 200 ÷ R6,00)
Sales
Produced – same as sales (14 250 000 kg ÷ 1,25 kg standard)
∴ Closing inventory – complete (no change on O/I)
3.
Raw materials
Purchased 58 000 000/4 =
(1)
(1)
(1)
Finished goods
Kg
Given
200 000
(11 400 000)
11 400 000
200 000
R
1 000 000
1 320 000
2 320 000
Inventory
Materials 250 000 x R4
Product 200 000 x R6,60 (standard cost price)
Opening balance
(1)
Units
0
200,000
14 500 000
(1 200 000 / 6)
(14 250 000)
÷ 1,25
Produced
11 400 000
Less:
Issued to production #2
(14 250 000)
(Balancing figure)
Equal
Closing inventory
Sold
(11 400 000)
[100 320000/ 8,80]
250,000
200,000
(Balancing
figure)
@ Actual/Standard
at R4
1,000,000
at R6,60
1,320,000
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Activity 2 - Advanced
Crax Ltd has for many years produced its own well-known brand of savoury snacks exclusively for the
retail consumer market (Spar, Checkers, etc.). Recently, it introduced a reduced fat product, hoping to
penetrate the highly lucrative diet food market, but its penetration into this market has been slower
than predicted.
Production takes place at its highly automated plant in Pinetown. The production process starts with
the mixing of ingredients (flour, butter and oil) and kneading of the dough. Dough is then cut into
forms and baked. After baking the savoury spices are sprinkled over just before sealing into individual
packets. Retail snacks are sold in packets of 250g. The diet snacks are 20% smaller per biscuit than
the retail snacks, uses less butter and oil and it is also slightly less savoury in order to cut down on
kilojoules. It is baked longer for a more crispy effect. Due to the lower butter and oil content, it takes
longer to knead the dough. Diet snacks come in packets of 200g. The size of the foil wrapping of
individual packets are similar for the retail packets and the diet packets.
Crax’s existing costing system is very unsophisticated and the system does not distinguish between
savoury snacks produced for the retail market or those for the diet market. The costs include direct
materials being flour, butter and oil (used to make the dough) and savoury spices, as well as fixed
overhead costs. A single fixed overhead cost pool for all other conversion costs related to production
exists. Fixed production overhead costs are allocated to inventory on the basis of kilograms
processed. Although the dough for the two products differ in terms of its contents, the physical
quantities are used as an allocation base.
This year’s total actual costs of producing 21 600 000 packets for the retail market and 3 000 000
packets for the diet market are:
R
Flour, butter, oil (“dough”) used
Savoury spices
All other production costs
24 000 000
6 000 000
10 476 000
Recently, Crax lost the bid for a large new contract for Weigh-Less branded snacks. Its bid price was
reportedly R0,20 per kg higher than the winning bid. This came as a shock to Crax as they only added
a 4% profit margin onto its cost to arrive at the bid price per kilogram, as the industry is fiercely
competitive. Moreover, their plant was widely acknowledged as being in the upper quartile for
operating efficiency. The finance manager was subsequently fired for producing inaccurate costing
information.
The new financial manager decided to explore several ways of refining the costing system. Firstly, it
was identified that R1 230 000 of the R10 476 000 production costs pertained to packaging costs (foil
wrappings). Packaging time per product unit is identical for the two products. In terms of savoury
spices, 96% of orders (time and value) was spent on retail and the remainder on the diet orders.
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Secondly, she applied activity-based costing (ABC) techniques to examine how the two products
(retail snacks and diet snacks) used the production processes differently. Three main activity areas
could be distinguished. An engineering firm was also employed to execute a time and motion study to
determine how long each product takes to produce. It was further decided that from now on fixed
production overhead should rather be allocated based on throughput (minutes per kilogram).
The actual fixed overhead cost (making up part of the production overhead) for each activity area and
throughput (in minutes) per kilogram is as follows:
Activity area
Kneading of dough
Cutting into forms
Baking
Total cost
R
1 500 000
2 850 000
4 896 000
9 246 000
Retail
Min/kg
Diet
Min/kg
1,50
0,50
2,00
2,00
0,50
2,50
There was no opening or closing inventories (raw materials, work in progress or finished goods). The
plant is running at its long-term capacity and operations are very efficient. You can assume actual
costs and throughputs to equate to budgeted costs and standards.
REQUIRED
Marks
(a) Using the existing costing system, estimate what the competitor’s bid price per
kilogram of snacks in the Weigh-Less contract was. (Work to three decimals.)
(6)
Using the revised cost allocation and an activity based costing approach, determine
what the absorption cost per kilogram of retail snacks is compared to that of diet
snacks. (Work to three decimals.)
(18)
(c)
How might Crax Ltd use the revised costing system to make better business
decisions?
(4)
(d)
Propose two possible areas that can be further investigated to improve cost allocation
between the retail and diet snacks.
(b)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(4)
If the selling price per kg is R7,05 and R6,70 for retail and diet snacks respectively,
determine the breakeven sales volumes for both products based on the new cost
allocations. You may assume a constant sales mixture of 9:1 for retail vs. diet snacks
and that the nature of the costs do not change.
(7)
One of the two ovens is going down for planned maintenance at the end of next
quarter for a period of 3 days. The remaining oven cannot cope with the total daily
required production of retail and diet snacks. Describe how you would go about
optimising the production schedule during that period with a supporting calculation.
(5)
Briefly list the potential risks to Crax Ltd of:
•
continuous power outages
•
outsourcing the production of the diet product.
(6)
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Feedback 2
Note 1: What have they given in this question?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
2 Products, different weights
Same size wrapping
Fixed overhead pool allocated on weight (kgs)
Production quantities
Dough also on physical (kg) basis, as above for FOH
Special order not accepted
Special order: 4% margin on cost – high efficiency
Overhead cost split into packaging and three activities, all time driven
No opening or closing inventory, implies production = sales
Running at LT capacity and efficiency, see margin above
Actual costs equate to budgeted costs
Note 2: Read the required carefully
You will now have an idea of how the question information relates to the required section. Keep in
mind that the marks shown will be indicative of the time to be spent as a particular section (50 marks =
75 minutes). Note the highlighted words:
(a)
(b)
(e)
(f)
Existing … competitor’s
Revised
per kg … new (cost)
describe …
Note 3: What do you understand from this?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Using the existing ( absorption costing) costing system, estimate what the
competitors’ bid price … ( benchmark for costs).
… revised cost allocation and an activity-based approach (approach is given):
…use the revised cost system (ABC), to make practical recommendations; start with the
revised cost calculated in (b))
… two further areas to improve … ( look at what is the same under the old and may
change when using the new)
… sales price per kg … calculate BE based on new cost (ABC) and given mix …
( contribution and variable and fixed cost required)
Describe … with a supporting calculation ( oven implies baking the constraint)
Risks ( relevant to the current processes)
NB: note the request to work to three (3) decimals
Note 4: Focus notes
Use the focus notes to correct your mistakes.
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Feedback
(a)
Bid price of competitor using the current costing system
Direct costs:
R
Dough
24 000 000
Savoury spices
6 000 000
All other production costs
10 476 000
Total absorption cost
40 476 000
Retail kilograms = 21 600 000 ÷ 4 = 5 400 000kg
Diet kilograms = 3 000 000 ÷ 5 = 600 000kg
( given: use weights)
( given: use weights)
(1)
(1)
(1)
If you multiplied by 4 or 5, see note 1 below
Cost per kilogram [R40 476k ÷ (5 400k + 600k)] R6,746
(1)
Requested 3 decimals - implies answer will not be a nice clean number eg R6,70
Crax’s bid price [[R6,746 x (1+ 4%)]
R7,016
(1)
Competitor’s bid price [R7,016 – R0,20]
R6,816
(1)
(6)
Weight Watchers = diet
Focus notes
1.
In tests and exams candidates often display a limited knowledge of measures and
conversions, e.g. the number of units in a dozen, and in this instance, the number of
grams in a kilogram. This is worrying, as a candidate at this level of study is expected
to display a proper general knowledge. We recommend that candidates, who know
that they have insufficient knowledge of measures and conversions, consult other
sources to improve their knowledge in this regard.
2.
Candidates’ answers did not comply with the required format. A “price per kilogram”
with calculations to “…three decimals” was required. However, answers were often
presented in a price per unit (not per kilogram) and calculations were seldom
performed to three decimal points. We recommend that candidates read the required
section properly and follow it exactly.
3.
Candidates made many basic calculation errors, thereby losing valuable marks.
4.
Candidates did not display logical thinking. E.g. a candidate might have calculated a
cost of R800 per kg of snacks. In such a case, candidates are not expected to always
revisit their calculations, but candidates can still illustrate their thinking-skills with a
comment such as “this answer is clearly unreasonable, however due to time
constraints I will not be able to revisit my calculations”.
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(b)
Absorption cost per kilogram using the ABC system
An immediate split between direct (variable) and fixed
Calculation of total cost
Retail
R’000
Diet
R’000
Direct costs:
Dough (5 400 000kg / 6 000 000kg x R24m ;
600 000kg / 6 000 000kg x R24m )
Savoury spices (R6m x 0,96; R6m x 0,04)
Packaging (wrappings)
(21 600k/ 24 600k x R1 230k; 3 000k/ 24 600k x R1 230k;)
21 600
5 760
2 400
240
(2)
(1)
1 080
28 440
150
2 790
(1)
Packaging pro-rated on number of packets as same size
Fixed Overhead Production costs:
Kneading – time used:
Retail = 5 400 000 x 1,50 = 8 100 000 minutes
Diet = 600 000 x 2,00 = 1 200 000 minutes
Total = 9 300 000 minutes
Kneading – (8 100k/9 300k x R1 500k)
Kneading – (1 200k/9 300k x R1 500k)
(1)
(1)
1 306
194
(1)
(1)
Cutting – time used:
Retail = 5 400 000 x 0,50 = 2 700 000 minutes
Diet = 600 000 x 0,50 = 300 000 minutes
Total = 3 000 000 minutes
Cutting – (2 700k/3 000k x R2 850k)
Cutting – (300k/3 000k x R2 850k)
(1)
(1)
2 565
285
(1)
(1)
Baking – time used:
Retail = 5 400 000 x 2,00 = 10 800 000 minutes
Diet = 600 000 x 2,50 = 1 500 000 minutes
Total = 12 300 000 minutes
Baking – (10 800k/12 300k x R4 896k)
Baking – (1 500k/12 300k x R4 896k)
Total absorption cost
(1)
(1)
4 299
36 610
597
3 866
(1)
(1)
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Check: total cost (R36 610 000 + R3 866 000 = R40 476 000)
Costs are allocated based on kg x minutes as the throughput are defined as min/kg. You should not
have used packets x minutes.
Cost per kilogram (R36 610 000 ÷ 5 400 000kg);
(R3 866 000 ÷ 600 000kg)
R6,780
R6,443
(2)
(18)
Focus notes
Candidates’ answers did not comply with the required format. No comments or explanations were
required yet some students found the time for it. Also see point 2 under part (a) above for comments
that also apply here.
(c)
Comment on the ABC impact
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pricing decisions: Adding the normal 4% mark-up to the cost per kilogram of the diet
snacks of R6,443 would have given a bid price of R6,701.
(1)
This would have beaten the competitor’s bid of R6,816 and Crax Ltd would have gotten
the order.
(1)
Product design decisions: ABC provides a road map as to how to reduce the costs of
individual products by analysing the relative components.
(1)
By focussing on the high cost components overall costs can be reduced by managing
costs (matching resource supply with resource demand ABM)
(1)
Process improvements: Each activity area is now highlighted as a separate cost.
Improvements in efficiencies can also drive down costs per kilogram.
(1)
Product profitability analysis: ABC will allow the company to perform a product
profitability analysis and in doing so to formulate a better idea of the profitability of the
different products being manufactured.
(1)
Other valid point. [maximum of 1 point]
(1)
Maximum (4)
Focus notes
This part of the question was answered poorly. Candidates displayed a lack of insight and struggled
to apply theory to practical situations. For such questions, it is recommended that candidates plan
their answers properly and apply lateral thinking.
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(d)
Additional areas to investigate
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Can cost of ordering be obtained and allocated according to number of raw material
orders placed?
Setup costs related to changing the cutting dies from the larger retail snacks to the
smaller diet snacks.
Setup costs related to changing the flavour of the savoury spices, e.g. salt & vinegar to
cheese.
Setup costs related to changing the setting in order that less savoury spice is added to
the diet snacks.
Setup costs related to changing the foil wrapping for the diet snacks.
Diet snacks use less butter and oil: determine actual usage for direct costs.
Amount of foil in packaging might well be different between the two products – hence
requiring a different cost allocation.
An alternative basis could be considered for the allocation of spice costs – e.g.
consumption based.
Is there a difference between the degrees Celsius at which the two products are baked?
Might have impact on allocation of electricity costs?
Any other valid point. [maximum of 1 point]
Two each, maximum (4)
Focus notes
This part of the question was also answered poorly. Setup costs were seldom addressed,
and an alternative basis for the allocation of costs relating to spices and wrapping, were
seldom mentioned.
(e)
Breakeven sales mixture:
Retail R/kg
Diet R/kg
7,05
6,70
(1)
4,65
2,05
(1)
(1)
(1)
Weighted average contribution mixture = [(9 x 1,78) + (1 x 2,05)]/10 = R1,807
(1)
Selling price – given
Variable costs – See (b)
Retail (R28 440k / 5 400k)
Diet (R2 790k / 600k)
Contribution
5,27
1,78
Breakeven = (1 500 000 + 2 850 000 + 4 896 000) [Fixed costs] / 1,807
= 5 116 768kg
Ratio: 4 605 091kg retail and 511 677kg diet. [split 9/10 and 1/10]
(1)
(1)
(7)
This is defined as “common” fixed costs as the two products are manufactured on the same machines.
See Drury pages 176 – 179 for multi-product CVP.
If it was two production lines, we could do the alternative.
Common fixed costs can only be avoided if none of the products are manufactured.
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Focus notes
The relative simplicity of a breakeven sales-volume calculation does not underscore the
importance of this figure. Here it was slightly complicated by two different products contributing
to fixed costs, which seem to have posed a problem to many candidates. Students, who
experienced difficulty with this section, are recommended to obtain further practice by attempting
several other questions on this topic.
(f)
Optimising production
•
•
•
As the oven represents a scarce/limited resource, the contribution should be determined
per limiting factor – thus contribution per baking minute.
(1)
You should calculate the contribution per minute by dividing the contribution per kg
(calculated in part e) by the number of minutes of baking time per kg.
(1)
Preference should be given to filling orders first for the product with the highest contribution
per minute.
(1)
Retail
Diet
Contribution per kg
Baking time per kg (min per kg)
Contribution per baking minute
1,78
2,00
0,89
∴ Retail snacks should be given preference
(g)
2,05
2,50
0,82
Maximum
(2)
__
5
Power outages
•
•
•
•
•
Product not fully/properly baked and lost
Cost base increase due to above
Sales and deliveries not met, customers may be lost
Damage to equipment in the long-term resulting from power surges
Opportunity cost of underutilising capital equipment
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Outsourcing
•
•
•
•
Knowledge base taken over by outsourcing party
Lost market, taken over by 3rd party
Non-delivery by 3rd party in terms of agreement
Sub-standard quality products delivered or increased cost of monitoring
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Maximum 6
Focus notes
For this part, candidates unexpectedly failed to score high marks. In future, candidates could
improve their answers to similar questions by using the assumption (unless stated otherwise)
that one valid-point will earn only one mark. For such questions, candidates should also
attempt to incorporate real-world factors where possible and apply lateral-thinking.
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MAC4861 TEST 1 (2014)
THIS PAPER CONSISTS OF TWO INDEPENDENT PARTS
QUESTION
40 marks
PART 1
15 marks
ALLROUND ENTERTAINERS (PTY) LTD (ARE)
ARE specializes in a number of entertainment fields, including organizing of rock concerts featuring
international artists. Other activities include hosting road shows for artists and performing normal
agent activities. ARE has grown to a household name and the public looks forward to the annual
concert called the “Big Show”. The venues for these concerts are leased as and when required. The
Operations Manager for ARE is currently planning the Big Show for the year to be held at Loftus
Versfeld stadium (home of the Blue Bulls) on the evening before the Currie Cup rugby final. The
concert is said to showcase some of South Africa’s best local talent and a world renowned Irish band.
Thanks to the latest technology and big screens all over the stadium, all tickets in the stands can be
sold at one price. In addition to the “Stand” tickets there will also be “VIP” tickets for those seated in
front of the stage and in VIP boxes.
Early indications are that the bands will require R22 000 000 appearance fees, which will include the
rights to sell official merchandise at the venue. Currently the venue hire is still under negotiation. As
the rugby teams who will be playing in the final are not yet decided, the venue hire is still not
contracted. Should the Blue Bulls reach the final, the Blue Bulls Rugby Union (BBRU) have agreed to
pay 10% of the venue hire as they will reap future benefits from the marketing of the concert. Should
the Blue Bulls not reach the final the BBRU are obligated to contribute 5% of the venue hire. Currently
betting sites have the Blue Bulls at a 40% probability to reach the final. The venue hire without any
discounts is R2 600 000. ARE has decided to use their own personnel to clean the venue after the
concert, even though BBRU offered to clean the venue for R50 000. ARE offered 30 members of their
staff, plus one friend or partner R200 each per hour to clean up the venue. BBRU indicated that the
venue must be cleaned within 4 hours. ARE decided to sell the rights for the sale of refreshments at
the venue to another local company for R250 000 as part of their community engagement initiative.
The operations manager has made the following estimates per person attending the concert:
Ticket price per person
Security services
Park and ride facilities
Drink and meal voucher
Stand
R
650,00
50,00
0,00
0,00
VIP
R
980,00
50,00
50,00
98,00
Other budgeted fixed overheads relating to the Big Show are R3 800 000.
Note that the security services for the concert will be outsourced at a cost of R50 per person. With the
VIP ticket customers get a drink and meal voucher worth 10% of the ticket price (costing ARE R98)
and a voucher for the VIP customers to park at designated places and use arranged transport to the
(stadium costing ARE R50). The contracted stadium vendors (per earlier note) will sell refreshments
during the concert and will accept the drink and meal voucher as payment. The venue has a capacity
of 52 500 stand tickets and 7 000 VIP tickets to be sold. Market research revealed the following:
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•
•
Indications are that 45 000 stand tickets and 5 000 VIP tickets will be sold at the stated selling
price.
The sales mix of stand tickets and VIP tickets will remain constant, regardless of the eventual
number of tickets sold.
PART 2
POENIE PICTURES (PTY) LTD
Poenie Pictures (Pty) Ltd (PP) manufactures one standard picture frame (the Boxer), which is sold to
retail
outlets.
The following information was extracted from the accounting records of PP for the year ended 28
February 2014 and their 2015 budget:
Opening inventory
Total manufacturing cost per unit – 2014
Completed units beginning of the year
Units manufactured for the year
Sales for the year
Fixed costs
Production (see below)
Selling and administrative
Variable cost per unit
Production
Selling and administrative
Inventory valuation
Actual
2014
Budget
2015
R85 300
R15,20
4 000
35 000
R900 000
??
??
8 000
??
42 000 units
??
R140 000
R225 000
R158 000
R10,20
R1,25
FIFO
R11,00
R1,40
FIFO
POENIE PICTURES (PTY) LTD
BUDGETED STATEMENT OF COMPREHENSIVE INCOME
FOR THE YEAR ENDED 28 FEBRUARY 2015
R
Sales
Cost of production
Opening inventory
Production costs
Closing inventory
Gross profit
Selling and administration costs
Net profit before tax
1 050 000
708 100
121 600
621 000
742 600
(34 500)
341 900
216 800
125 100
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Fixed production overheads information for 2014
Budgeted number of units for 2014
Budgeted fixed manufacturing overhead rate per unit
Actual fixed manufacturing overheads 2014
34 000
R5
R180 000
PP wants to expand its product line. It is planning to start manufacturing and selling large picture
frames that can be used as road advertising signs or in lobbies of corporate firms. The new frame
will be known as the Great Dane. Total fixed manufacturing overheads will increase by R200 000.
PP has heard of activity-based costing (ABC) and hired a consultancy firm to analyse the planned
activities of PP's overheads.
Breakdown of overheads
Material purchase and storage
Setting up of machines
Production
Quality control
15%
20%
45%
20%
Activities
-
A total of 160 orders (for the raw materials) will be placed during the year. For every order of
Great Dane frame placed three Boxer orders will be placed.
-
Two machines will be used, namely the Boxer-machine and the Great Dane-machine. The
Boxer has to be set up twice a month and the Great Dane only every second month. The
cost of a setup is the same for each machine.
-
The Great Dane has a capacity of 2 000 machine hours and the Boxer 1 500 machine hours.
-
Inspections are done on both machines. The Boxer is inspected after every 100 machine hours
and the Great Dane after every 200 machine hours.
PP has no work in process or raw materials at year end.
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REQUIRED
PART 1
ALLROUND ENTERTAINERS (PTY) LTD (ARE)
REQUIRED
(a) Calculate the breakeven (in total only) in terms of number of people attending the Big
Show.
(b) Calculate the maximum revenue to be earned if the venue is sold out.
Total
Marks
(13)
(2)
15
PART 2
POENIE PICTURES (PTY) LTD
(c)
Draft the actual 2014 Statement of Comprehensive Income by means of the
Absorption Costing Method.
(d) Draft the budgeted 2015 Statement of Comprehensive Income by means of the Direct
Costing Method (excluding the new Great Dane frame).
(e) Calculate the budgeted overheads allocated to the Boxer picture frame in 2015 using
ABC.
Total
(6)
(10)
(9)
25
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MAC4861 – TEST 1 (2014) – SUGGESTED SOLUTION
PART 1
(a) Calculate the breakeven (in total only) in terms of number of people attending the Big Show
Fixed cost
R
22 000 000
2 600 000
-182 000
-104 000
-78 000
48 000
3 800 000
-250 000
Appearance fees
Venue hire*
Discount *
BBRU
(2 600 000 x 10% x 40%)
Other union
(2 600 000 x 5% x 60%)
(4 ^ x 60 ^ x 200 ^) OR (4 ^ x 31 ^ x 200 ^)
Cleaning
Head office
Fixed income
Total
(0.5)R/W
(0.5)R/W
(1)R/W
(1)R/W
(1.5) R/W
(1)R/W
(1)R/W
28 016 000
* Alternative for the Venue hire and Discount combined:
(2 600 000 x 90% x 40%) + (2 600 000 x 95% x 60%) = R2 418 000 (2,5 marks).
Marginal income (contribution) per ticket category
Marginal income Sales Security Service
650 ^
50 ^
Stand
980 ^
50 ^
VIP
Parking
50 ^
Drinks
98 ^
Marginal Income
600
782
(1)R/W
(2)R/W
Expected number of people
Stand
VIP
45 000
5 000
50 000
Weighted average marginal income per person
(must be on expected sales mix, not maximum capacity)
= (600 x 45 000)/50 000) + (782 x 5 000)/50 000)  = R618,20
(0.5)R/W
(2)C
Breakeven (must be correct principle – divide by weighted average)
Fixed cost
Divided by weighted average marginal income per
person
28 016 000
=
618,20
45 319 persons
(1)C
OR
R28 016 000 / R30 910 000 X 50 000 = 45 318,7 ~ 45 319 persons
(1)C
(13)
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ALTERNATIVE
Stand
R
Sales
- 45 000 x 650 ^
-
VIP
R
Total
R
34 150 000
29
250 000
5 000 x 980 ^
(0.5)R/W
4 900 000
Variable costs
Security services
- 45 000 x 50 ^
- 5 000 x 50 ^
Park and ride
- 5 000 x 50 ^
Drink and meal voucher
- 5 000 x 98 ^
Total variable costs
(0.5)R/W
2 500 000
2 250 000
(0.5)R/W
(0.5)R/W
250 000
250 000
250 000
(0.5)R/W
490 000
490 000
(0.5)R/W
3 240 000
OR Summary of variable cost calculations:
OR
Expected no. Variable
Variable
Security
of people
cost x
costs
Service
Parking Drinks Total
people
50 ^
Stand
50
45 000
2 250 000 (0.5)R/W
5 000
990 000 (1.5)R/W
50 ^
50 ^
98 ^
198
VIP
50
000
3
240 000
Total variable costs
Contribution
Contribution = sales – variable costs
= 34 150 000 – 3 240 000
= 30 910 000
Per person:
= 30 910 000/50 000
= 618,20 per person
(2)C (1 each)
(0.5)R/W
ALTERNATIVE
Contribution ratio =
R30 910 000
R34 150 000 = 90,512%
Break-even (Rand) =
R28 016 000
0,90512
= R30 952 650
Weighted average selling price = (R650 x 45 000/50 000) + (R980 x 5 000/50 000) = R585 +R98
= R683
OR
R34 150 000 / 50 000 ^ = R683
(0.5)R/W
Break-even (units) =
R30 952 650
R683 = 45 318,7 ≈ 45 319 persons
(1)C
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ALTERNATIVE
Ratio of tickets per batch: 45 000 : 5 000
9:1
(0.5)R/W
Contribution per batch = (9 x R600) + (1 x R782) = R5 400 + R782 = R6 182 per batch
(2)C
Break-even =
R28 016 000
R6 182
=4 531,87 batches
Persons = (4 531,87 x 9) + (4 531,87 x 1) = 40 786,80 + 4531,87
= 45 318,7 ≈ 45 319 persons
(1)C
(b) Calculate the maximum revenue to be earned if the venue is sold out
Maximum capacity
Stand
VIP
Total
Tickets
52 500
7 000
59 500
Sales mix (remaining constant as per market research)
Stand = 45 000/50 000 = 90%
VIP = 5 000/ 50 000 = 10%
Stand: 59 500 x 45 000/50 000
VIP: 59 500 x 5 000/50 000
Total
Tickets
53 550
5 950
59 500
(0.5)R/W
(0.5)R/W
Constraint
Stand capacity = 52 500
(0.5)R/W
Maximum revenue when venue is sold out
Stand: 52 500 x R650
VIP: ((52 500/0,9 ^) – 52 500) x R980 ^
Maximum revenue from ticket sales
Sale of refreshment rights
Total maximum revenue
R
34 125 000
5 716 340
39 841 340
250 000
40 091 340
(0.5)C
(1)R/W (0.5 each)
(0.5)R/W
Total (3.5)
Max (2)
If expected sales mix and constraint issue not picked up – MAX 1
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PART 2
(c) Actual 2014 Statement of Comprehensive Income – Absorption Costing Method.
Calculation of sales units
Units
Opening inventory
4 000
Production
35 000
Closing inventory
(8 000)
Sales
31 000
(1)R/W
Statement of Comprehensive Income 2014 (Actual - Absorption Costing)
Sales (given)
Less: Cost of sales
Opening inventory (given)
Production cost
Variable (R10,20 x 35 000)
Fixed (R5 x 35 000)
Closing inventory (R15,20 ^ x 8 000 ^)
R
900 000
(495 700)
85 300
532 000
357 000
175 000
(121 600)
(0.5)R/W
(0.5)R/W
(1)C
(1)C
(1)R/W (½ each)
404 300
(1)R/W Must be
Over recovery (R175 000 – (34 000 x R5)
Expenditure variance (R180 000 – R170 000)
Gross Profit
Selling and administrative: Variable (31 000 x R1,25)
Selling and administrative: Fixed
Profit
5 000
(10 000)
399 300
(38 750)
(140 000)
correct amount, sign,
description
(1)R/W Must be
correct amount, sign,
description
(0.5)C
(0.5)R/W
220 550
Total (8)
Max (6)
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(d) Budgeted 2015 Statement of Comprehensive Income – Direct Costing Method (excluding
the new Great Dane frame)
Calculation of Units Produced
Production cost = (units)(variable)+fixed costs
R621 000 ^ = (x)(R11) ^ +(R225 000) ^
x = 36 000 ^ units
(2)R/W
Calculation of Closing inventory
Sales (given)
Opening inventory (given)
Manufactured
Closing
Units
-42 000
8 000
36 000
2 000
(1)C
Statement of Comprehensive
Income
Sales (given)
Variable production cost
Opening inventory (8 000 ^ x R10,20^)
Variable production cost (36 000 ^C x R11 ^R/W)
Closing inventory (2 000 C x R11 R/W)
R
1 050 000
(455 600)
81 600
96 000
(22 000)
(0.5)R/W
(1)R/W(0.5
each)
(1)(0.5 each)
(2)(1 each)
594 400
Variable selling and admin cost (R1,40 ^ x 42 000 ^)
Marginal income (contribution)
Fixed cost
Production
Selling and admin cost
Net Profit before tax
(58 800)
535 600
(383 000)
(225 000)
(158 000)
(1)R/W(0.5
each)
(0.5)C
(0.5)R/W
(0.5)R/W
152 600
(10)
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(e) Calculate the budgeted overheads allocated to Boxer in 2015 using ABC
Total budgeted overheads
R
Overheads: Boxer
225 000
Overheads: Great Dane
200 000
425 000
Allocation of overheads to activities
(1)R/W
R
15%
63 750
(0.5)C
Setting up of machines
20%
85 000
(0.5)C
Production
45%
191 250
(0.5)C
Quality control
20%
85 000
(0.5)C
Material purchase and storage
425 000
Cost drivers
Material
Purchase &
Storage
Amount (R)
63 750
85 000
Production
Quality
Control
191 250
85 000
160
Orders
(0.5)R/W
30
Set-ups ((2 x 12) + 6)
Machine hours
(1500+2000)
Inspections (1500/100) +
(2000/200)
(0.5)R/W
3 500
R 398,44 per
order
Boxer picture frame
Material purchase and storage
(3/4 x 160 = 120 x R 398,44)
Setting up of machines
(24 x R 2 833,33)
Production
(1 500 x R 54,64)
Quality control
(15 x R 3 400)
Total
ALTERNATIVE - Boxer picture frame
Material purchase and storage
(120/160 ^R/W x R 63 750)
Setting up of machines
(24/30 ^R/W x R 85 000)
Production
(1 500/3 500 ^R/W x R 191 250)
Quality control
(15/25 ^R/W x R 85 000)
Total
Setting up
R 2 833,33
per set-up
R 54,64 per
machine hour
(0.5)R/W
25
R 3 400,00 per
inspection
(0.5)R/W
R
47 813
(1)C
68 000
(1)C
81 960
(1)C
51 000
(1)C
248 773
Total
(9)
R
47 813  C
(1½)
68 000  C
(1½)
81 960  C
(1½)
51 000  C
(1½)
248 773
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MARKERS’ COMMENTS:
Part 1 (a): Break-even – number of people attending
Many students made a list of all expenses without distinguishing between fixed and variable
expenses. Please take note that no marks will be awarded in the exam if no distinction is made
between fixed and variable costs in break-even calculations.
Discount – students did not realise that they should’ve calculated the probabilities or they didn’t know
how to calculate it.
Fixed income with the nature of a by-product – was not deducted from fixed cost but added to it, or
was ignored.
Weighting – students used the maximum capacity of the venue instead of the expected sales mix to
calculate the weighted average marginal income per person. Many simply calculated the average
contribution, thus ignoring the weights.
Break-even – different approaches were used. Please see the solution for the allowed approaches.
Students tended to calculate the contribution ratio and break-even point in Rand, but then stopped
there and didn’t calculate per unit. Please read the required sections very carefully.
Part 1 (b): Maximum revenue if venue is sold out
The vast majority of students failed to identify that the maximum capacity was not in the expected
sales mix. Very few realised that they should apply the expected sales mix to the maximum capacity
and that there then was a constraint on the number of stand tickets available. Information in the
question needs to be read more thoroughly.
Part 2 (c): Actual 2014 Statement of Comprehensive Income – Absorption costing
Although the mark allocation was adjusted to compensate for the incorrect date in the question, it
proved to be a blessing in disguise (for the lecturers) as it illustrated very clearly that students do not
know/realise the fundamentals that should be tested or verified every time in (decision-making) income
statements: the unit reconciliation (below), the budgeted and actual capacities and the fixed overhead
rate (also below).
It was further quite common that students did not know the format of the income statements of the two
different costing methods. That made it difficult to score marks as the question was simple enough.
Some students did not calculate the number of units which was very important and is almost always
the starting point in these formats. The difference between applied, actual and budgeted overheads is
still a concept that students struggle with. A fair number of students showed production cost of
R532 000 and then doubled up by multiplying a quantity with R15,20 – the total manufacturing cost. In
an exam this will probably be more difficult and interlinked with standard costing.
A sales unit calculation was seldom shown. Please see the calculation in the solution.
Students did not know the difference between the recovery and the expenditure variance. Please note
that marks were only given when the description, sign (+/-) and amount were all correct.
Variable selling and admin costs – production units were used instead of sales units. Remember that
these costs (variable selling and admin) vary with sales and not production.
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Part 2 (d): Budgeted 2015 Statement of Comprehensive Income – Direct costing
The starting point is once again a unit reconciliation even if one deduces from the question information
that there is no closing inventory (incorrectly so in this question), this should, be clearly shown.
Opening inventory, production and closing inventory are valued at variable production cost only – i.e.
the cost applicable to that period if a FIFO policy is used. Refer the solution: R10,20 for the opening
inventory and R11 for the reporting period. The variable sales cost is also ‘above’ the line, but NOT
part of the inventory valuation as it only refers to the sales quantity. In this format ‘contribution’ is the
descriptor, not gross or manufacturing profit.
Marks were not earned for the contribution because students used the wrong format for the Statement
of Comprehensive Income, or simply left the description out.
Part 2 (e): Budgeted overhead allocation using ABC
Many students did not attempt the question or could not complete it, indicating that there is a problem
with proper time management when writing tests/exam (1,5 minutes per mark) or not identifying the
‘soft marks’ examined – poor examination management. It is important to attempt all the questions
and to spend only the maximum available time on each question. There were quite a few easy marks
that could have been obtained if this section was attempted.
Students could often not calculate the correct quantity of cost drivers for the various activities.
Students also didn’t know how to do ABC practically, refer specifically to the budgeted total fixed
manufacturing overhead in the solution. This can easily be resolved by doing more questions.
Finally, note the awarding of principle marks (designated as C) in the solution. Clear, detailed
information in this respect is often the difference between passing or failing any section of a question.
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MAC4861 TEST 2 (2014)
This question consists of two independent parts.
PART A
Siamese Ltd is a manufacturing company that produces electronic chips and carries out its business
using two strategic divisions, Seal and Point. The process initiates in the Seal division, which produces
an incomplete product “Ying”. Product Ying is then transferred to division Point for further and final
processing to yield the product Yang. The intermediate product, Ying has a demand and market
outside the company, but this product is mainly used by division Point which has first option on division
Seal’s output. For each unit of Yang, two units of Ying are required in production.
The maximum processing capacity per annum for each division is:
Seal
Point
143 000 units of Ying
55 000 units of Yang
The budgeted activity for Seal of 110 000 units per annum is considered normal capacity, and each
division maintains a stable level of inventory throughout the year.
The company has projected the four different scenarios shown below:
Scenario
Number
1
2
3
4
Product Ying
Market price Total demand
(R per unit)
(’000 units)
66
55
77
77
Product Yang
Market price Total demand
(R per unit)
(’000 units)
110
77
143
143
220
198
198
253
44
33
33
33
Standard cost per unit of Yang:
Variable cost*
R 26,40 (excluding two units of Ying)
* Direct materials cost included above
Fixed overhead cost
Based on budgeted volume
(units per annum)
R 8,80
R 39,60
44 000
The production of one unit of product Ying requires the following:
Material – Elec
Material – Tronic
Labour hours per unit
Variable overhead costs are absorbed using labour
hours
Fixed overhead cost are absorbed using labour hours
10g
20g
9 minutes
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The average market price at time of purchase were R351,50 per kg for Elec and R484,50 per kg for
Tronic. The purchasing manager acquired 1 200kg of Elec at R426 000 and 2 400kg of Tronic at
R1 188 000 during the period. The output of 110 000 units was achieved by using 1 150 kg of Elec
and 2 195 kg of Tronic.
During the period the division actually incurred variable costs of R3 256 000 that resulted in a rate of
R185 per labour hour. The manager in charge was also concerned about the overall fixed costs of
R1 300 000 incurred during the period and a detailed analysis of the variances is being investigated.
The report for the Seal division (Product Ying) was as follows:
Material mix
Material yield
Material purchasing planning - Elec
Material purchasing planning - Tronic
Material purchasing efficiency - Elec
Material purchasing efficiency - Tronic
Variable overhead costs
Fixed overhead cost – expenditure
Fixed overhead cost – capacity
Fixed overhead cost – efficiency
R4 725
R19 800
R1 800
R1 200
R4 200
R25 200
R206 800
R112 000
R79 200
R79 200
Favourable
Adverse
Adverse
Favourable
Adverse
Adverse
Adverse
Adverse
Favourable
Adverse
PART B
Bill Job is the production manager at Technical Industries Ltd (TIL). TIL is active in the technology
production market where it manufactures amongst others an upmarket range of alarms and security
camera units. The company has been active for the past 27 years and considers itself to be the leader
in its field.
During the current security boom the company experienced tremendous growth and realised excellent
profits. At present production is at 90% capacity. Inventory is sold in less than a month after it is
assembled.
Bill received an offer to tender from one of the big five contractors constructing the new convention
centre in Tshwane which, based on the infrastructure size and finishes will be the best in the whole of
Africa. In accordance with the unique design of the convention centre, a new style/model of security is
required. The convention centre management insists on the exclusivity of the product. This specific
camera must only be made for them and an undertaking must be given that no cameras of this
particular style/model will be sold by TIL in future.
Bill requested your assistance in preparing the tender for 3 000 new cameras. During your last
meeting with him the following notes were made:
1.
The company will have to work overtime in order to supply the cameras. The overtime rate is
50% more than the normal wage rate of R150 per hour. Additional space will be required for this
order although no such facilities are in place at present and the special cameras will also require
extra manual assembly time as well as a plastic film to protect the outside,.
2.
It is estimated that the labour required for the production of one camera is 3,3 hours.
3.
The production process requires the cameras to be assembled within a magnetic free ‘box’
purpose – built for this industry. These boxes are currently not in use. Depreciation for the
boxes amounts R3 850 per month.
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4.
One camera will require 5 components. There are 7 700 components of material in inventory at
present. All cameras require these components in the manufacturing process. The current
inventory was imported when the Rand was stronger than it is now. The last batch was imported
at a total cost of R1 650 per 1 000 components. Currently the same product can be imported at
R1 815 per 1 000 components. These components are used regularly in production.
5.
Special assembly equipment will be needed for this project. It will have to be imported from
England and the estimated cost will be R76 230. The expected life of this equipment is three
years.
6.
Special connectors are required for the new cameras. They can only be bought in bulk but a
relatively small amount will be required in the assembly process. The cost of the connectors will
be R26 400. At the end of the project the remaining connectors will be sold for an estimated
R16 500.
7.
Bill has found suitable premises across the road from the current factory premise. The premises
require upgraded lighting at a cost of R18 150 and paint and cleaning at a cost of R1 650.
8.
In order to secure the premises, a rent deposit of R22 000 will have to be paid. The monthly
rental charge for the new premises will be R25 300 per month and the project will be running for
six months. A six-month contract is acceptable to the rental agent.
9.
The variable manufacturing overhead at present is absorbed at R99 per camera.
10.
The fixed manufacturing overheads at present are R38,50 per camera. Total fixed overheads will
not be influenced by the tender.
11.
Laz Mckintosh will be transferred from his current job to be in charge of the assembly process.
His salary is R16 500 per month, and he will return to his present position after the project has
ended. His current position will not be filled during the duration of the project.
12.
Five new quality controllers and packers will have to be appointed for the duration of the project
on a contract basis and will each be earning a salary of R9 350 per month.
13.
Half of the plastic film required for the tender is in inventory. The original cost price was R38 500
but it was written off during the last annual audit. The cost of additional plastic film required will
be a further R52 800.
14.
Bill is of the opinion that the new project will have to bear its portion of a management fee
charged to all product lines. He calculated that it should be in the region of R2 750 per month.
15.
It is the company’s policy to mark up its products by 50% to arrive at a selling price. VAT
at 14% is then added to the selling price for invoicing purposes. Management is
concerned that the tender may be awarded to foreign suppliers.
16.
The construction contractor’s representative has indicated that he will be able (on behalf of the
construction company) to give TIL accurate estimates of other companies submitted tender
prices. In return a number of all-inclusive packages to the soccer world cup in Brazil has been
suggested.
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REQUIRED
PART A
REQUIRED
(a) Assuming division Seal has adopted absorption costing; reconstruct the standard cost
card for product Ying.
Marks
(5)
(b) Assuming that division Point receives an overseas order for 22 000 units of Yang
that will in no way influence its other clientele, to recommend, with supporting
calculations, acceptance or refusal of the order under each of the following two
scenarios as set out on page 2:
Scenario 2
Scenario 3
(i)
(ii)
Price/unit - R121 (transfer price based on absorbed standard cost);
Price/unit - R143 (transfer price based on market price);
as manager of division Point;
as managing director of the company.
Assuming that no market price for product Ying existed, calculate a transfer price
for product Ying (using scenario 1), explaining the reasoning behind the
calculation.
(c)
Total
(4)
(3)
(8)
20
PART B
REQUIRED
(e) Determine the price that should be included in the tender document by using relevant
(f)
costing. Indicate all costs that should not be considered as well as the reasons for this.
Identify and discuss relevant factors that should be considered by Bill Job in deciding
whether to tender or not, with specific reference to:



The special camera
Production environment and
Working capital
Communication skills – appropriate style
Marks
(10)
(4)
(1)
(g) Briefly discuss the cost and ethical implications of the construction company
representative’s proposal.
Communication skills – logical argument and structure
Total
(4)
(1)
20
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MAC4861 – TEST 2 (2014) – SUGGESTED SOLUTION
PART A
(a)
Standard cost card
Raw material – Elec
Purchase plan variance: R1 800 A = 1 200kg (SC – R351,50)
∴ SC = R350 per Kg
Raw material – Tronic
Purchase plan variance: R1 200 F = 2 400kg (SC – R484,5)
Other variable costing
∴ SC = R485 per Kg
Total variable variance: R206 800A = R3 256 000 - SC ×
∴ SC = R184,80 per labour hour
SC per unit =
R184,80
60min
9min
×110
60min
× 9 min
= R27,72 per unit
Alternative:
(R325 600 – R206 800)/110 000
= R27,72 per unit
Budgeted labour hours =
9min
×110
60min
000 units
= 16 500 hours
Fixed cost expenditure variance: R112 000A = R1 300 000 – BFC
∴ BFC = R1 188 000
BF absorption rate per labour hour =
R1 188 000
16 500 hrs
= R72 per labour hour
Absorption rate per unit =
R72
×
60min
9min
= R10,80 per unit
000 units
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Alternative:
R1 188 000 / 110 000
= R10,80 per unit
R
The standard cost card of product Ying:
Material – elec 10g at R350/kg
Material – tronic 20g at R485/kg
Other variable costs
Fixed costs
Standard cost per unit
(b)(i)
3,50
9,70
27,72
10,80
51,72
(1)R/W
(1)R/W
(2)R/W
(2)R/W
__
Maximum 5
As manager of division Point
R
Absorbed standard cost of division Seal
Variable
Fixed
Transfer price of Ying
R
40,92
10,80
51,72
(1)C
121,00
103,44
26,40 129,84
(8,84)
(1)C
Scenario 2
Price per unit
Transfer cost: 2 x R 51,72
Variable cost in division Point
Loss per unit
Refusal of the order is recommended
(1)C
Scenario 3
Price per unit
Transfer cost 2 x R77 market price
Variable cost in division Point
Loss per unit
143,00
154,00
26,40
180,40
(37,40)
Refusal of the order is recommended.
Maximum
(ii)
(1)R/W
(1)C
4
As managing director of the company
The managing director will only be concerned with relevant costs, that is those costs which are
incremental for the company.
(1)
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Scenario 2
Under this scenario division Seal has sufficient capacity to produce the 44 000 units of Ying required
for the order without displacing external sales.
R
R
Price per unit
Relevant cost to the company
2 x R40,92 (incremental cost to the company)
Variable cost in division Point
Profit per unit
121,00
81,84
26,40
108,24
12,76
Acceptance of the order is recommended.
(1)C
(1)C
Scenario 3
Under this scenario, division Seal is already working at full capacity. The relevant cost of Ying
transferred to division Point for this order is therefore the sales value of external sales forgone (R77).
R
Price per unit
Relevant costs
2 x R77
Variable cost in division Point
Loss per unit
143,00
154,00
26,40
Refusal of the order is recommended.
(c)
R
180,40
(37,40)
(1)R/W
(1)C
maximum 3
Bearing in mind the behavioural aspects of transfer prices, the optimum solution is one which
results in each division being credited with a fair proportion of the eventual profits earned on the
units transferred internally.
With the data available, the best method is to set the transfer price so that each division is
rewarded with profit in proportion to the costs incurred in the division. The variable cost
structure of each division appears to be similar, since the direct material costs for Seal and Point
are respectively 32% and 33% of total variable cost.
Using scenario 1, the profit earned on 44 000 units of Yang is as follows:
R
Sales revenue
Costs incurred
Division Seal
Variable
Fixed
Division Point
Variable
Fixed
Profit
R220 x 44 000
9 680 000
88 000 x R40,92
110 000 x R10,80
3 600 960
1 188 000 4 788 960
44 000 x R26,40
44 000 x R39,60
1 161 600
1 742 400 2 904 000
(1)R/W
(1)C
7 692 960
1 987 040
(1)R/W
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R
Division Seal share of profit, in proportion to costs incurred
4 788 960
7 692 960 x R1 987 040
Total costs of Ying transferred
Transfer value to be credited to division Seal
=
1 236 956
4 788 960
6 025 917
÷ 88 000 units
R68,48 per Ying
Say R68,50 per Ying
(2)C
(1)C
(1)R/W
(1)C
8
PART B
(d)
Calculation of minimum price to be included in tender document
Per Total cost
unit
R
R
742,50 2 227 500
1/2
Labour cost of assembling
(3 000 units x 3,3 x R150 x 1,5)
3.
Depreciation of boxes
According to IAS16 assets are depreciated although they are not
used. This is already included in the total costs of the company
and therefore not relevant.
-
-
(½)R/W
4.
Components
3 000 cameras required, 1 camera needs 5 components. Thus
15 000 components required. 7 700 components in inventory.
We need to buy 7 300 components. However, used components
must be replaced. Original purchase price is a sunk cost. Use
latest, replacement cost. (15 000 x R1 815 / 1 000 components)
9,08
27 225
(1)R/W
5.
Assembly equipment
Written off over production units as product is unique.
(76 230 / 3 000)
25,41
76 230
(1)R/W
6.
Special components.
Net cost is ((R26 400 – R16 500)/3 000)
3,30
9 900
(1)R/W
New lighting (R18 150 / 3 000)
6,05
18 150
(½)R/W
Paint and cleaning (R1 650 / 3 000)
0,55
1 650
(½)R/W
7.
(1)R/W
8.
Rental deposit will be returned.
Monthly rentals ([R25 300 x 6] /3 000)
50,60
151 800
(½)R/W
(½)R/W
9.
Variable manufacturing overheads (3 000 x 99)
99,00
297 000
(½)R/W
10.
Fixed manufacturing overheads – do not change, thus not
relevant.
-
-
(½)R/W
11.
Salary Laz McKintosh – not replaced, not incremental
-
-
(½)R/W
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12.
Salaries for new assemblers ([R9 350 x 5 x 6] / 3 000)
93,50
280 500
(1) R/W
13.
Plastic Film
Inventory = written off (and presumable no other use)
Plastic film required (cost of R52 800)
17,60
52 800
(1) R/W
(1) R/W
1 047,59
523,79
1 571.38
219,99
1 791,37
3 142 755
1 571 378
4 714 132
659 979
5 374 111
(½)R/W
Maximum
10
14. Management fee – allocated cost, not relevant
Total cost per camera
Profit of 50% of cost
Base selling price to be used for tender
Plus 14% VAT
Invoice price
(e)
(1)C
(1)C
Other factors to be considered by Bill Job
The special camera
•
•
The policy of the company regarding selling unique and exclusive products.
What guarantees will have to be given on the cameras?
(½)
(½)
Production environment
•
•
•
•
Working overtime for long periods could adversely affect staff. This could also have an
effect on current production and standing orders.
(½)
Are there any time constraints in the offer to tender that could have an influence on current
production?
(½)
Availability of quality controllers
(½)
Are there back-up alternatives for premises and at what cost?
(½)
Working capital
•
•
•
The uncertainty of selling the unused special connectors.
(½)
Cash flow implications of the tender. Technology Industries is a subcontractor.
(½)
Will the premises be available until the tender is awarded? If not, early cash payment
(deposit) may be lost if tender is not won.
(½)
•
Any other valid point.
Maximum (4)
Communication skills (Points raised are full sentences and relate to the headings)
(f)
(½)
(1)
5
Cost and ethical implications of the construction company representative proposal
Cost implications
•
•
•
The costs of the (all-inclusive) tickets to the World Cup in Brazil are relevant.
(1)
The cost is a relevant cost in terms of the decision-making process as there will be cash
expenditure.
(1)
The cost is ‘legal’ in terms of taxation as it will be incurred in the generation of income.(1)
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Ethics
•
If this proposal is against the company’s Code of Conduct, it should be reported (IA or
Board or Chairperson).
(1)
•
King III states that behaviour towards internal and external stakeholders should reflect
the company’s ethical
Standards (Chapters 1 and 7), whilst following the offer will in all likelihood be construed as a bribe.(1)
•
In terms of good governance communication, the company should consider
communicating the offer to the final client, as it may indicate lack of internal control in all
parties.
(1)
Max 4
Layout covering cost and ethics
1
5
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MAC4861 – TEST 2 (2014)
MARKERS’ COMMENTS:
General
Test 2 covered cost accounting topics. The concept of standard costing, transfer pricing, relevant
costing and factors, as well as ethics was tested. Approximately 3 152 students wrote the test with an
average mark achieved of 29%. This indicates that students have not allocated sufficient time to do
examples for management accounting, as the theory as well as a practical application of theory was
required, which could only be achieved after much study and attempting many questions and
analysing the suggested solution.
PART A (Marks 20)
(a) Reconstruction of the standard cost card for product Ying
(5 Marks)
This was a simple calculation which most students were unable to perform as they were required to
work back to a standard cost given the variance and the actual price/cost using mathematical
principles as opposed to simply calculating the variance.
By having a better knowledge and understanding of standard costing this can easily be corrected.
(b) Acceptance or refusal of product Yang order given Scenario 2 and 3 as either manager of
Division Point or managing director of the company
(7 Marks)
Most students only managed to obtain one or two marks here as not only were the basic concepts of
transfer pricing not known but the application was not even correctly attempted. Important to notice
was the different transfer prices required for each scenario, namely, absorbed standard cost for
scenario 2 and market price for scenario 3.
The following brief explanation should assist you.
Transfer prices refer to the prices set on goods or services transferred between two departments or
subsidiaries of a company. A transfer price is therefore the price which a receiving division will pay for
the internal transfer of inventory or products by a supplying division.
Goals of transfer pricing
Goals of transfer pricing include
• to motivate the divisional managers to make decisions to the advantage of the company or
group as a whole (goal congruence).
• to ensure equity: the internal transfer price should ensure that each division’s performance is
reasonable, measurable and comparable.
• the managers should still have the ability to make autonomous decisions and enter into
negotiations with each other.
• the system should be simple to operate and administer.
• if possible, healthy competition between divisions should be encouraged by the transfer pricing
system.
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Setting a transfer price
Different companies will use different methods for determining internal transfer prices. Such policies
may include basing the internal transfer price on
•
•
•
the variable cost of the product
the full cost of the product
the market price of the product.
The company has to decide which method will best achieve its objectives and the general goals of
transfer pricing.
Should a question be given in the exam where a specific method is prescribed for setting
transfer prices, you merely have to calculate the required price using the prescribed method.
However, transfer pricing questions are more likely to ask you to SUGGEST an appropriate
transfer price, in which case you should follow the rules set out below.
The following ‘rules of thumb’ may be applied when a question asks for the calculation of a transfer
price that will lead to goal congruence within the company:
• Minimum transfer price (that the supplying division will accept)
Incremental cost (usually variable cost plus any increase in fixed costs) plus opportunity cost
→ Opportunity cost exists only if there are sacrificed external sales due to the internal transfer
of goods (and is the contribution thus lost).
• Maximum transfer price (that the receiving division would pay)
If there is an external market to buy from
→ Market price less savings on selling and transport expenses
If no external market exists
→ Variable cost plus a negotiated profit
•
•
The maximum negotiated profit is the incremental profit that would be made by the
receiving division on the ultimate sale of the goods.
The final transfer price is normally obtained through negotiation. It should lie between the
minimum and maximum prices calculated.
(c) Transfer price for product Ying
(8 Marks)
As a result of a lack of the application of basic principles, only a handful of students were able to
identify the proportionate split of profit in proportion to the costs. This necessitated the profit to be
calculated in total and not per unit which was what most students did. We did award a mark for any
calculation of a transfer price.
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PART B (Marks 20)
Please note that the required incorrectly listed Part B with an (e), (f) and (g) as opposed to the
correct letters which should have read (d), (e) and (f).
(d)
Tender document price using relevant costing
(10 Marks)
Most students understood and answered this section well. `Always remember to explain why an item
is relevant or not. The deposit of R22 000 was erroneously included as relevant by some but
remember the principle is that a deposit is returned so it is a cash flow out but also a cash flow in so
has no effect on the relevant cost/decision.
(e)
Relevant factors in deciding to tender or not
(5 Marks)
The relevant factors listed should almost always have a direct bearing on the information in the given
question e.g. overtime, quality and capacity were hinted at. Cash flow and liquidity are always
considerations when production plans change.
Please note that each factor was only awarded ½ a mark and so at least eight valid points had to be
made.
The presentation mark was awarded here for discussion under the relevant headings provided in the
required as well as clearly stated relevant factors. Some students ignored the headings. This displays
poor exam technique and marks such as these must be scored.
(f)
Cost and ethical implications of construction company representative’ proposal (5 Marks)
Many incorrectly discussed other costs and not the cost of the bribe. Remember that KING III and
ethics go hand in hand.
The presentation mark was awarded here for identifying both the cost and ethical implications. Many
did not cover both which displays poor exam technique and marks such as these must also always
be scored.
General: Communication marks
Communication skills and competencies are very important to any professional – including CAs (SA).
In this regard, SAICA indicated that competency in this area will be specifically assessed in the Initial
Test of Competency (ITC). This competency has been assessed in this module in the past, but for this
test the format in which it was assessed was closely aligned to that used in the ITC; future tests and
exams will follow the same trend.
We recommend that you pay close attention to the formulation used in the suggested solution, and the
way in which communication marks were awarded.
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MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING GLOSSARY
Backflush costing: is a simplified cost-accounting system in which all manufacturing costs are
charged directly to Cost of Goods Sold, and then end-of-period adjustments are made to credit Cost of
Goods Sold and debit the respective inventory accounts.
Cost object: anything which we want to know the cost of.
Direct cost: all costs that can be specifically and exclusively identified with a cost object.
Indirect cost: costs that can’t be specifically and exclusively identified with a cost object.
Product cost: are those costs that are identified with the product produced and are included in the
inventory valuation.
Period cost: are those costs that do not form part of the cost of the product and are thus not included
in the inventory valuation. They are treated as expenses in the period that they were incurred.
Variable cost: is a cost which varies in direct proportion to the level of activity.
Fixed cost: a cost which within certain output or revenue limits, tends to be unaffected by fluctuations
in the levels of activity (output or revenue).
Semi- variable cost: are costs that have both a fixed and variable component.
Mixed cost: See semi-variable cost
Semi-fixed cost: Fixed costs that increase in fixed increments once certain limits are exceeded.
Step-fixed cost: see semi-fixed cost.
Relevant costs and revenues: are those future costs and revenues that will be affected by the
decision being taken. All relevant costs/revenues should be considered in management decision
making.
Irrelevant costs and revenues: are those that won’t be affected (remain unaltered) by the decision.
Sunk cost: They are costs created by a decision made in the past and cannot be changed by a
decision to be made in the future. It is money already spent that can’t be recovered.
Committed cost: They are costs created by a decision made in the past, or a contract concluded in
the past and cannot be changed by a decision to be made in the future. Although the money may only
be spent in the future, the entity cannot legally refuse to pay.
Opportunity cost: is the value of the benefit sacrificed when one course of action is chosen instead of
the best alternative one. It represents the loss of a benefit that was unavoidable because another
option/course of action was chosen.
Incremental costs or revenues: the difference in total cost or revenue between alternatives;
calculated to assist decision making.
Differential costs or revenues: See incremental costs.
Marginal costs or revenue: the additional cost or revenue of one additional unit of output.
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Limiting factor: is any factor that is in scarce supply and that stops the organisation from expanding
its activities further, that is, it limits the organisation’s activities.
Cost allocation: is the process of assigning costs to a product when a direct measure does not exist
for the quantity of resources consumed by that product.
Allocation base: basis that is used to allocate costs to cost objects.
Cost driver: see allocation base.
Blanket overhead rate: is the single overhead rate that is calculated for the organisation as a whole.
Over/under recovery of overheads: This occurs when the allocation base used to allocate
overheads is different from the budgeted and actual activity. This is called a volume variance.
Standard costs: are predetermined target costs that should be incurred under efficient operating
conditions.
Normal loss: Losses that occur under efficient operating conditions and are unavoidable.
Abnormal loss: Losses that are not expected to occur under efficient operation conditions.
Equivalent production: In process costing, when you convert the work-in-progress units into finished
equivalents so that you can calculate a unit cost.
FIFO (First-in-first-out): is a method of inventory valuation where you assume that the first item
received in inventory will be the first item to be issued.
LIFO(Last-in-first-out): is a method of inventory valuation where you assume that the last item
received in inventory will be the first item to be issued. Cannot be used for GAAP valuations.
Joint product: When a group of products are produced at the same time and each product has a
significant relative sales value. It only becomes distinguishable after the split-off point.
Flexed budget: is a budget that is reconstituted after accommodating a change in sales and
production volumes.
By-products: are products that are part of a simultaneous production process which have a small
sales value in comparison to joint products. It’s production is incidental.
Absorption costing: A costing method that allocates all manufacturing costs (including fixed
production overheads) to the cost of the product.
Variable costing: A costing method that only traces variable manufacturing costs to the cost of the
product.
Direct costing: see variable costing
Marginal costing: see variable costing
Contribution: Sales less all variable costs
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Normal average long-run capacity: is a measure of the capacity required to satisfy average
customer demand for the duration of several years. This takes into consideration seasonal and
cyclical demands and increasing or decreasing trends in demand.
Break-even point: is the sales volume point where neither a profit or a loss is made, i.e. profit = 0 or
where all fixed costs are recovered.
Margin of safety: is the difference between the expected level of sales and the break-even sales
level.
High-low method: is a mathematical technique used to separate mixed costs into their fixed and
variable components.
Outsourcing: is the process of obtaining goods or services from outside suppliers instead of
producing the same goods or providing the same services within the organisation.
Cost-plus pricing: when a selling price is determined by adding an appropriate percentage mark-up
to the estimated cost.
Target costing: when the cost price is determined by subtracting the standard or desired profit
margin from the target selling price.
Standard deviation: the measure of the dispersion of a probability distribution.
Probability distribution: is the list of all possible outcomes of an event and the probability that each
will occur.
Budgeting: is concerned with the implementation of a long-term planning target for the year ahead.
Long-term plan: is a statement of the preliminary targets and activities required by an organisation
to achieve its strategic plans with a broad estimate of the resources required.
Return on investment (ROI): measures how a firm uses its capital to generate a profit. The
equation used to calculate ROI is Divisional controllable profit/Controllable net assets employed.
Residual income (RI): is an approach to measuring an investment centre’s performance. It is the
net operating income that an investment centre earns above the minimum required return on its
operating assets.
Economic value added (EVA): is a measure of a company's financial performance based on the
residual wealth, calculated by deducting the cost of capital from its operating profit (adjusted for taxes
on a cash basis). The formula for calculating EVA is as follows: = Net Operating Profit After Taxes
(NOPAT) - (Capital Cost of Capital).
Controllable investment: is used to refer to the net asset base that is controllable by divisional
managers.
Controllable contribution: Total divisional revenues less all costs that are controlled by the
divisional manager, excluding allocated costs from Head Office.
Transfer pricing: refer to the prices set on goods or services transferred between two departments or
subsidiaries of a company. A transfer price is therefore the price which a receiving division will pay for
the internal transfer of inventory or products by a supplying division.
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Regression equation: identifies an estimated relationship between a dependant variable (cost) and
one or more independent variables (i.e. an activity measure or cost driver) based on past
observations.
Correlation coefficient (costing): Measures the degree of association (or correlation) between the
dependent and the independent variable.
Linear programming: is a mathematical technique that can be applied to the problem of rationing
limited facilities and resources among many alternative uses in such a way that the optimum benefits
can be derived from their utilization. It seeks to find a feasible combination of output that will maximise
minimize the objective function.
Objective function: refers to the quantification (in a mathematical function/formula) of an objective,
for example: maximizing profits or minimising costs.
Inflation: A sustained, rapid increase in prices, as measured by some broad index (such as Consumer
Price Index) over months or years, and mirrored in the correspondingly decreasing purchasing power
of the currency.
Economic order quantity (EOQ): is used to determine the optimal length of production runs or the
size of material orders. The objective is to determine how many units must be produced per
production run, or how many units of inventory must be ordered per order.
Bibliography:
Management and cost accounting 8th edition Colin Drury
Management and cost accounting 9th edition Colin Drury
Managerial finance 6th edition FO Skae
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072830085/student_view0/chapter17/glossary.html
http://www.investorwords.com/4250/Return_on_Investment.html
http://www.accountingformanagement.com/residual_income_measure_of_performance.htm
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/eva.asp