1. health and fitness
2. disease
3. infertility

Heredity (2008), 1–10
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
www.nature.com/hdy
Wolbachia plays no role in the one-way
reproductive incompatibility between the
hybridizing field crickets Gryllus firmus and
G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja1, ME Clark2 and RG Harrison1
Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA and 2Department of Biology, University of
Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
1
Wolbachia are cytoplasmically inherited a-proteobacteria
that can cause cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) in insects.
This incompatibility between sperm and egg is evident when
uninfected females mate with infected males. Wolbachiadriven reproductive incompatibilities are of special interest
because they may play a role in speciation. However, the
presence of Wolbachia does not always imply incompatibility.
The field crickets Gryllus firmus and G. pennsylvanicus
exhibit a very clear unidirectional incompatibility and have
been cited as a possible example of Wolbachia-induced CI.
Here, we conduct curing experiments, intra- and interspecific
crosses, cytological examination of Wolbachia in testes
and Wolbachia quantifications through real-time PCR. All of
our data strongly suggest that Wolbachia are not involved
in the reproductive incompatibility between G. firmus and
G. pennsylvanicus.
Heredity advance online publiction, 6 August 2008; doi:10.1038/
hdy.2008.75
Keywords: real-time PCR; reproductive isolation; cytoplasmic incompatibility; antibiotic treatment
Introduction
Wolbachia are cytoplasmically inherited a-proteobacteria
that can infect reproductive tissues of insects and
cause reproductive alterations, including parthenogenesis (Stouthamer et al., 1993), feminization of males
(Rousset et al., 1992), male killing (Hurst et al., 1999) and
cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) (Breeuwer et al., 1992;
O’Neill et al., 1992). Surveys have found that 16–76% of
insects sampled are infected with Wolbachia (Werren
et al., 1995; West et al., 1998; Jeyaprakash and Hoy, 2000;
Werren and Windsor, 2000; Hilgenboecker et al., 2008). A
recent meta-analysis adjusting for infection frequency
within species predicts that around 66% of insects are
infected with Wolbachia (Hilgenboecker et al., 2008). CI is
a sperm–egg incompatibility, manifested when uninfected females mate with infected males. Shortly after
fertilization, asynchrony in male and female pronuclei
development leads to a series of mitotic defects and
ultimately to embryonic death (Yen and Barr, 1971;
Callaini et al., 1996; Lassy and Karr, 1996; Stouthamer
et al., 1999; Tram and Sullivan, 2002). Although the
molecular mechanism of CI is still poorly understood, it
appears that Wolbachia present inside the testes ‘modify’
the sperm, which must then be ‘rescued’ in the egg by
the same Wolbachia strain, if successful embryonic
Correspondence: Dr RG Harrison, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853,
USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received 19 April 2008; revised 24 June 2008; accepted 5 July 2008
development is to occur (Werren, 1997a). Wolbachia
strains can be classified based on their ability to modify
sperm (mod þ or mod) and rescue in eggs (resc þ and
resc) (Werren, 1997a).
The effect of CI is unidirectional (usually involving
crosses between infected and uninfected individuals) or
bidirectional (involving crosses between individuals
with different Wolbachia types) (Barr, 1980; Breeuwer
and Werren, 1990; O’Neill and Karr, 1990). Wolbachiadriven reproductive incompatibilities are of special
interest because they may play a role in speciation
by facilitating the evolution of reproductive isolation
between incipient species (Werren, 1997b; Telschow et al.,
2005a, b; Jaenike et al., 2006).
The presence of Wolbachia does not always imply
incompatibility. Wolbachia infections exist with no
obvious phenotypic effects (Hoffmann et al., 1996). Even
in cases where incompatibility is observed, Wolbachia
may not be the causal agent (Weeks et al., 2002). Nuclear
genes can also be involved, and in some cases both
nuclear-induced and Wolbachia-induced incompatibilities
are known to play a role (Breeuwer and Werren, 1995;
Navajas et al., 2000; Vala et al., 2000). Proving that
Wolbachia is a causal agent requires curing experiments
(treatment with antibiotics) and a rigorous series of
crosses between infected and uninfected individuals
with the same genetic background.
The hybridizing field crickets Gryllus firmus and
G. pennsylvanicus exhibit a one-way reproductive incompatibility; female G. firmus produce no progeny when
mated with male G. pennsylvanicus, but the reciprocal
cross produces viable and fertile offspring (Harrison,
No Wolbachia-induced CI in Gryllus firmus/G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja et al
2
1983). The bimodal mosaic hybrid zone formed by these
very closely related species is a well-studied model
system in speciation research (Harrison, 1983, 1985;
Harrison and Rand, 1989; Willett et al., 1997; Ross and
Harrison, 2002, 2006). Understanding the causes of the
one-way incompatibility between G. firmus and
G. pennsylvanicus is important for understanding the
evolution of barriers to gene exchange.
Because Gryllus species harbor Wolbachia, it has been
proposed that the bacterial infections are the cause of the
one-way reproductive incompatibility (Giordano et al.,
1997). Giordano et al. (1997) argued that G. pennsylvanicus
was infected, whereas G. firmus was not, consistent with
the pattern expected for Wolbachia-induced CI. However,
due to incorrect assignment of crickets to species and
lack of a perfect correlation between species and
infection status, this conclusion was later rejected
(Mandel et al., 2001). Mandel et al. (2001) showed that
many G. firmus are infected, harboring what they termed
the wG2 Wolbachia strain. Most G. pennsylvanicus harbor
the wG1 strain, but some individuals were doubly
infected (wG1 and wG2), and a few carried only the
wG2 strain. Extrapolating from these results, Mandel
et al. (2001) suggested that about 13% of the heterospecific crosses should produce offspring; yet in dozens
of crosses observed, not a single one yielded any progeny
(Harrison, 1983; RG Harrison, unpublished data). They
concluded that Wolbachia is unlikely to play a role in the
one-way reproductive incompatibility between G. firmus
and G. pennsylvanicus.
Here, we present additional data that argue against a
role for Wolbachia in reproductive isolation between the
cricket species. We conduct curing experiments and
intra- and interspecific crosses, use microscopy to
examine the presence/absence of Wolbachia in reproductive tissues and quantify Wolbachia loads in G. firmus and
G. pennsylvanicus using real-time PCR. If Wolbachia
is responsible for the observed reproductive incompatibility (‘the Wolbachia hypothesis’), then uninfected
(cured) male G. pennsylvanicus should be able to sire
hybrid progeny when mated with G. firmus females.
Furthermore, under the ‘Wolbachia hypothesis,’ Wolbachia
should be present somewhere in testes (Boyle et al., 1993;
Bressac and Rousset, 1993; Giordano et al., 1995; Bourtzis
et al., 1996; Poinsot et al., 1998; Clark et al., 2002, 2003,
2008; Riparbelli et al., 2007), and hybrid eggs should be
fertilized but later fail to develop (Callaini et al., 1996,
1997; Lassy and Karr, 1996; Tram and Sullivan, 2002;
Duron and Weill, 2006). None of these predictions were
supported, and we thus reiterate Mandel’s et al. (2001)
conclusion that Wolbachia infections are not the cause of
the one-way reproductive incompatibility between
G. firmus and G. pennsylvanicus.
Materials and methods
Cricket rearing
We collected late instar G. firmus nymphs in Guilford, CT,
USA (411150 ; 721420 ) and G. pennsylvanicus nymphs in
Ithaca, NY, USA (421240 ; 761310 ). Both species were
collected during August–September 2004. We sorted the
crickets by species and maintained five plastic cages
(30 cm 16 cm 9 cm) for each species. Each cage contained five males and five females (total of 50 crickets for
Heredity
each species). Crickets were provided with ad libitum
food (Purina Cat Chow, Nestle Purina, St Louis, MO,
USA), a water vial, cardboard for shelter and a Petri dish
of sterilized soil as oviposition substrate. The cages were
kept at 25 1C, 12 h–12 h light–dark. Oviposition dishes
containing eggs were incubated for a maximum of 40
days at 25 1C and then placed in a refrigerator at 4 1C for
102 days to insure synchronous hatch of nymphs
(Harrison, 1985).
Hatching started on 15 February 2005, 21 days after
eggs were removed from the refrigerator. We divided the
offspring from each species into two groups: an antibiotic
feeding treatment and an untreated control. Crickets
from each group/species were reared in a separate
plastic group cage (65 cm 45 cm 40 cm) with ad libitum
food (Purina Cat Chow) and oviposition dishes. The
antibiotic treatment group received 0.25% tetracycline
HCl (Sigma, St Louis, MO, USA) in the water (changed
three times per week) throughout development, whereas
the untreated group received pure water. Individuals
within each group were allowed to mate freely. Oviposition dishes were treated as described above and hatching
began on 2 January 2006. Treatment was continued as in
the previous generation. In March 2006, virgin late instar
crickets were separated to single-sex plastic cages
(30 cm 16 cm 9 cm), receiving the same treatment as
before, until assigned to an experimental cross.
Experimental crosses
Our experimental design for crosses was the most
complete possible given the poor performance of our
G. pennsylvanicus colonies (only four untreated and six
treated males were ultimately available for crossing).
Each G. pennsylvanicus male was therefore mated with
multiple G. firmus females. To discover whether Wolbachia causes intraspecific CI in G. firmus, we also
conducted crosses between treated and untreated
G. firmus.
We abbreviate cross types using three letters (for
example, H/tu): The first letter indicates whether the
cross is heterospecific or conspecific (H or C), the second
letter indicates the male group (treated, t or untreated, u)
and the third letter indicates the female group (t or u).
Experimental females are always G. firmus, thus an H/tt
cross involves a treated G. pennsylvanicus male and a
treated G. firmus female, whereas a C/tt cross involves a
treated G. firmus male and female.
For the heterospecific crosses (H), a treated (t) or
untreated (u) G. pennsylvanicus male was put with two
treated (t) or untreated (u) G. firmus females for 3 days.
Females were then removed to individual plastic cages
and provided with ad libitum food, water and an
oviposition dish. The male was placed in an individual
cage and reused in subsequent matings. Twenty-six
G. firmus females were crossed to six treated
G. pennsylvanicus males: eight females were treated
(H/tt) and 18 females were untreated (H/tu). Twentysix G. firmus females were crossed with four untreated
males: 10 females were treated (H/ut) and 16 females
were untreated (H/uu). All crosses resulted in spermatophore transfer to the female.
For the conspecific (C) crosses, a treated (t) or
untreated (u) G. firmus male was paired with a treated
(t) or untreated (u) G. firmus female for 3 days. The male
No Wolbachia-induced CI in Gryllus firmus/G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja et al
was then frozen at 80 1C for DNA extraction, and the
female was placed in an individual plastic cage as
described above. We performed 32 crosses using
16 treated and 16 untreated males: 5 males of each
group mated with a treated female (C/tt and C/ut) and
11 males of each group mated with an untreated female
(C/tu and C/uu). Again, all females were observed with
a spermatophore.
All females used in the crosses were 7–10 days old.
Female post-mating lifespan was estimated as days
from mating until death. Lifetime fecundity was assessed
by counting all eggs laid by each female. Eggs
were separated from the oviposition substrate using a
series of sieves and counted under a stereoscopic
microscope.
Fecundity (number of eggs) and fertility (proportion of
eggs hatching) for conspecific and heterospecific crosses
were analyzed separately. Female lifespan data were
analyzed combining data from conspecific and heterospecific crosses.
Data on conspecific fertility were fitted to a general
linear model (GLM), weighting for fecundity. Conspecific
fecundity and female lifespan data were fitted to a GLM
with negative binomial errors. Residuals of all the
performed GLMs were analyzed by visual inspection
and no significant deviations from normality were
observed. No outliers were found using Cook’s statistics
values. The effects of all dependent variables on the
response variables were tested using log-likelihood ratio
tests comparing the deviance of a model including and
excluding the factor being tested. All analyses were
performed with R. 2.6.1 (R Development Core Team,
2006). All results are shown as mean±s.d., n.
Real-time PCR
To determine the Wolbachia load of each cricket, we used
TaqMan real-time PCR. This approach measures the
relative number of template molecules for a Wolbachiaspecific gene compared with template number for a
cricket-specific gene (elongation factor, EF1a). We
extracted DNA from whole abdomen of treated and
untreated crickets using DNeasy tissue kit (Qiagen,
Valencia, CA, USA). All DNA extractions were diluted
to 10 mg/ml.
Primers and TaqMan fluorescence-labeled probes for
real-time PCR assays were designed using Primer Express
Software (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA).
These primers specifically amplify Gryllus EF1a (GenBank
accession numbers, DQ630925 and DQ630927) and
Wolbachia ftsZ (GenBank accession numbers, U28195 and
3
U83100, which correspond to the two types of Wolbachia
found in G. firmus and G. pennsylvanicus; see Mandel et al.
2001). Primers and probes are shown in Table 1.
For real-time PCR assays, 2 ml of the extracted genomic
DNA template (20 mg) was combined with 900 mM of each
oligonucleotide primer and 250 mM of the TET-(EF1a) or
6FAM-(ftsZ) and TAMRA-labeled probe in 25 ml of total
reaction volume using TaqMan Universal PCR Master
Mix (Applied Biosystems). TaqMan PCR reactions were
mixed in 96-well MicroAmp optical plates (Applied
Biosystems). The PCR samples were subjected to 45
cycles of amplification in an ABI 7500 real-time PCR
System (Applied Biosystems) under the following conditions: 50 1C for 2 min (uracil N-deglycosylase digest),
95 1C for 10 min (AmpliTaq Gold pre-activation) and then
40 cycles of 95 1C for 15 s and 60 1C for 1 min. The
fluorescence data were analyzed using the Applied
Biosystems software. The standard curve was always
prepared using a dilution series (up to 105) for the same
DNA sample; water (in place of DNA) was used as
blank. Each individual sample was assayed at least
twice, but because differences in DNA concentration
between replicates were always o0.01 (after standardization—see below), we report only the average value
for each individual.
Our real-time DNA measurements are relative not
absolute; therefore, Wolbachia loads reported here are
only meaningful for samples in this study. To calculate
relative values, we assigned an arbitrary DNA quantity
for each of the dilutions in the standard curve, from 105
in the 1 dilution to 1 in the 105 dilution. On the basis
of the Ct (threshold cycle) of each sample and the
standard curve, we obtained estimates of EF1a and ftsZ
amounts for each individual. We then divided the
amount of ftsZ DNA by the amount of EF1a DNA, to
generate a normalized value. Finally, a randomly
selected untreated individual was chosen to represent a
standard 1 Wolbachia load, and all other values were
adjusted in relation to this standard.
We quantified Wolbachia load from a total of 53
crickets. These included parents from all conspecific
crosses that failed to produce offspring (C/tt, n ¼ 3; C/tu,
n ¼ 3; C/ut, n ¼ 2) as well as from all crosses that
produced offspring but were not expected to do so
under the hypothesis of Wolbachia-induced CI (untreated
male and treated female, C/ut, n ¼ 3). In addition, we
quantified all G. pennsylvanicus males (n ¼ 5 for treated
and n ¼ 4 for untreated) and G. pennsylvanicus females
(n ¼ 3 for treated and n ¼ 3 for untreated). We also
included the following randomly chosen individuals:
five G. firmus treated males, five G. firmus untreated
Table 1 Primers and probes for TaqMan real-time PCR for Gryllus and Wolbachia genes
Species
Primer or probe
Sequence (50 –30 )
Position
Gryllusy
EF1a_F
EF1a_R
EF1a probe (TET)
CTGACCTCCGCAGCAACA
TTGCCAGTGGTCGAACACA
TGGCCAGGCATTCCCTCAGT
569–587
612–630
591–610
Wolbachiay
ftsZ_F
ftsZ_R
ftsZ probe (6FAM)
TGAAGAAGTGGATGAAAATGCAAA
GCCAGTTGCAAGAACAGAAACTC
ACTTTTGATCAGGCGATGGAGGGAAGA
729–752
800–822
769–795
The nucleotide positions are those reported in GenBank (accession number DQ630925 for EF1a and U28195 for ftsZ).
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No Wolbachia-induced CI in Gryllus firmus/G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja et al
4
males, five G. firmus treated females and five G. firmus
untreated females. Wolbachia loads in one male from an
infertile cross (C/tu) and two males from C/ut crosses,
as well as one male G. pennsylvanicus, could not be
measured due to poor quality or unavailable DNA.
We assayed an additional 10 wild-caught G. pennsylvanicus individuals from Ithaca, NY, USA (five males and
five females) to compare Wolbachia loads of captive and
wild individuals. These crickets were captured as late
instar nymphs in August 2007.
To test for differences in Wolbachia loads between
treatments, sexes and species, we fitted our data to GLMs
with g errors using R. 2.6.1 (R Development Core Team,
2006) as explained above (experimental crosses section).
RFLP analysis
Mandel et al. (2001) reported two different Wolbachia
strains, wG1 (accession number U83100) and wG2
(accession number U28195), common to G. firmus and
G. pennsylvanicus. We used an RFLP analysis to determine the strain of Wolbachia for each individual assayed
with RT-PCR. Universal primers to both strains, ftsZ12F
(50 -AAAAATTCAACTTGGTATCAA-30 ) and ftsZ812R
(50 -AGAACAGAAACTCTAACTCTTCC-30 ), were used
to amplify a short fragment of Wolbachia-specific ftsZ.
These amplifications were carried out in 10 ml PCR
reactions and contained 3 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM dNTPs,
50 mM KCl, 20 mM Tris (pH 8.4), 2.5 mg of each primer, 1 U
of platinum Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad,
CA, USA) and 1 ml DNA (20–30 mg). Conditions for
thermal cycling were 2 min at 95 1C followed by 35 cycles
of 50 s at 94 1C, 60 s at 55 1C and 90 s at 72 1C. The
resulting 800-bp ftsZ fragment is differentially cut by the
restriction enzyme AluI. We fully digested 3–5 ml of PCR
product with AluI and ran the digests on 2% agarose
gels, using a doubly infected individual as a control on
each gel. We could unambiguously assign Wolbachia
strain(s) for all assayed infected individuals.
Microscopy
Gryllus testes and ovaries were dissected from adults in a
small Petri dish with Tris-buffered saline Tween-20
(TBST) (50 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 0.1% Tween, 0.05%
NaN3, pH 7.5). Whole testes and ovaries were removed
and transferred to a depression slide with TBST.
Individual follicles were removed from testes, and
ovarioles were separated and transferred to 3.7%
formaldehyde in TBST for 15–30 min followed by three
washes in TBST. Tissues were blocked in TBST with 1%
bovine serum albumin for 10 min. Wolbachia was visualized using an anti-human hsp60 mouse monoclonal
antibody (Sigma), which recognizes Wolbachia (Hoerauf
et al., 2000; McGraw et al., 2002). Tissues were incubated
in the primary antibody solution (1:500 in TBST, 1%
bovine serum albumin, 2 mg/ml RNaseA and 1:500 of
the anti-wsp antibody) for 1 h at room temperature,
followed by three washes with TBST. This was followed
by 1 h at room temperature in 1:500 Alexa-Fluor 488 antimouse antibody (Molecular Probes), followed by three
washes in TBST. DNA was then stained with either 1 mg/
ml DAPI (Invitrogen) for 5 min or with 5 mg/ml
propidium iodide (Invitrogen) for 20 min, followed by a
brief wash in TBST before mounting in ProLong Gold
antifade mounting media (Invitrogen). Images were
Heredity
obtained using a Zeiss Axio-Imager Z1 microscope. We
observed both captive and wild-caught untreated crickets as well as first and second generation antibiotictreated crickets.
Egg analysis
Anecdotal evidence indicates that eggs from hybrid
crosses (G. firmus female G. pennsylvanicus) are smaller
and resemble unfertilized eggs. By measuring eggs to the
nearest 0.01 mm under a dissecting scope ( 15 magnification), we obtained data on length and width of 10
unfertilized G. firmus eggs (virgin females), 10 eggs from
crosses within G. firmus and 10 eggs from heterospecific
crosses. All eggs were from untreated individuals and
were measured during the diapause period (after
1 month at 4 1C).
We also extracted DNA from individual eggs (six
unfertilized, six pure G. firmus eggs and six eggs from
crosses between G. firmus females and G. pennsylvanicus
males) using a forensic QIAamp DNA micro kit (final
dilution in 20 ml). All eggs were from untreated females,
and DNA was extracted when eggs were in diapause
(after 1 month at 4 1C). After estimating the amount of
DNA in each sample, we used cricket-specific microsatellites to test for the presence of maternal and paternal
alleles. We also used Wolbachia ftsZ primers and cricketspecific EF1a primers (as a positive control). PCRs (10 ml
volume) contained 3 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 50 mM
KCl, 20 mM Tris (pH 8.4), 2.5 mg of each primer, 1 U of
platinum Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen) and 2 ml
DNA (20–30 mg). PCR amplifications were performed
using a thermal cycler (OmniGene, Hybaid) under the
following conditions: 40 cycles of 50 s at 94 1C, 60 s at
52 1C and 90 s at 72 1C.
Results
Experimental crosses
In heterospecific crosses (G. pennsylvanicus male G. firmus female), antibiotic treatment had no effect on
whether offspring were produced. All of the heterospecific crosses, except for one, failed to produce
offspring, including those expected to produce offspring
under the assumption that CI-inducing Wolbachia had
been eliminated (Table 2). The single hybrid produced
(the first ever reported in thousands of hybrid cross
observations) came from an H/uu cross, in which both
parents were infected as shown by RT-PCR analysis (see
below). The fecundity of heterospecific crosses was low
(67.9±92.2 eggs, n ¼ 52).
On average, conspecific crosses had higher fecundity
(373±212 eggs, n ¼ 32) and fertility (68.9±67.9 offspring,
n ¼ 32) than heterospecific crosses (F(1, 84) ¼ 76,
P ¼ 0.0001 and F(1, 84) ¼ 51.6, Po0.0001, respectively),
although some females from conspecific crosses (primarily from the treated group) failed to produce any
offspring (Table 2). The conspecific crosses showed no
significant male treatment female treatment interaction
in fecundity, and female treatment alone had a marginally nonsignificant effect (F(29, 1) ¼ 69, P ¼ 0.09)—treated
females appear to deposit fewer eggs than untreated
females (272±244 eggs, n ¼ 10 vs 419±183 eggs, n ¼ 22,
respectively). Antibiotic treatment had no significant
effect on the percentage of eggs hatching. If Wolbachia
No Wolbachia-induced CI in Gryllus firmus/G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja et al
5
Table 2 Results of experimental crosses
Cross type
Fertility exp?
Mean eggs
s.d. eggs
Conspecific
C/uu
C/tu
C/tt
C/ut
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
468.8
369.4
293.2
250.2
159.2
199.1
319.1
176.4
Heterospecific
H/uu
H/tu
H/tt
H/ut
No
Yes
Yes
No
86.2
64.4
66.5
46.4
115.2
78.1
77.3
93.5
Mean offsprings
s.d. offsprings
(n) total
(n) fecund
(n) fertile
56.4
76.5
58.4
92.6
11
11
5
5
11
11
5
5
11
8
2
3
16
18
8
10
15
16
8
8
1
0
0
0
80.2
69.4
42.6
69.2
0.06a
0
0
0
0.25
0
0
0
a
One hybrid offspring was produced in this cross type. Both parents were infected (RT-PCR and RFLP results).
‘Fertility exp?’ indicates whether fertility is expected under the Wolbachia hypothesis. Results are fecundity (mean eggs and standard
deviation), fertility (mean number of offspring and standard deviation), total number of females in each cross type (n total), number of fecund
females (n fecund) and number of fertile females (n fertile). For cross-type abbreviations, see Materials and methods.
caused a reproductive incompatibility within species, the
C/ut cross should fail to produce offspring (assuming
that females were cured); yet this cross was equally
fertile.
Antibiotic treatment decreased female post-mating
lifespan (F(80, 1) ¼ 140.5, Po0.0001); treated females
lived for 29.4±14.6 days (n ¼ 28), whereas untreated
females lived for 43.7±14.5 days (n ¼ 56). Unexpectedly,
mating with conspecifics or heterospecifics also affected
female lifespan (F(82, 1) ¼ 167.6, Po0.0001). Females
mated to conspecifics lived longer than females mated
to heterospecifics (45.8±14.6 days, n ¼ 32 vs 35.7±15.4
days, n ¼ 52, respectively).
Real-time PCR
Individual Wolbachia loads ranged from 0 to 172 .
G. pennsylvanicus had a significantly lower Wolbachia load
than G. firmus (F(1, 51) ¼ 44.6, Po0.001) and females had
significantly higher loads than males in both species
(F(1, 50) ¼ 45.19, Po0.03). In addition, males responded
better to treatment than females (significant sex treatment interaction (F(1, 46) ¼ 5.37, Po0.03; Table 3).
Furthermore, laboratory-reared G. pennsylvanicus had
significantly lower Wolbachia loads than their wild
counterparts (F(1, 23) ¼ 45.51, Po0.001; Table 3). Because
of the high variance in load between treatments/
individuals/species and the presence of cured individuals, it is very unlikely that we were quantifying
Wolbachia DNA that had been transferred to the host
genome.
In spite of two generations of antibiotic treatment, only
9 of the 53 assayed individuals showed no evidence of
Wolbachia infection; 8 of these crickets were treated and 1
was an untreated G. pennsylvanicus female. Of the nine
cured individuals, two were G. pennsylvanicus (one male
and one female) and seven were G. firmus (three males
and four females). The cured G. pennsylvanicus male was
mated with four G. firmus females, none of whom
produced any offspring. Only one of the cured G. firmus
female was in a C/ut cross; she mated with a heavily
infected male (46 load) and produced 30 offspring
(19% hatching success). The other three cured G. firmus
females were in the C/tt group and these females failed
to produce offspring. Two of these cured females were
paired with two of the cured males (0 load) and
deposited only 1–2 eggs. The third cured female mated
Table 3 Wolbachia loads (relative to a standard individual) in
Gryllus firmus and G. pennsylvanicus (mean, standard deviation and
number of samples) for treated (t) and untreated (u) males and
females
Species
Group
G. firmus
t
u
G. pennsylvanicus
t
u
Wild
Male
Female
Mean
s.d.
n
Mean
s.d.
n
4.2
22.9
±7.3
±38.0
9
8
35.8
39.6
±57.6
±26.5
13
8
0.3
0.4
5.8
±0.2
±0.2
±5.9
5
4
5
0.8
0.8
7.5
±0.2
±1.1
±9.6
3
3
5
with an infected male (0.3 load) and laid 301 eggs, all
of which failed to hatch. These three C/tt cured females
had very reduced post-mating lifespan: 10 and 11 days
for females mated with cured males and 27 days for the
females mated with the infected males (compared to 46
days average for females mated with conspecifics). The
third cured G. firmus male mated with an untreated
female (C/tu) and produced only 12 offspring (3.8%
hatching success). The only hybrid offspring (identity
confirmed with microsatellites) came from an H/uu
cross in which both male and female were infected
(0.3 and 16 , respectively).
RFLP analysis
We could assign a Wolbachia strain to all infected
individuals. All experimental G. pennsylvanicus had the
wG1 strain (n ¼ 13) and all experimental G. firmus had the
wG2 strain (n ¼ 31). However, 5 out of 10 wild-caught
G. pennsylvanicus individuals had the wG2 type and only
3 had the wG1 strain (2 females were uninfected). There
were no doubly infected individuals in either experimental or wild groups. An additional sample of 14
G. pennsylvanicus from three ‘pure’ populations in New
York and Pennsylvania included 9 infected with wG1, 4
infected with wG2 and 1 doubly infected.
In the wild-caught Ithaca G. pennsylvanicus, there
seems to be a difference in RT-PCR load between wG1
and wG2 Wolbachia strains. The average load for wG1
was 1.8 (±1.2, n ¼ 3) and the average for wG2 was
12.2 (±7.0, n ¼ 5). Because of the very small sample
size we did not conduct any statistical tests.
Heredity
No Wolbachia-induced CI in Gryllus firmus/G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja et al
6
Figure 1 Wolbachia within developing ovaries of (a) Gryllus firmus and (b) G. pennsylvanicus. Host nuclei are stained with propidium iodide
(red) and Wolbachia labeled with anti-hsp60 (green/yellow). Scale bar ¼ 100 mm.
Figure 2 Wolbachia are absent from testis follicles in both Gryllus firmus (a) and G. pennsylvanicus (b). Spermatid nuclei (red) are seen within
developing spermatocysts. All Alexa Fluor 488 staining (green) represents either background staining, or cross-reactivity with spermatid tails.
Scale bar ¼ 500 mm.
Microscopy
Wolbachia was easily visualized in ovaries from both G.
firmus and G. pennsylvanicus (Figure 1). The overall
Wolbachia load within ovaries is consistent with the RTPCR results, with higher Wolbachia densities within the
ovaries of G. firmus than G. pennsylvanicus females.
Within testes, Wolbachia was typically absent from both
species (Figure 2) for treated, untreated and wild
individuals. Wolbachia were never seen within the
developing spermatocytes, spermatids or surrounding
cyst cells. Very rarely, Wolbachia could be seen within a
single somatic cell (not shown) in the outer follicle
epithelium, but this was atypical.
Egg analyses
We used a one-way analysis of variance to test for
differences between the mean length and width of
unfertilized, hybrid cross and pure fertilized G. firmus
eggs (see Figure 3). We found no significant difference
in mean egg length (unfertilized ¼ 3.11 mm, hybrid
cross ¼ 3.08 mm and fertilized G. firmus ¼ 3.13 mm;
F(2, 27) ¼ 0.37, P40.5), but a significant difference in the
mean egg width (unfertilized ¼ 0.631 mm, hybrid
cross ¼ 0.641 mm, and fertilized G. firmus ¼ 0.953 mm;
F(2, 27) ¼ 119.7, Po0.001). The post hoc Tukey test showed
Heredity
Figure 3 Eggs from Gryllus firmus females. The first is a typical
fertilized G. firmus egg from a conspecific cross, the second is an
unfertilized egg and the third is an egg from a hybrid cross. Hybrid
cross eggs and unfertilized eggs are always narrower than a
fertilized G. firmus egg. Color variation is commonly observed in
unfertilized and hybrid cross eggs.
No Wolbachia-induced CI in Gryllus firmus/G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja et al
7
that this difference was between fertilized G. firmus eggs
and the other two categories. There were no differences
between hybrid cross and unfertilized eggs ((U ¼ H)aGf).
All egg DNA extractions had measurable amounts
of nucleic acids (mean unfertilized ¼ 11 mg/ml, mean
hybrid ¼ 12 mg/ml and mean fertilized G. firmus ¼ 18 mg/
ml); however, these measurements probably reflect carrier
RNA added during the extractions. We were able to
amplify Gryllus-specific microsatellites and Wolbachia
ftsZ from all six eggs from crosses between G. firmus
males and females. We also amplified Wolbachia ftsZ
from three of six unfertilized eggs and four of six hybrid
cross eggs; however, we were unable to amplify cricketspecific genes (microsatellites or EF1a) from any of the
hybrid cross or unfertilized eggs.
Discussion
Overall, we found no evidence that Wolbachia infections
play a role in the G. firmus/G. pennsylvanicus one-way
reproductive incompatibility. The original observation
(Giordano et al., 1997) that G. pennsylvanicus is infected
and G. firmus is not infected is not supported by our data.
However, our results do agree with the data of Mandel
et al. (2001), showing that most individuals in northern
populations of both species are infected, that both species
harbor strains wG1 and wG2, but with somewhat
different frequencies. Our results show that a completely
cured G. pennsylvanicus male did not produce offspring
when mated with G. firmus females, as would be
expected if Wolbachia was the cause of reproductive
incompatibility. Furthermore, we did not find Wolbachia
inside the testes of adult males, although bacteria were
present in other tissues. Finally, there is no evidence that
eggs from hybrid crosses are fertilized and die later in
development as would be expected if Wolbachia was
responsible for the reproductive incompatibility. Wolbachia also does not seem to cause intraspecific CI in
crickets; crosses expected to be incompatible (C/ut—
untreated males and treated females) produced as many
offspring as controls, and a completely cured female
was able to produce offspring with a highly infected
male. Taken together, these observations provide strong
evidence against the hypothesis of Wolbachia-induced CI
in the field cricket hybrid zone.
Interspecific one-way reproductive incompatibility
Bacterial density is associated with the prevalence of
Wolbachia-induced phenotypes, including the expression of
CI. Treatments that reduce bacterial densities usually lead
to decreases in Wolbachia-induced phenotypes (Breeuwer
and Werren, 1993; Hurst et al., 2000; Zchori-Fein et al.,
2000). Thus, if Wolbachia was the cause of the observed
reproductive incompatibility, we would expect a decrease
in CI with antibiotic treatment. Although treatment was
not 100% effective, males had substantially reduced
Wolbachia loads, and one G. pennsylvanicus male was
completely cured (other treated G. pennsylvanicus males
had loads o0.5 ; Table 3). Despite the overall decrease in
Wolbachia loads (especially in relation to field-collected
individuals) and the successful cure, no hybrid crosses
produced offspring (except for a single hybrid produced
from an infected male and female). Moreover, given that
higher bacterial densities are associated with increase in
incompatibility and possibly higher efficacy in sperm
modification and egg rescue (Boyle et al., 1993; Breeuwer
and Werren, 1993; Bressac and Rousset, 1993; Poinsot et al.,
1998; Stouthamer et al., 1999), if Wolbachia were the cause of
reproductive incompatibility, we would expect higher
bacterial loads in G. pennsylvanicus (as it should be the
species with modified sperm). In contrast to those
expectations, G. firmus had bacterial loads about
50 those in G. pennsylvanicus.
In Drosophila with CI, both bacterial density within
testes (Boyle et al., 1993; Bressac and Rousset, 1993;
Giordano et al., 1995; Bourtzis et al., 1996; Poinsot et al.,
1998; Riparbelli et al., 2007) and total amount of infected
germ cell cysts (Clark et al., 2002, 2003) have been
implicated in CI expression. In other hosts, Wolbachia
modify sperm without being present within an individual spermatocyte or spermatid during development,
but instead are present in other cells within testes,
suggesting that Wolbachia can either act across cells or act
prior to spermatogenesis (Clark et al. 2008). Within the
testes, CI-inducing (mod þ ) Wolbachia modify sperm,
such that normal embryonic development can occur only
if the modification is rescued by an infected (resc þ ) egg
(Werren, 1997a). Wolbachia strains that neither modify
nor rescue sperm (mod and resc) also exist; these
strains have no effect on host reproduction (Hoffmann
et al., 1996; Veneti et al., 2003; Marshall, 2004). We did not
observe Wolbachia inside testes or in the surrounding
tissues (Figure 2). This absence of Wolbachia inside the
testes of both Gryllus species suggests that these
Wolbachia strains are unable to modify sperm and cause
CI in these hosts.
CI is expected between hybridizing species when
one species is infected with CI-causing Wolbachia strain
and the other species is uninfected or lacks any of the
Wolbachia types found in the other species. In our
experimental crosses, we did not find any doubly
infected individuals; all G. firmus were infected with
the wG2 strain and all G. pennsylvanicus carried the wG1
strain. However, wild-caught G. pennsylvanicus carry
either wG1 or wG2, both strains or are uninfected. On
the basis of our observed ratios of wG1-infected, wG2infected and doubly infected, if Wolbachia were the
primary cause of the incompatibility between G. firmus
and G. pennsylvanicus, then a large fraction of heterospecific crosses should produce offspring. Contrary to
this expectation, in hundreds of heterospecific crosses
(Harrison, 1983; Maroja, 2008; RG Harrison, unpublished) only one hybrid has ever been produced
(reported in this study). This hybrid came from a cross
between untreated crickets, in which the G. pennsylvanicus male carried wG1 (0.3 load) and G. firmus female
carried wG2 (16 load). The extreme rarity of hybrids
from G. firmus females suggests the existence of very
strong barriers to fertilization. This is corroborated by the
observation that mitochondrial DNA introgression
across the cricket hybrid zone is always from
G. pennsylvanicus into G. firmus (Harrison et al., 1987;
Harrison and Bogdanowicz, 1997; Ross and Harrison,
2002) as would be expected if the only F1 hybrids
produced were offspring of G. pennsylvanicus females.
Wolbachia-induced CI usually leads to early embryonic
death or haploid development (Callaini et al., 1996, 1997;
Lassy and Karr, 1996; Tram and Sullivan, 2002; Duron
and Weill, 2006). However, cricket eggs from hybrid
crosses resemble unfertilized eggs, both in size (Figure 3)
Heredity
No Wolbachia-induced CI in Gryllus firmus/G. pennsylvanicus
LS Maroja et al
8
and in the failure to provide suitable DNA templates for
amplification of Gryllus-specific microsatellites, although
still providing templates for amplification of Wolbachiaspecific genes. If there were early embryos in the eggs
from heterospecific crosses, then the amount of DNA
should be sufficient to allow amplification of Gryllusspecific microsatellites. It is possible that the DNA has
degraded subsequent to the death of the embryo;
however, in that case we would not expect to be able to
amplify Wolbachia DNA.
Wolbachia in conspecific crosses and antibiotic
treatment effects
Wolbachia does not appear to cause intraspecific CI in
G. firmus. Wolbachia is not found in testes of G. firmus
males (Figure 2) and is thus unlikely to modify sperm.
Furthermore, our crossing data suggest that the observed
infertility (or low fecundity) of some male–female pairs
is a result of the antibiotic treatment itself, rather than
due to presence or absence of Wolbachia. If Wolbachia
caused conspecific CI, and if curing were complete, our
C/ut crosses (n ¼ 5) should be infertile as an uninfected
egg would not be able to rescue modified sperm. The
only completely cured female was mated with a highly
infected male (46 load) and had normal fertility. Two
C/ut crosses also showed normal fertility (females had
reduced Wolbachia loads of 5 and 3 ). Antibiotic
treatment significantly reduces female fecundity independent of the status of the male and probably also
explains the infertility of the other two C/ut crosses, as
well as other infertile crosses (all of which involved
treated individuals). In addition, antibiotic treatment
decreased female post-mating lifespan. Taken together,
these observations suggest direct negative effects of
antibiotic treatment, effects that confound interpretation
of curing experiments in these insects. Alternatively,
Wolbachia could be a mutualist (Hoerauf et al., 1999;
Dedeine et al., 2001; Weeks et al., 2007) and, in this case,
the adverse effects on treated females would be due to a
decrease in Wolbachia loads.
Curiously, we also found that mating with conspecific
males vs heterospecific males affected female lifespan;
females mated with conspecifics lived longer than
females mated with heterospecifics. This unexpected
result could be related to the benefits field cricket females
appear to gain from conspecific matings, or an additional
unappreciated cost to heterospecific matings (Simmons,
1988; Burpee and Sakaluk, 1993; Wagner et al., 2001;
Sakaluk et al., 2002; Ivy and Sakaluk, 2005). Both costs
and benefits might be exaggerated in captive/treated
populations. Alternatively, observations of female lifespan differences might be a negative consequence of
reduced oviposition rate and accumulation of eggs in
females mated with heterospecific males.
Wolbachia load
Total Wolbachia loads were consistently much lower in
males than in females in both species. This may reflect
high Wolbachia densities in the female germline and may
explain the persistence of Wolbachia in the absence of CI.
High Wolbachia densities in the female germline likely
ensure high rates of Wolbachia transmission. Interestingly,
both wild-caught male and female G. pennsylvanicus had
much higher Wolbachia loads than crickets reared in the
Heredity
lab. The basis of this difference is unclear. Previous
reports from Drosophila suggest that the phenotypic
effects of Wolbachia are greater under ideal laboratory
conditions compared with either stressed laboratory
conditions or wild-caught flies (Ikeda, 1970; Hurst et al.,
2001). If lab conditions are non-optimal for G. pennsylvanicus, Wolbachia loads may be higher in individuals living
in more optimal (wild) conditions compared with the
suboptimal (laboratory) conditions.
The data presented here suggest that Wolbachia does not
cause CI in G. pennsylvanicus and does not currently play a
role in the incompatibility between G. pennsylvanicus and
G. firmus. Although Wolbachia infections have now been
described in hundreds of arthropod species, the phenotypic effects of Wolbachia infection have been experimentally examined in only a few model organisms. These are
restricted to species easily reared in a laboratory environment. A more thorough understanding of effects of
Wolbachia on hosts will require examination of a wider
range of hosts that may not be as amendable to a
laboratory environment as traditional model organisms.
Conclusions
G. firmus and G. pennsylvanicus are an important model
system in the study of speciation, and understanding the
basis of their reproductive isolation is important for
understanding the evolution of barriers to gene exchange.
The importance of ‘infectious speciation’ (Coyne, 1992)
caused by Wolbachia bidirectional CI is a subject of current
debate (Werren, 1997b; Coyne and Orr, 2004). There is
good evidence that Wolbachia infections do play a role in
barriers to current gene exchange between species
(Nasonia, Breeuwer and Werren, 1993; Bordenstein et al.,
2001; Drosophila, Shoemaker et al., 1999; Jaenike et al., 2006).
Although genetic incompatibilities are also involved in
these examples, Wolbachia-driven incompatibility seems to
have evolved early enough to have played a role in the
initial speciation process. However, in these cases, as in
virtually all studies of current barriers to gene exchange, it
is very difficult to identify the order in which barriers have
arisen (Bordenstein, 2003). As a result, the extent to which
endosymbionts are important in insect speciation remains
unclear. The field crickets G. firmus and G. pennsylvanicus
exhibit a very clear unidirectional incompatibility and
have been cited as a possible example of Wolbachiainduced CI. The data presented here strongly suggest that
this is not the case.
Acknowledgements
We thank Rodman G Getchell for helping with the
RT-PCR, Steve Bogdanowicz for technical advice in all
aspects of this study and Jose A Andres for statistical
advice. This project was supported by NSF grant DEB0639904 to RGH. The work of MEC was supported by
NSF grant EF-0328363 to J Werren.
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