1. No category

MICHAEL OKPARA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE,
UMUDIKE
KILLERS TO EDIBLES
A KEY TO SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
22nd INAUGURAL LECTURE
Delivered by
PROFESSOR SUNDAY NDUBUEZE UKACHUKWU (RAS)
B.Agric., M.Sc., Ph.D. (Nig.)
PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL NUTRITION
1
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page
……………………………………………………………………………
1
…………………………………………………………………
2
Protocol
…………………………………………………………………………
4
Preamble
………………………………………………………………………….
4
1.
Introduction ………………………………………………………………….
5
2.
About Nutrition
………………………………………………………….
6
………………………………………….
6
………………………….
7
3.
The Interdependence Issue …………………………………………………
8
4.
Quest For Alternatives
…………………………………………………
8
Table of Content
5.
6.
1.
Nutrition and Its Growth
2.
Discipline of Nutrition Schematized
1.
A Worrisome Scenario
…………………………………………
8
2.
Alternatives: The Solution ………………………………………….
9
3.
The Killer
………………………………………………………….
9
1.
Definition
………………………………………………….
9
2.
Evolution
…………………………………………………..
9
3.
Actions
………………………………………………….
10
4.
Classification …………………………………………………
10
5.
Specific Example of ANFs and Toxicants …………………
10
6.
Specific Effects of Some Specific ANFs
…………………
11
KillersTo Edibles (The Processes and Methods) ………………………….
12
1.
Common Processes And Methods ………………………………….
12
2.
Specific Methods For Specific ANFs
…………………………
14
…………………………………………………………
17
1.
Full-fat Soyabean In Broiler Diets …………………………………
17
2.
Mucuna: Little-known, Poison-laden But Has Great Potentials As
My Contributions
Ingredient In Broiler Diets …………………………………………
22
………….
23
1.
Toxicity Of Raw M. cochinchinensis Extract
2.
Chemical Evaluation Of Raw And Processed M. cochinchinensis …
23
3.
Effect On Animal Organs And Products ………………….
26
4.
Processing With Additives; Supplementation And Optimum
Inclusion Level
5.
………………………………………….
29
…………………
30
Mucuna Forage And Seeds For Rabbits
2
3.
4.
Other Oil Seed Protein Ingredients In Poultry Nutrition …………
31
1.
Cotton Seed Meal
…………………………………………
31
2.
Castor Oil Bean
…………………………………………
32
3.
Baobab Seed
…………………………………………
33
Composite Cassava Meal And Other Tubers As Ingredients In
Livestock Feeds
5.
…………………………………………………
Solving The Problem Of Poisons In The System And The Environment …
34
35
1.
Agricultural Wastes And By-products
…………………
35
2.
Mitigating Greenhouse Gases Emission
………………..
36
3.
Mitigating Oxidative Damage
…………………………
37
7.
Conclusion And Recommendation …………………………………………
39
8.
Acknowledgement
…………………………………………………………
40
9.
References
………………………………………………………………….
42
3
KILLERSTO EDIBLES: A KEY TO SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK AND NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
PROTOCOL
The Vice-Chancellor and Chairman of this occasion
Deputy Vice-Chancellor
Other Principal Officers
Deans and Directors
Professors
Heads of Departments
Members of the University Senate
Other members of the academia
Distinguished Guests
My Lords – Spiritual and Temporal
Great Umudykes
Gentlemen of the Press
Ladies and Gentlemen
PREAMBLE
I am highly delighted to stand here today to deliver this 22nd inaugural lecture that ushers me unto the
highly exalted professorial chair – this is a great enthronement.
My joy today is predicated on a number of issues that make the occasion unique. My very humble
background never gave a clue to what is being celebrated today. My fellow students at the University of
Nigeria, Nsukka who saw me swim through the ocean of penury would be thoroughly astonished to hear
that I took further step in the academic ladder. Also, today is the fulfillment of my expectation to shame
Satan with whom I made a bet that my academic pursuit would never be scuttled in spite of his vow to
stop me with the big whip – poverty. Also, my inaugural lecture comes up as the 2nd amongst all the
pioneer young lecturers that started here on either Assistant Lecturer or Lecturer II status (I started as
AL). It is also the 2nd in the Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Science and the 5th in the
College of Animal Science and Animal Production.
I am therefore happy to welcome you to this unique ‘classroom’ where the only right or privilege you
have is to listen but never to ask questions nor make contributions. The lecturer has the sole right and
privilege to teach, propose, make prognosis, argue and conclude. He does this based on the wealth of
knowledge he has gathered while he voyaged through his profession to become a general.
Vice-Chancellor Sir, it is a known fact that Man depends on animal for special need of nourishment
while animals look up to man for quality or balanced diets. Balanced diets are essential for animals to
4
yield their full potential as animal products, which are needed in the diets of man for his healthy living. It
also goes without saying that a healthy workforce is a sine qua non to national development. It is
becoming increasingly difficult to meet the nutritional needs of farm animals because of two principal
reasons – (1) scarcity, high demand and cost of conventional feedstuffs, (2) competition between farm
animals, man and industry for the scarce commodities; and the animal is the most disadvantaged among
the competitors. This scenario has forced the Animal Nutritionist to embark on a search for alternative
feed ingredients that are rarely consumed by man or useful in the industries. Most of these alternatives are
rather poisonous materials.
Vice-Chancellor Sir, my chosen theme for this inaugural lecture is KILLERS TO EDIBLES: A KEY
TO SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. It is a summary of my
contribution to knowledge in my profession, where I have essentially focused on seeking for means of
converting the poisonous alternatives (Killers) to non-poisonous quality novel feeds (Edibles) in order to
maintain a sustainable livestock sector for the wellbeing of man and development of our nation.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
According to Wadhwa and Bakshi (2013), by 2050 the world will need to feed an additional 2 billion
people and require 70 per cent more meat and milk. This increasing future demand for animal products
will impose a huge demand on feed resources. Sustainability of feed production systems is being
challenged due to biophysical factors, which include food - fuel - feed competition, on-going global
warming and frequent and drastic climatic vagaries, as well as increased competition for arable land and
non-renewable resources. The keys to sustainable livestock development include efficient use of feed
resources, and enlargement of the feed resource base through a quest for novel feed resources,
particularly, those not competing with human food.
The challenge of getting edible food from a poisonous material has been reported even in the Bible.
Moses in Exodus 15: 23 – 25 healed bitter water and it became sweet and healthy, Elisha healed a water
source causing death and barrenness and it became pleasant in II Kings 2: 19 – 22. Most Christians and
Bible students quote the riddle of Sampson in Judges 14: 14 – “From the eater came something to eat,
from the strong, came something sweet.” This aptly captures my theme – “KillersTo Edibles”. The eater
and the strong are the killers from which we get something to eat and something sweet which are the
edibles. Also, in II Kings 4: 38 – 41, a pot of stew prepared from wild gourd (a poisonous herb) caused
death among the guild of prophets but Elisha processed it into harmless nutritious pot of stew for the
relish and nourishment of the prophets.
5
The animal nutritionist has been in an age-long search for alternative sources of feed, having taken
cognizance of the fact of the food-fuel-feed competition and the fact that the animal has always been on
the losing end. He even goes to the kitchen, gutter, refuse heaps, waste bins, and forests in his quest for
these alternatives, including poisonous materials which he processes into nutritive harmless materials.
Hence, our leading theme for discourse today – “Killers To Edibles.”
2.0
ABOUT NUTRITION
2.1
NUTRITION AND ITS GROWTH
Nutrition as a profession has grown and progressed from the stand point of common sense to complex
science. It had its beginning as an art, the foundation of which was a blend of instinct, habit, experience,
folklore, and conjecture (Lloyd et al., 1978).
Nutrition remained essentially an art until the chemist became interested in the nature of foods. Food was
described in terms of chemical entities or groups of entities with unique nutritive properties. It was then
discovered that not all foods contain every necessary nutrient and that in most foods the proportions of the
various nutrients are inadequate to the body’s needs. Following on the heels of this was the finding that
by appropriate combinations of foods the assortment of nutrients in the diet could be made to approximate
the body’s needs.
As time progressed, more professions became interested in nutrition and joined the team. The
physiologist became interested in the workings of the nutritional machinery. He explored the area of
elucidation of the physiology of such functions as digestion, muscle movement, reproduction, and
lactation, especially when it included the pertinent chemistry, and this made it possible to relate diet to
health and performance. Also, nutritional deficiency states could now be assigned causes, and be
corrected by amending the diet.
The endocrinologist and enzymologist joined the nutrition team and made clear the important role of the
endocrine system in regulating, and of the enzyme system in catalyzing, the metabolic processes involved
in utilization of the energy and the nutrients of foods.
Some questions still remained unanswered and hence constituted embarrassing gaps. The microbiologist
joined the team to proffer answers to the question of why the difference in the ability of the carnivore,
omnivore, and herbivore to utilize foods of high cellulose content, and even the variability of individuals
within these groups.
The nutrition team still kept expanding. The geneticist and the mathematician (statistician) found roles to
play in order for the nutritional questions to be answered satisfactorily. The genetic make-up of the
animal determines its response to the nutritional treatments; and the statistician contributes in the conduct
of efficient research and the analysis and description of the findings of nutritional researches.
6
2.2
DISCIPLINE OF NUTRITION SCHEMATIZED
The Webster’s Dictionary definition of nutrition sees nutrition as “the series of processes by which an
organism takes in and assimilates food for promoting growth and replacing worn or injured tissues.” This
innocent-sounding definition and our discourse in the preceding section portray animal nutrition as a
montage of several biological disciplines grouped around the age-old arts of homemaking and
husbandry.
This schematization gives us idea of the areas covered in the formal training that a qualified animal
nutritionist must undertake. An animal nutritionist must have working understanding of the contributions
to be expected from each of these disciplines. A strong point to be noted here is that nutrition research
today requires collaborative effort as nutritionists no longer hunt alone.
All the listed disciplines therefore, form the foundation upon which nutrition rests. They work together to
achieve the following functions of the discipline of nutrition, which are:
1.
To understand the nature of the nutrients
2.
To grasp the way in which they perform their roles
3.
To perceive the consequences of their deficiency or of their imbalance in the diet,
4.
And to be able to prepare nutritionally adequate diets.
7
3.0
THE INTER-DEPENDENCE ISSUE
As has been already noted, man looks up to animals for special part of his nutrition while animals look up
to man for provision of their balanced diets. Majority of the ingredients (feedstuffs) required by man to
formulate these balanced diets come from the crops. Others are animal products and industrial
(manufactured or synthetic) products and by-products. The industries depend on the crops and animals for
their fibres. Hence, in animal production, particularly animal nutrition, there is intrinsic inter-dependence
between the animal, man and the industry.
Crops
Labour
Crop
products
+byproducts
Manure
Forage
Farm
Animals
Animal
Products
Food + Feed Ingredients
Fibre
Farm Inputs
Food + Feed Ingredients
Man
Industrial
Products & Byproducts
Industry
Balanced
Diet
Fibre
4.0
QUEST FOR ALTERNATIVES
4.1
A Worrisome Scenario
The demand for livestock products is rapidly increasing in most developing countries. However, many
developing countries have feed deficits. Feed (with feeding) is the highest single cost input in animal
8
production. In poultry and piggery it is about 70 – 80% while in other livestock it is about 45 – 64%. This
is made complex and complicated by competition among human, the industry and farm animals for the
same food items as either food for man, fibre for the industry or feed for animals (that is, the food-fuelfeed competition).
The issue of competition is majorly occasioned by scarcity of the feed resources. Factors causing the
scarcity include rapidly growing human population that is not matched by growth in food production,
shift from agrarian economy to oil-based economy, abandonment of farming for white-collar jobs,
urbanization and rural-urban drift by the younger generation, just to mention this few.
4.2
Alternatives: The Solution
One of the ways of getting round the problems of scarcity and competition is by looking for alternative
feedstuffs. The new unconventional alternate feed resources could play an important role in meeting this
deficit. Such unconventional resources can act as an excellent source of nutrients and help to bridge the
gap between demand and supply of feedstuffs for livestock. In addition, their use can reduce the cost of
feeding, giving higher profits to farmers. However, most of the novel or alternative feedstuffs are laden
with problems that militate against their utilization, prominent among which are the presence of antinutritional factors and toxicants as part of their natural composition. So, the dangerous nature of the
problem is that the “killers” are natural components of the feedstuffs; and the feedstuff that is laden with
these “killers” does not show it by its looks.
1.
The Killers
4.3.1
`Definition
A major problem of alternative feedstuffs is that they contain factors that interfere with the utilisation of
dietary nutrients. These factors, which cause depressions in growth and feed efficiency and/or affect
animal health, can be defined as anti-nutritional factors (ANFs). In plants and seeds these ANFs primarily
act as biopesticides or defences.
1.
Evolution
In order to survive, plants have developed defences against herbivorous animals and birds,
microorganisms (moulds, bacteria) and viruses during evolution. Furthermore, plants compete with other
plants for light, water, and nutrients. The production of secondary metabolites (including lectins and toxic
peptides) is of ultimate importance as a defence strategy in this contest (Rosenthal, 1982; Harborne, 1993;
Wink, 1988, Wink, 1992; Wink, 1993a). The seedling is the most vulnerable life stage in the plants' life
cycle; therefore it is not surprising that many species are well equipped with anti-nutritional factors and
other substances in their seeds.
9
Considering the evolutionary background of ANF as either antiherbivore or antimicrobial compounds,
ANFs have been selected during evolution as biologically active components.
2.
Actions
These factors interfere with the utilisation of dietary nutrients in a variety of ways, including reducing
protein digestibility, binding to various nutrients or damaging the gut wall and thereby reducing digestive
efficiency.
These compounds can be either acutely toxic (such as some lectins, cyanogenic glycosides, non-protein
amino acids (NPAAs) or alkaloids), unpalatable (such as saponins, tannins, NPAAs, or bitter alkaloids),
or "anti-nutritive". The “anti-nutritives” reduce growth and fitness of the consumer by: nutrient
complexation (e.g., by phytates), metabolic inhibition (e.g., NPAAs, cyanogenic glycosides,
isoflavones, alkaloids) or reduction of digestion (e.g., through protease inhibitors, lectins, or
oligosaccharides).
3.
Classification
ANFs can be classified in various ways. A classification, based on their effects on the nutritive value of
feedstuffs and on biological responses in animals, is given here:
1.
Factors that have a depressive effect on protein digestion and utilisation (trypsin and chymotrypsin
inhibitors, lectins or haemagglutinins, polyphenolic compounds, non-starch polysaccharides
(NSPs) and saponins).
2.
Factors which have a negative effect on the digestion of carbohydrates (amylase inhibitors,
polyphenolic compounds, NSP-s, flatulence factors).
3.
Factors which have a negative effect on the digestion and utilisation of minerals (glucosinolates,
oxalic acid, phytic acid, gossypol).
4.
Factors which inactivate vitamins or cause an increase in the animal's vitamin requirements (antivitamins).
5.
Factors that stimulate the immune system (antigenic proteins).
10
Generally, these substances include proteolytic inhibitors, phytohemagglutinins, lathyrogens,
cyanogenetic compounds, compounds causing favism, factors affecting digestibility, saponins,
goitrogenic factors and alkaloids (Gupta, 1987).
1.
Specific examples of ANFs and Toxicants
Some specific examples of the ANFs and Toxicants are:
Lectins
Protease inhibitors
Alpha-amylase inhibitors
Tannins
Flatulence factors (Oligosaccharides and isoflavonoids)
Antigenic proteins
Phytic acid
Vicine and convicine (Pyrimidine glycosides)
Saponins
Glucosinolates
Oxalic acid
Gossypol
Alkaloids
Sinapins
Non-starch polysaccharides (including some Oligosaccharides and isoflavonoids)
Cyanogenic glycosides
Non-protein amino acids
(Liener, 1962; Gupta, 1987)
2.
Specific effects of some specific ANFs are as follows:
Lectins
Reduce digestibility of true protein and of other nutrients.
Stimulate the proliferation of bacteria in the intestinal lumen.
Protease inhibitors
(trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors)
Activities of trypsin and chymotrypsin are reduced.
Hypertrophy of the pancreas.
Tannins
Nutrient digestibility is depressed.
Reduce feed intake, increase damage to the gut wall, toxicity of absorbed
tannins and reduced absorption of some minerals.
Direct effects on the liver and possibly other organs.
Phytic acid
11
Low bio-availability of phosphorus present in phytic acid.
Form complexes with a variety of minerals, including calcium, copper, cobalt, magnesium, manganese, selenium
and zinc, thus reducing the availability of these nutrients.
Interfere with the activity of endogenous enzymes and digestibilities of nutrients other than minerals.
Vicine and Convicine
Cause haemolytic anaemia in man.
In birds, they result in a decrease in egg weight and size, weaker egg shells, an increased number of blood spots in
the egg, and a decrease in fertility and hatchability of eggs.
In pigs they have been related to reduced reproductive performance.
Saponins
Haemolyse red blood cells.
Depress growth performance in both poultry and swine.
1.
KILLERSTO EDIBLES (THE PROCESSES AND METHODS)
5.1
Common Processes and Methods
More generalized processes and methods of reduction or total elimination of the effects of ANFs (the
killers) in feedstuffs so that they are transformed into safe products for consumption (edibles) by man and
animals include:
1. Post harvest processing
Cooking for inactivation of lectins and protease inhibitors. Low molecular weight compounds are leached
out into the cooking water, to be discarded afterwards. All these simple techniques have been "invented"
by man (even without a profound knowledge of the underlying toxicology) to make legume seeds more
palatable and digestible.
2. Chemical detoxification
This involves rendering antinutrients in the seeds inactive by mild acid hydrolysis. Example is the
degradation of canavanine to deaminocanavanine, a well known untoxic deamination product of
canavanine (Rosenthal, 1972; Enneking et al., 1993), under alkaline conditions. This has already been
successfully employed for the processing of the canavanine containing seeds of Canavalia ensiformis
(Obizoba and Obiano, 1988). Some other antinutrients can be rendered inactive by mild acid hydrolysis.
3. Fermentation
12
The use of fermentation as an integral part of food detoxification processes is widely practised (Ochse,
1931; Horsfall, 1987; Salih et al., 1991). A wide variety of fermented foods are produced and eaten
around the world (Yokutsuka, 1991; Campbell-Platt, 1987; Reddy and Salunkhe, 1989; Ukachukwu et al.,
2000). Fermented foods can be prepared at both industrial and the household scale. Fermentation
simultaneously gives flexibility in the manipulation of flavour, texture and colour of the raw material.
4. Germination
This kind of processing reduces the contents of oligosaccharides and of other N-containing ANFs, and it
serves to improve the palatability of soybeans, pea and lentils.
5. Detoxification by ruminants
Some grain legumes like Vicia and Lathyrus spp. can be used as supplemental feeds for ruminant
production, which is another form of post-harvest detoxification. The gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) of these
animals have adapted to the grains and have become biological factory for detoxifying the ANFs in the
grains.
6. Elimination of ANFs through genetic modification
The identification of alkaloids and non-protein amino acids (NPAAs) as the major anti-nutritional
principles present in Lupinus and Vicia seeds, respectively, now allows for the selection of genotypes
with low levels of these factors, thus enabling the development of more palatable and less toxic cultivars.
The selection of genetic material with contrasting levels of anti-nutritional factors is also ideally suited for
the elucidation of their biological functions (as shown for the example of bitter versus sweet lupins). The
general aim is a selection of non-toxic and palatable genotypes requiring efficient screening techniques to
expedite the quantitative detection of individual ANFs for the selection of improved grain legume
cultivars.
7. Seed specific deletion of ANFs
It is possible to select strains of legumes which no longer accumulate ANFs in their seed, but still
maintain their synthesis in the rest of the plant. In this case only the seeds and seedlings need additional
protection but not the whole plant. This selection would work in instances in which ANFs are produced in
the leaves but transported to the seeds or in which all parts of a plant produce a certain ANF but not for a
seed specific synthesis. In the first instance, selection is directed towards plants in which the translocation
via the phloem is blocked and the other instances towards an organ specific inhibition of biosynthesis.
8. Genetic engineering options
If the gene which encodes a toxic protein is known (e.g., a lectin) or the key enzyme of a biosynthetic
pathway leading to alkaloids, saponins, NPAAs etc, genetic engineering offers a set of methodologies to
down-regulate or to knock out the respective activity. Strategies include the expression of antisense
mRNA, of gene targeting, and of synthetic oligonucleotides or ribozymes.
13
Also the introduction of new traits into a crop plant, such as new lectins or proteins rich in
methionine/cysteine can be achieved by appropriate molecular techniques. Although these strategies look
straightforward in theory, their utilisation and application for a specific problem are often more
complicated and tedious. Obstacles are often encountered in that relevant genes have not been detected so
far which is usually the situation for biosynthetic enzymes of ANFs. If a time-, developmental and organ
specific expression is required, then promotor sequences need to be known for a particular plant - and
again these data are usually not available for the crop of interest. Transformed plants need to be
regenerated which is a severe problem in most legumes. Several target enzymes could be envisaged for
NPAAs or alkaloids.
9. Can "anti-nutrients" be even useful?
The so called "anti-nutrients" of legumes have biological functions. They are important in the physiology
of seedlings as N or C storage compounds and to facilitate nutrient uptake and rhizosphere establishment.
They exhibit defence functions, being toxic to animals and sometimes even to microorganisms, viruses
and other plants. Some ANFs, like lupin alkaloids, can be important for the fitness of plants and constitute
relevant resistance factors.
There are also examples which show that certain levels of ANFs in legumes might be even beneficial to
human health. The negative dietary impact of affluence can be held at bay through inclusion of grain
legumes (cholesterol lowering properties, dietary fibres, trypsin inhibitors).
The phenylalanine derivative, ß-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-L-alanine (L-DOPA) is important for the therapy
of Parkinson’s disease (Kempster et al., 1993).
Canavanine is an inhibitor of soluble nitric oxide synthesis and has recently been found to be useful in
treating experimental endotoxaemic shock in rats.
Lupin alkaloids, such as sparteine, have been used as antiarrhythmic and uterotonic therapeutics. Also
other lupin alkaloids exhibit similar activities which could be used either as pure compounds or in
mixtures (Wink, 1993b).
Isoflavonoids which inhibit tyrosine protein kinases might be interesting as anticancer agents.
Poly-phenols exhibit anti-cancer, anti-microbial (pathogens), anti-oxidative and immune-stimulating
effects in vertebrates and reduce the incidence of cardiovascular diseases.
1.
Specific Methods For Specific ANFs
Some elimination/reduction methods are specific to some anti-nutritional factors and only few common
ones are considered here.
1
Lectins
14
As lectins are quite unstable to heat, heat processing appears to be an effective means of inactivating
lectins.
2
Protease inhibitors - trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors
Trypsin inhibitors are less susceptible to heat than lectins. However, and as shown in Table 1, a moderate
heat treatment is an effective means to inactivate soya bean trypsin-inhibitor activities (TIA). However,
heat treatment needs to be conducted under closely controlled conditions to avoid reducing the
availability of amino acids, particularly lysine.
Table 1: Effcet of alternative heat treatments on lectin and trypsin inhibitor activity in phaseolus
beans
3
Tannins
Some of the depressions in performance due to the intake of tannins could be overcome by:
i) increasing dietary protein levels.
ii) development of a physiological means by animals and humans that consume high tannin diets to
counteract the adverse effects of tannins.
iii) Addition of chemicals (such as polyethylene glycol) that have high affinity for tannins in the diet,
iv) Soaking of feedstuffs in water or alkaline solutions,
v) Anaerobic fermentation or
vi ) germination of seeds.
15
Texture
Particle density
Moisture content
16
Rejection
Removal of
restrictive
factors,
Improvement of
texture,
Dehydration,
Ensilage,
Fermentation,
Extrusion,
Pelleting,
Storage
Quality Test
Oxidative
rancidity
Anti-nutritional
factors
Toxins
Microbial
spoilage
Moisture
Fat
ANIMAL
PERFORMANCE
Feedstuff status formulation
Experimentation
Processing
Restrictive Factors
Digestibility
ent of a potential feed ingredient into feedstuff status
ternative raw materials and feed formulations for a profitable livestock enterprise. National seminar
resource infrastructure. Organised by Greenwoods Ventures Ltd and Imo State ADP held at Imo
3 - 25
Wastes
Residues
Wild crop
Animal product
Adaptability
Availability
Free of Competition
Metabolisable Energy
Bio-availability
Bioassay
Substitution
Levels
Acceptability
5
PROTEIN
FAT
FIBRE
ASH
NFE
……………
ENERGY
Amino Acid Profile
Biological Value
4
Phytic acid
The use of exogenous phytases to enhance phosphorus digestibility is now common practice in countries where
the contribution of animal agriculture to environmental pollution is a concern.
Vicine and Convicine
The only feasible solution appears to be selection of varieties with low contents of vicine and convicine.
6.0
MY CONTRIBUTIONS
Two Professors made me – Professor F. O. I. Anugwa who supervised my M.Sc (24 years ago), and Prof.
Festus C. Obioha under whose supervision I obtained my Ph.D (14 years ago). Since then I have worked
assiduously and relentlessly to seeing to the actualization of the issues raised by today’s inaugural, that is,
how to convert killers to edibles as a key factor in support of sustainable livestock industry in Nigeria,
which will in turn lead to sustained national development. My efforts have been geared towards
developing novel feeds and feedstuffs as alternative feed resources which will be available and cheap,
thereby leading to reduced cost of production of animal products. This, of course, will make these animal
products (which are quality and indispensable protein) available and affordable by Nigerians, especially
the rural populace. Accessibility of the people to these quality proteins will ensure a healthy workforce
that will positively contribute to the development of our nation and economy. REMEMBER: A healthy
mind in a healthy body is needed for sharp brains; and sharp brains are sharper and cuts deeper
than strong sharp swords. We need sharp brains to sharply discern our national problems and
proffer solutions.
6.1
FULL FAT SOYABEAN IN BROILER DIETS
My attention was drawn to the worth and problems of soyabean as I rendered my national service in the
Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Moor Plantation, Ibadan. On coming back to the
University of Nigeria for my M.Sc. programme, I elected to investigate into the use of Full fat Soyabean
as “Feedstuff” in poultry diets.
17
Soyabean has been described as wonder crop, miracle golden bean, pearl of the century, the meat that
grows on vines, the protein hope of the future and the salvation crop (IFSP, 1988; Abasilim, 1989). It is
of multi-dimensional usage and has high nutritional value (Oyenuga, 1968). Yet, it is bedeviled by toxic,
stimulatory and inhibitory substances like trypsin-inhibitors, chemotrypsin-inhibitors, lipoxygenase,
heamaglutinin, phytic acid, gastrogenic materials, etc. These factors have limited and inhibited effective
use of soyabean as both food and feed.
The most important anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) in soyabean are the trypsin- and chemotrypsininhibitors. In researches we conducted, we compared the effect and reversibility of the effect of dietary
raw, toasted, cooked full-fat soyabean and soyabean meal as well as the influence of age of chicken and
duration of feeding on their sensitivity to raw soyabean (Ukachukwu and Anugwa, 1995 & 1999;
Ukachukwu, 1996; Ukachukwu et al., 1997)
There was no problem with the intake of raw soyabean as dietary raw soyabean was consumed as much
as diets without or with processed soyabean. However, serious problems were associated with the
utilization of raw or improperly processed soyabean.
Trypsin-inhibitor in raw soyabean inhibits
activation of trypsinogen and chemotrypsinogen to trypsin. This brings about subsequent inhibition of
intestinal proteolysis in chicks fed raw soyabean. The final effect is shown in significantly depressed
body weight, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio (Ukachukwu and
Anugwa, 1995; Ukachukwu, 1996)
Table 2: Effect of dietary soybean on performance of broiler starter birds
Parameters
Treatment codes
R
C
M
+SEM
Initial weight(g)
86.0
83.2
85.2
-
Final weight(g)
788.6b
941.7a
971.1a
23.30*
Daily feed intake(g)
60.8b
59.9b
65.3 b
0.83*
Daily weight gain(g)
20.1b
21.0a
25.3a
0.50*
Feed conversion ratio
3.03b
2.49a
2.58a
0.05*
18
Protein efficiency ratio
1.59b
1.85a
1.91a
0.03*
Mortality (%)
5.00
6.67
5.00
-
Values on the same row having different superscripts are significantly different at *P<0.05, **P<0.01. Ns = No significant difference
R = raw full-fat soyabean, C = cooked full-fat soyabean, M = defatted soyabean meal
Dietary raw soyabean produced no clinical signs in broilers but caused significant enlargement of the
pancreas at starter phase. However, the enlargement was not significant at the finisher phase. The
enlargement at the starter phase was due to hyperplasia of the acinar cells. The hyperplasia could have
arisen from insufficiency of the pancreatic enzymatic function which ended up in necrosis and fibrosis of
the organ after sometime.
It is heartening to note that raw soyabean does not produce microscopic lesions in other organs outside
the pancreas (Table 3).
9
9
9
9
1
C-R
9
2
9
9
9
20
w
9
1
9
2
R-C
20
0
2
3
2
w (R)
1
9
19
3
1
1
9
T-T
2
9
3 1
T-C
4
3
2
Toasted
20
20
2
3
2
9
9
1
3
C-C
5
Cooked
3
20
1
20
(C) Cooked
(T) Toasted
2
3
2
3
9
20
3
6
2
9
20
1
9
9
9
9
1
3
2
3
M-M
1
M-C
8
7
Meal
4
2
20
3
20
(M) Soyabean Meal
4
2
3
Schematization of Experiments with Soyabean Subjected to Different Processing Methods
Table 3: Mean live weights, daily weight gain, and mean percentage + weights of various organs of
birds
Treatment
Parameter
R
C
M
SEM
Starter
Live weight(g)
788.60b
941.72a
971.05a
23.29*
Phase
Daily weight gain (g)
20.07b
24.02a
25.31a
0.44*
Pancreas (%)
0.54a
0.27b
0.26b
0.21*
Liver (%)
2.01
2.62
2.09
0.60
Spleen (%)
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.17
Kidney (%)
0.74
0.91
0.73
0.42
Proventriculus (%)
0.41
0.49
0.41
0.15
Heart (%)
0.49
0.46
0.45
0.21
Empty gizzard (%)
2.65
2.41
2.19
0.28
Means in the same row not followed by the same letters are significantly different at 1% (**), + Expressed as percentage of whole cassava
weight, R = raw soybean-based diet, C = cooked soybean-bean based diet, M = soybean meal-based diet, SEM = standard error of mean
The non-significant enlargement of pancreas at the end of finisher phase was in the presence of severe
growth depression in the chicks. The reduction in size of the pancreas at this stage could be due to
necrosis, maturation of the fibrous tissues or increased tolerance of the birds to the toxic effect of raw
soyabean (Ukachukwu et al., 1997).
20
By employing heat-treatment (toasting and cooking) in the processing of soyabean, there was significant
improvement in all the performance parameters mentioned above over that of birds fed the raw soyabean
based diets, with the cooking method proving superior to the toasting method. Cooking is a simple
processing technology that is adaptable by poor rural farmers and feedmillers. Properly cooked full-fat
soyabean proved to be as safe as conventional defatted soyabean meal and even more cost effective
(Table 4).
Influence of age of broiler chicks and duration of feeding on their sensitivity to raw soyabean was
assessed. It was concluded that age of chicks was more important in influencing sensitivity of broiler
chicks to raw soyabean diet than duration of feeding raw soyabeans. Age had a greater influence on daily
feed intake, daily body weight gain and feed conversion ratio than duration of feeding. Broiler chicks
showed susceptibility to the growth-depressing effect of raw soyabean diets irrespective of the age at
which they started consuming the diets but older birds earlier conditioned to a normal diet exhibited more
sustained sensitivity than younger birds that were not fully conditioned to a normal diet. The adverse
effect of feeding raw soyabeans to starting broiler chicks on their growth rate was not permanent but
reversed by switching over to cooked soyabean diet during the finisher phase (Ukachukwu and Anugwa,
1999) (Tables 5, 6 and 7).
Table 4: Effect of dietary soybean on economics of production
Diet
Parameters
RSB
TSB
CSB
SMB
SEM
Starter mash
6.83
6.97
7.01
13.98
-
Finisher mash
7.56
7.67
7.70
12.66
-
Starter mash
48.89
49.88
50.12
100.00
-
Finisher mash
59.73
60.55
60.82
100.00
-
20.69b
18.33c
17.45c
36.07a
0.57*
Actual cost (N)/kg feed
Relative cost (%)
Cost (N) of feed/kg weight gain
Starter phase
21
Finisher phase
25.86b
23.01b
23.49b
39.50a
0.86**
Average
22.28b
20.67c
20.47c
37.79a
0.17**
Starter phase
31.12b
39.59a
39.95a
25.65c
1.14**
Finisher phase
27.78ab
36.90a
35.91a
20.91b
2.74**
Total
58.90b
76.49a
75.86a
46.55c
2.69*
Gross margin (N) from weight gain
a,b,c
Means on the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different at 5% (*) or 1% (**), N = Naira (Nigeria’s
official currency)
Table 5: Performance of broiler chicks at starter phase
R
C
SEM
Daily feed intake,g
60.87
60.05
1.08
Daily weight gain, g
19.30b
20.58a
0.40*
Feed conversion ratio
3.21a
2.90b
0.02*
a, b values within the same row having different superscripts differ significantly at 5% level (*)
Table 6: Performance of broiler chicks at finisher phase
R-R
R-C
C-R
C-C
SEM
Daily feed intake (g)
114.60
117.37
118.72
125.56
3.49
Daily weight gain (g)
31.61b
39.59a
30.01b
41.10a
1.44*
Feed conversion ratio
3.62b
2.96c
3.95a
3.04c
0.09*
a, b, c: values on the same row having different superscripts are significantly different at 5% (*)
Table 7: Correlation coefficient (r) between age in days (X1) and length of period of feeding of raw
soybean (X2) to response parameters (Y) during the finisher phase.
Response parameter
Age in days
Length of feeding
(Y)
(X1)
Raw soybeans (X2)
Daily feed intake (g)
0.87**
0.14ns
Daily weight gain (g)
0.72**
0.57*
Feed conversion ratio (g feed/ g gain)
-0.59*
-0.56*
** Significant correlation (P<0.01), * significant correlation (P<0.05), nsNon-significant correlation.
6.2
MUCUNA: LITTLE-KNOWN, HEAVY-LADEN BUT HAS GREAT POTENTIAL AS
INGREDIENT IN BROILER DIETS
22
In the west tropical flora, there are many little-known and under-utilized plants, especially legumes.
These legumes are potentially of high nutritive quality. However, the quality is compromised by their
high content of anti-nutritive factors. A thing worthy of note is that most of these anti-nutritional
factors are themselves proteins and they infest mostly the proteins as well as inhibit the activities of
specific enzymes that drive the metabolism of proteins (Ukachukwu et al., 1999; Balogun and Fetuga,
1989).
Mucuna is a big family that belongs to the little-known or neglected tropical legumes. Two prominent
members of this family have attracted our attention, and they are (1) Mucuna cochinchinensis and (2)
Mucuna sloanei.
Mucuna cochinchinensis is locally called “agbara-ocha” (Ibo). It has flowers and fruits with nonurticating hairs and is cultivated in parts of southern Nigeria by some rural populace to whom it is a resort
legume food, consumed in circumstances of famine or scarcity of other popular legumes; in most parts
however, it grows as wide crop and the seeds are not utilized ( Ukachukwu and Obioha, 1997; Okigbo,
1975; Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1954). It is a short-term legume crop, and has high agronomic potential
with a yield of about four tonnes of seed per hectare; and it resists most pests and diseases and some
strains of nematodes of legumes (Ene-Obong and Carnovale, 1992; Hashim and Idrus, 1977; Takahashi
and Ripperton, 1949).
Mucuna cochinchinensis also has high nutritional potential with a reported content of crude protein of
about 27% and total digestible nutrient (TDN) of about 80% in the seed (Oyenuga, 1968).
However, raw seeds of M. cochinchinensis have been reported to contain various natural components,
which are toxic and inhibit their utilization. These include trypsin-inhibitors, hemagglutinin, cyanide and
tannins. Others are dopamine, L-DOPA, antivitamins, serotonin and phytic acid (Liener, 1969).
6.2.1
Toxicity of raw M. cochinchinensis extracts
23
Ukachukwu et al. (1999) drenched 6 broilers of 21 days of age, averaging 500g body weight, phosphate
buffered saline extract of raw Mucuna. The birds were divided into six groups of six birds each and
drenched with 6 doses of the extract at 2000, 1500, 1000, 500, 250 and 0mg/kg body weight and observed
for 24hrs.
Soon after the administration of the extract, the birds became dizzy and the intensity of the dizziness was
more in birds that received higher doses. Birds that received the high doses (500-2000 mg/kg) also
produced diarrheic droppings whose intensity was also higher for the birds on the higher doses. The
dizziness suggests some kind of effect of the toxic elements in the extract on the central nervous system
(CNS) of the birds, and there are the dopamine, L-DOPA, antivitamins, serotonin and phytic acid
(Skerman et al., 1988). Dopamine and L-DOPA have direct influence on the CNS while antivitamins,
serotonin and phytic acid have indirect influence through their interference with energy transformation
and metabolism, thereby causing some neurological derangement. The inhibitory substances in the
extract, especially hemagglutinin and saponin may have caused the diarrhea.
6.2.2
Chemical evaluation of raw and processed M. cochinchinensis
In a series of studies, we established the chemical composition of raw M. cochinchinensis and compared
it with what happens when the seed is subjected to different processing methods (Ukachukwu and
Obioha, 1997a, 1997b, 2000, 2007; Ukachukwu et al., 1999, 2000; Udensi et al., 2001). Raw M.
cochinchinensis was found to be moderately high (on dry matter basis) in crude protein and gross energy
(Tables 8 and 9). It is low in calcium and phosphorus. It is also low in cyanide but high in hemagglutinin,
L-DOPA, trypsin-inhibitor and tannin (Ukachukwu and Szabo, 2003). Though the proximate composition
would suggest that M. cochinchinensis is a potential feedstuff, combined effects of these identified antinutritional factors could make the Mucuna bean unacceptable as feedstuff. This called for suitable locally
adaptable methods that could be employed in processing Mucuna to safe form.
Table 8: Proximate Composition, Mineral Constituent and anti-nutritional factors content of raw
seeds of Mucunacochinchinensis
24
Component
Composition,%
Entire
Seed
Cotyledon
Testa
Nutrient in testa as % of Nutrient in testa as %
seed wt
nutrient in seed
Crude protein
30.06
30.85
24.26
2.85
9.48
Ether extract
4.52
3.10
15.15
1.78
39.38
Crude fibre
9.04
4.16
45.70
5.37
59.40
Ash
4.52
4.49
4.77
0.56
12.39
Nitrogen-free extract
51.86
57.42
10.12
1.19
2.30
(a) Proximate Components (%of DM)
(b) Mineral Constituent
Calcium, mg/g
0.08
Phosphorus, mg/g
1.07
Magnesium, mg/g
0.15
Sodium, mg/100g
0.93
(c) Anti-nutritional factors
Cyanide (HCN), mg/kg
40.0
Hemagglutinin, Hu/g
4267
Trypsin inhibitor, mg/g
7.47
Tannin, mg/g
5.54
Hu=Hemagglutinating units; mg= miligramme; g= gramme; kg= kilogramme; kcal=kilocalorie; DM=Dry matter.
Table 9: Levels of anti-nutritional factors and proximate composition of Mucunameal made of raw
beans and from beans subjected to 90 minutes boiling in water, and boiling with addition of 4%
wood ash, trona or Ca(OH)2.
Compound
Raw
Water
Trona
Wood ash
Ca(OH)2
L-DOPA (%)
6.15
2.10
2.28
2.20
2.25
Trypsin inhibitor (TUI mg-1 sample)
31.82
20.32
20.98
23.93
26.22
Tannin (mg g-1)
16.98
13.00
15.30
15.10
15.50
Crude protein (%)
31.06
30.96
30.66
30.86
30.81
Crude fibre (%)
9.44
8.20
8.06
8.16
8.03
Ether extract (%)
4.53
4.50
4.49
4.50
4.49
Ash (%)
4.53
4.53
4.59
4.59
4.58
Nitrogen-free extract (%)
50.48
51.81
52.20
51.89
52.09
Gross energy (Kcal g-1)
4.61
4.56
4.55
4.54
4.56
TUI = Trypsin units inhibited.
25
Three thermal processing methods were investigated, viz: toasting, boiling and boiling with pre-soaking
(Ukachukwu and Obioha, 1997 and 2000; Ukachukwu et al., 1999). They had varying degrees of
effectiveness in reducing the anti-nutritional factor load of the seeds thereby improving their nutritive
value. Boiling proved most effective, followed by boiling and soaking while toasting (a dry heat
treatment) had the least effect (Table 10). When different time durations of subjecting the seeds to the
different processing methods was investigated, it was obvious that boiling for 90 minutes, toasting for 60
minutes and boiling 12 hour-soaked seeds for 60 minutes produced the highest level of detoxification in
their respective groups (Ukachuwu and Obioha, 2000) (Table 11).
The various processing methods also had effect on the bioavailable energy of their respective products
(Ukachukwu et al., 1999). The true metabolizable energy (TME) yields of the heat treatments were
similar (69.6 – 70.9%) while the raw seeds yielded only 22.83% (Table 12).
Flours of M. cochinchinensis and M. utilis subjected to toasting, boiling or boiling after fermenting were
assayed for their physiochemical properties. The results show that the beans flours could be used to
improve the nutritional and functional qualitie of most cereal and root/tuber food products (Table 13).
Table 10: Anti-nutritional factor content of raw and heat-treated M. cochinchinensis seeds
Thermal Processing Methods
Anti-nutritional factor
Raw
Toasted
Boiled
Soaked-and- boiled
SEM
Hydrogen cyanide (mg/kg)
40.00a
35.00b
30.00c
27.00c
1.384*
Hemagglutinin (Hu/g)
4267
4267
2133
2133
_
Trypsin-inhibitor (mg/g)
7.47a
4.92b
4.25d
4.60c
0.037*
Tannin(mg/g)
5.54a
4.37d
4.98c
5.30b
0.045*
mg: milligram; g: gram
kg: kilogram; Hu: Hemagglutinating unit
abcd
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantly different at P<0.05(*)
Table 11: Effect of various time durations of the different thermal treatments on the antinutritional factors of M. cochinchinensis
26
Treatments
Anti-nutritional Factors Raw
Boiling time (min.)
Toasting time (min.)
Boiling time (min.)
of 12 hour Pre-soaked seed
30
60
90
30
45
60
30
45
60
Trypsin inhibitor (%)
0
43.11
44.18
45.39
34.14
34.14
40.03
38.42
39.50
40.70
Tannin (%)
0
10.11
21.12
21.12
21.12
20.40
19.86
4.34
3.07
29.43
Haemagglutinin (%)
0
50.02
50.02
75.00
0.00
0.00
50.02
26.58
75.00
75.00
Cyanide (%)
0
25.00
37.50
47.50
12.50
12.50
17.50
32.50
42.50
50.00
Values represent percent reductions due to the various time durations of the different thermal treatments
Table 12: Effect of Processing Methods on the True Metabolizable Energy (TME) of Mucuna
cochinchinenssis (Kcal/g)
Treatments
GE
TME
TME as percentage of GE
Raw
4.60a
1.05b
22.83
Toasted
4.31c
3.00a
69.61
Soaked-and-boiled
4.53b
3.19a
70.42
Boiled
4.54b
3.22a
70.93
SEM
0.018*
0.13**
Means on the same column not followed by the same superscripts are statistically different from each other at ** (P<0.01). GE
= Gross energy; Kcal/g = Kilocalories per gramme; SEM = Standard error of means
Table 13: Functional properties of Mucuna dehulled flours of different varieties
Bulk Density
(g/cm3)
Water absorption Fat absorption
Capacity (g/g) Capacity (g/g)
Emulsifying
Capacity (%)
Foam
Capacity
(%)
Gelation
(%w/v)
RAMCF (Raw)
0.47c
1.6c
2.6a
3.9a
57a
5a
ROMCF (Roasted)
0.63a
1.8bc
2.0b
3.2c
22b
15b
BMCF (Boiled)
0.60b
2.8b
2.1b
2.4b
4.0d
15b
FBMCF (Fermented and Boiled)
0.58b
2.0b
2.0b
3.8c
8.0c
2.0c
RAMUF (Raw)
0.48a
1.8c
1.8a
35a
14.0a
15a
ROMUF (Roasted)
0.59a
2.0c
1.7a
6.0c
8.3b
20b
BMUF (Boiled)
0.52a
2.8c
2.0a
34a
10.0b
20b
FBMUF (Fermented and Boiled)
0.59a
3.5a
1.8a
11b
9.0b
20b
Varieties
Mucunacochinchinensis
MucunaUtilis
abc
Means with the same superscripts (in the different varieties) in the same column are significantly different (P≤0.05)
27
6.2.3
Effect on animal organs and products
The result of the toxicity study of M. cochinchinensis on broilers indicates that the raw seed extract is not
acutely toxic. This does not preclude the fact that prolonged feeding of the seeds would be chronically
toxic. The effect of prolonged feeding of raw Mucuna seed-based diet on organs and hematological
conditions of broilers were assessed. Significant effect (P<0.05) was observed only in liver (Table (Table
14), suggesting that liver is a target organ of the toxic factors contained in the bean. Liver is a primary
organ responsible for metabolism of any toxic elements that have been absorbed into blood circulation. If
complete detoxification of the toxic factor(s) takes place in this organ (liver), they could get to other
organs in less toxic or virulent form. Thus they would place so less a demand on the functionality of these
organs that their morphological integrity would not be interfered with. One of the toxic factors implicated
in M. cochinchinensis bean is hemagglutinin (Ukachukwu and Obioha, 1997). And liver is a target organ
of this toxic component (Ikegwuona and Bassir, 1976; Stead et al., 1966; Salgakar and Sohonie, 1965).
Inclusion of M. cochinchinensis even at 2g/kg caused significant reduction (P<0.05) of both red blood
cells (RBC) and packed cell volume (PCV) of blood (Table 15). Ologhobo et al. (1993) had implicated
hemagglutanin for such effect, hence we can conclude that hemagglutanin is a prime suspect. Diets
formulated with M. cochinchinensis subjected to different heat processing methods were fed to broilers
and their effects on organs and broiler products observed (Ukachukwu et al., 2003). No significant
(P>0.05) differences were observed in all the organs examined except the liver where the raw M.
cochinchinensis-based diet caused depression in weight of the organ ((Table 16). Significant (P<0.05)
improvement of RBC and PCV and non-significant improvement of Hb were also observed.
Table 14: Effect of prolonged feeding of Mucuna cochinchinensis on the carcass characteristics of
broiler chicks
TREATMENT
Organ#
0%
0.20%
0.40%
0.80%
1.60%
SEM
Dressed, %
54.88 (66.85)
55.49 (67.85)
54.67 (66.52)
55.25 (67.52)
56.99 (70.29)
1.29ns
Kidney, %
5.09 (1.10)
4.73 (0.70)
4.71 (0.70)
4.59 (0.60)
4.79 (0.70)
0.24ns
Spleen, %
2.40 (0.18)
3.39 (0.41)
2.72 (0.23)
2.07 (0.13)
2.12 (0.14)
0.48ns
28
Liver, %
8.52 (2.18)
8.39 (2.12)
8.10 (2.00)
7.33 (1.73)
7.54 (1.63)
0.37ns
Pancreas, %
2.96 (0.27)
2.87 (0.25)
2.94 (0.27)
2.45 (0.18)
2.43 (0.18)
0.19ns
Heart, %
3.62 (0.40)
3.90 (0.46)
3.78 (0.44)
3.96 (0.48)
4.01 (0.49)
0.20ns
Lungs, %
4.13 (0.52)
4.23 (0.55)
4.90 (0.76)
4.64 (0.67)
3.94 (0.48)
0.22ns
Means on the same row followed by the same superscript are significantly the same at * (P<0.05) or ** (P<0.01)
#
All expressed as percentage of live weight of chicks
Note: Figures in parentheses are the untransformed or original figures while the ones outside the parentheses are the
transformed figures using Arc Sine Transformation method
Table 15: Chronic toxicity effect of raw Mucuna cochinchinensis on the haematological conditions
of broiler
Parameter
0%
0.20%
0.40%
0.80%
1.60%
SEM
PVC, %
39.43 (40a)
36.67 (36b)
35.46 (34bc)
35.06 (33bc)
33.41 (30c)
0.52**
Hb, g/100ml
12.60
11.83
11.40
11.20
10.40
0.42ns
RBC(x103)
296a
227b
219b
217b
152c
7.67**
Means on the same row followed by the same superscript are significantly the same at * (P<0.05) or ** (P<0.01)
Note: Figures in parentheses are the untransformed or original figures while the ones outside the parentheses are the
transformed figures using the Arc Sine Transformation method.
Table 16: Effect of Toasting, Boiling and Soaking-and boiling of Mucuna cochinchinensis on the
carcass characteristics and haematological conditions of finisher broilers
Treatment
RMD
TMD
CMD
SMD
NMD
SME
Dressed wt, %
54.94 (66.96)
55.18 (67.42)
55.73 (68.31)
55.61 (68.08)
55.61 (68.08)
0.44ns
Kidney, %
5.41 (0.89)
5.35 (0.87)
5.29 (0.85)
5.32 (0.86)
5.29 (0.85)
0.13ns
Spleen, %
2.69 (0.22)
2.63 (0.21)
2.56 (0.20)
2.56 (0.20)
2.50 (0.19)
0.12ns
Liver, %
8.60 (2.24c)
9.33 (2.63b)
9.66 (2.82a)
9.64 (2.81a)
9.68 (2.83a)
0.06*
Pancreas, %
3.29 (0.33)
3.19 (0.31)
3.03 (0.28)
3.03 (0.28)
2.98 (0.27)
0.10ns
Heart, %
4.40 (0.59)
4.40 (0.59)
4.29 (0.56)
4.29 (0.56)
4.29 (0.56)
0.04ns
Lungs, %
4.83 (0.71)
4.80 (0.70)
4.69 (0.67)
4.69 (0.67)
4.69 (0.67)
0.09ns
PCV, %
34.10 (31.44)
36..51 (35.40)
38.28 (38.38)
38.14 (38.13)
39.12 (39.83)
0.49ns
Hb, g/100ml
9.81c
11.09b
12.83a
12.83a
12.94a
0.21*
RBC (x103)
169c
287b
293a
294a
297a
6.33*
Means on the same row not followed by the same superscript are significantly different from each other at * (P<0.05) or **
(P<0.01); ns = Not significant.
RMD, TMD, CMD, SMD and NMD represent raw, toasted, boiled, soaked-and-boiled and Mucuna-free (control) diets
Note: Figures in parentheses are the untransformed or original figures while the ones outside the parentheses are the
transformed figures using the Arc Sine Transformation method.
29
Histopathological changes were observed consistently in liver sections of the broilers fed diets containing
the Mucuna beans. Liver sections of the broilers fed diet containing no Mucuna beans were devoid of
histopathological changes (Plate 1). Liver sections of broilers fed diets containing soaked-and-boiled
Mucuna beans had mild infiltration of mononuclear cells into the perivascular and periductular spaces in
the portal areas (Plate 3). These same changes were observed in the liver sections of broilers that were fed
boiled Mucuna-based diet, though the condition was milder. Feeding of toasted Mucuna-based diet to
broilers caused distortion of the lobular architecture of the liver, vacuolation and necrosis of hepatocytes
in the periportal areas (Plate 4). Diets containing raw Mucuna caused wide area of periportal necrosis
with some mononuclear cells infiltration, while the centrilobular areas showed vacuolation and
degeneration of hepatocyte (Plate 2).
Plate 2: Liver section of broiler fed diet containing raw
Mucuna (RMD). Note wild area of periportal hepatocytes
necrosis (right) and centrilobular zone of hepatocytes
degeneration (left). (H and E stain, x320)
Plate 1: Liver section of broiler fed diet containing no Mucuna
(NMD). Note normal lobular architecture, hepatocytes and
sinusoids. (H and E stain, x320.)
Plate 3: Liver section of broiler fed
diet containing soaked-and-boiled
Muc[Type a quote from the
document or the summary of an
30
6.2.4
Processing with additives; supplementation and optimum inclusion level
Processing methods involving trona, calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] and wood ash additives were
employed for processing Mucuna beans for broiler diets. Of the three additives used in processing
Mucuna as feed ingredient, wood ash additive was more effective in reducing the content of antinutritional factors in Mucuna than trona and Ca(OH)2 additives. Also, wood ash-treated Mucuna-based
diet allowed better performance of broilers than trona or Ca(OH)2 treated Mucuna-based diets.
Supplementation of wood ash-processed Mucuna-based feeds with vitamin B6 depressed broiler
performance at the beginning but later, there was no clear trend. Based on weight gain, feed conversion
ratio and protein efficiency ratio, inclusion of wood ash-processed Mucuna could go as high as 30% with
or without vitamin B6 supplementation. However, supplementation with vitamin B6 proved to be either
detrimental or have no clear impact in this study.
In another study by Ukachukwu et al. (2007), supplemetaion with graded levels of methionine improved
the utilization of protein of 10% boiled M. cochinchinensis-based broiler starter diets. Also, equal
utilization values of the experimental diets imply that there is no economic advantage in using higher
methionine supplementation levels. Therefore, a 0.25% methionine supplementation level in 10% boiled
M. cochinchinensis-based diet is recommended (Table 17).
In another study by Ukachukwu (2007), optimum inclusion level of boiled M. cochinchinensis and its
replacement value for soyabean meal in broiler diets were assessed. Replacement of soyabean protein by
boiled M. cochinchinensis at 19% and 38% for starter and finisher phases, respectively, is recommended.
This translates to 9.36% and 14.4% inclusion levels of boiled M. cochinchinensis in starter and finisher
broiler diets, respectively (Table 18). Another revelation here is that the inclusion level had a cost sparing
effect such that the highest inclusion level resulted in production of the cheapest diet and lowest cost per
unit of weight gain.
31
Other studies involving Mucuna sloanei (Ukpo) revealed that starter broilers can tolerate up to 7.29%
inclusion of the raw bean (Ekwe et al., 2013a). Also, soaking-and-boiling was adjudged the best
processing method for efficient utilization of the bean (Ekwe et al., 2013b).
Table 17: Performance of starter broiler chicks (0-5 weeks of age) fed boiled Mucuna
cochinchinensis-based diet at graded levels of methionine supplementation
Parameter
Methionine supplementation level
0%
0.25%
0.50%
0.75%
45
45
45
45
Final liveweight (g)
592d
951b
888c
985a
9.96*
Daily weight gain (g)
15.8c
25.9b
24.1c
26.8a
0.29*
Daily feed intake (g)
48.8c
54.5b
56.0b
61.4a
0.69*
Feed conversion ratio
3.1a
2.1c
2.3b
2.3b
0.02*
Protein efficiency ratio
1.6c
2.3a
2.1b
2.1b
0.01*
Initial weight (g)
s.e.m.
Means in the same row followed by the different letters are statistically different at P<0.05, * P<0.05.
Table 18: Overall effect of dietary inclusion levels of boiled Mucuna cochinchinensis on
performance of broilers at both starter and finisher phases (M. Cochinchinensis was included to replace
soyabean protein at five levels: L1, 0%; L2, 19.04%; L3, 38.06%; L4, 57.25%; L5, 76.27%)
Parameter
Treatment diet
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
s.e.m.
Initial weight (g)
97a
98a
100a
98a
100a
0.36
Final liveweight (g)
2150a
2145a
2134a
2118b
2111b
3.02
Weight gain (g/day)
36.7a
36.6a
36.3a
36.1b
35.9b
0.19
Feed intake (g/day)
86.8a
86.8a
87.5a
87.9a
87.8a
0.91
Feed conversion ratio
2.4a
2.4a
2.5a
2.5a
2.5a
0.02
Protein efficiency ratio
2.0a
2.0a
2.0a
1.9a
1.9a
0.02
Cost/kg feed (N)C
26.1a
25.3a
24.4a
23.6a
23.7a
Cost/kg weight gain (N)C
63.5a
61.7b
60.1bc
58.5c
56.4c
0.60
Means within each row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P<0.05.. CThe exchange rate of Nigerian
Naira (N) to the dollar (US$) was N120 to $1 at the time of submission.
6.2.5
Mucuna forage and seeds for rabbits
We also compared the performance of growing rabbits fed Mucuna or Centrosema forages as green feeds,
and concluded that Mucuna forage is a better green feed for rabbits than Centrosema leaves (Ojewola et
al., 1999) in terms of the growth performance and digestibility of nutrients (Tables 19 and 20).
32
Ukachukwu and Osuagwu (2006) included raw M. cochinchinensis seed meal in the diets of growing
rabbits and up to 10% inclusion level could not result to significant depression of apparent digestibility of
nutrients, total digestible nutrients and apparent metabolizable energy (Tables 21 and 22).
Table 19: Performance of growing rabbits fed Mucuna cochinchinensis and Centrosema pubescens
as green feeds
Parameter
FD
Average forage intake, g
FDM
FDC
SEM
16.76a
13.97b
0.33
Concentrate diet intake alone, g/day
47.40
47.87
44.55
1.26
Concentrate diet + forage intake, g/day
47.40b
64.63a
58.52a
0.06
Initial body weight, g
1017.00
850.00
1025.00b
Final body weight, g
1608.30c
1866.70a
1675.00b
0.69
Weight gain, g/day
14.08c
24.21a
15.48b
0.26
Feed conversion ratio
3.36b
2.67c
3.79a
0.08
FD = Formulated diet; FDM = Formulated diet + Mucuna; FDC = Formulated diet + Centrosema; SEM = standard error of
means; abc, Means on the same row having different superscripts are statistically different (P<0.05)
Table 20: Effect Mucuna and Centrosema forages on the apparent digestibility of nutrients
Dietary treatments
Parameters (%)
FD
FDM
FDC
SEM
Dry matter
51.04b
67.61a
58.93ab
4.44
Crude protein
50.85b
73.18a
67.97a
3.39
Crude fibre
52.02b
65.41a
56.62ab
3.37
Ether extract
40.88c
83.28a
63.30b
3.69
Nitrogen-free extract
51.89
61.32
56.09
6.79
FD = Formulated diet; FDM = Formulated diet + Mucuna; FDC = Formulated diet + Centrosema
abc
, Means on the same row having different superscripts are statistically different (P<0.05)
Table 21: Apparent digestibility coefficient (%) of diets containing graded levels of M.
cochinchinensis by growing rabbits
Constituents (%)
A
B
C
D
E
SEM
Dry matter
91.59a
90.02ab
89.19ab
87.17bc
84.23c
1.36
Crude protein
93.98a
92.91a
90.76ab
89.49bc
86.68c
1.05
Crude fibre
92.59
92.51
88.09
87.19
85.07
1.31
Ether extract
94.54a
92.25b
92.07b
91.94b
87.54c
0.57
Nitrogen free extract
93.37
92.54
91.54
90.71
89.70
1.08
33
Energy
92.70
90.07
88.73
88.00
87.15
1.33
Digestible energy (Kcal/g)
4.26
4.17
4.11
4.08
4.09
0.08
abc
Mean on the same row with different superscript are significantly different (P<0.05)
SEM = standard error of mean
Table 22: Energy Metabolism and TDN of Rabbits Fed M. cochinchinensis-based Diets
Treatment
DE
TDN
AME (Kcal/g)
A
4.26
88.98a
2.68a
B
4.17
87.93ab
2.61a
C
4.11
86.45ab
2.58a
D
4.08
84.57b
2.45b
E
4.09
74.87c
2.46b
SEM
0.08
1.04
0.05
abc
Mean on the same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05)
SEM = standard error of mean
6.3
OTHER OIL SEED PROTEIN INGREDIENTS IN POULTRY NUTRITION
6.3.1
Cottonseed meal
The greatest problem of the use of cottonseed meal lies in its content of gossypol, a toxic phenolic
compound that inhibits the enzymes pepsin and trypsin, thus interfering with protein digestion (Tacon,
1997; Rhee, 1993), and consequently depresses growth performance of livestock. For the purpose of
chelating the cottonseed gossypol, screw pressed cottonseed meal was treated with iron (II)
tetraoxosulphate (IV) and used for graded level replacement of soyabean. One hundred percent (100%)
substitution of soyabean, translating to 29% inclusion of iron-treated cottonseed meal in broiler diet,
resulted in similar final body weight of the birds and gave higher marginal revenue from the broiler
production (Ojewola et al., 2006).
6.3.2
Castor oil bean
Major limitation to effective use of castor oil bean in animal production is its content of anti-nutritional
factors and toxins. The principal toxin is ricin. Others include lectins, Ricinus communis agglutinin,
hydrogen cyanide and oxalates, ricinine and castor allergen.
34
An emerging situation in Cross River State led to production of castor oil bean for its oil. Safety of
dietary utilization of residue after oil extraction became a challenge to be investigated. Ukachukwu et al.
(2011) administered extracts of defatted raw castor oil bean to broilers and observed that the single lethal
dose of the defatted raw bean in g/kg after 48 hours of oral administration fell to 4g/kg from reported
figure of 14g/kg. This means that defatting increases the toxicity of castor oil residue. This is possible
because of the absence of the attenuating effect of the oil. Also, the extraction of the oil leads to
concentration of its constituent toxins and anti-nutritional factors, which synergize to bring about quicker
and greater toxic effects.
Castor seed meal (CSM) was thereafter subjected to three thermal processing methods, viz: toasting for
30 minutes (CSMT), boiling for 40 minutes (CSMB), and boiling for 30 minutes followed by soaking for
48 hours (CSMS). The three methods drastically reduced ricin level (which is the principal toxin) but
toasting was not as effective as boiling and boiling-and-soaking (Nsa and Ukachukwu, 2009). This
reflected in the growth performance of broilers when the products were formulated into their diets (Nsa et
al., 2010).
Also the three products were formulated into pullet diets in replacement of soyabean meal by Nsa et al.
(2013). It was observed that CSMB and CSMS can totally replace soyabean meal without any detrimental
effect on egg production, external and internal egg qualities. However, soaking after boiling did not add
any advantage to boiling alone in any of the above parameters. Complete replacement of soyabean meal
with boiled CSM in laying diet as feed ingredient would result in substantial cost saving.
6.3.3
Baobab seeds
Major anti-nutritional factors in Baobab seeds are hydrogen cyanide, tannin, oxalate, alkaloids and
phytates. However, it has fairly good chemical composition and can serve as an alternative protein
ingredient in livestock feed (Ukachukwu et al., 2011). When the raw seeds were included in broiler diets,
the birds could tolerate the raw seeds up to inclusion level of 10%. Boiling as a processing method
significantly reduced the anti-nutritional factors by good percentage of 65% (tannin), 33.87% (oxalate),
35
46% (hydrocyanic acid), 64.57% (phytic acid) and 37.91% (trypsin-inhibitors). This reflected in the
performance of the birds when the processed meal was formulated into their diets.
6.4
COMPOSITE CASSAVA MEAL AND OTHER TUBERS AS INGREDIENTS IN
LIVESTOCK FEEDS
Cassava is ranked the sixth most important crop in the World in terms of area planted and level of
production. Nigeria is one of the World’s largest producers of cassava. Cassava therefore, is the best
possibility for overcoming the chronic scarcity of feed in the livestock industry. However, use of cassavabased products in monogastric animal feeding is limited because of the many problems that bedevil
36
cassava products. These include poor texture, microbial contamination, low protein level, dustiness and
their content of cyanogenic glucoside (HCN), thereby depressing performance and causing crop
impaction and irritation of respiratory tract.
To get round these problems, we developed a product - composite cassava meal and evolved a rapid
processing method to shorten the long period usually involved in the traditional methods of processing
cassava (Okereke et al., 2012). Whole cassava roots were flaked to increase surface area to hasten
dewatering/fermentation process and aid fast drying. The flakes were subjected to varying
pressing/fermentation periods and dried for three days thereafter. 24 hours press duration gave HCN level
that is below toxic level. The reduction was 83.79% compared to the product not subjected to any
pressing.
Another problem that arises from utilization of cassava lies with management of the resulting wastes and
by-products. Cassava peels, leaves, and discarded stems (very old and tender parts) are thrown away and
they constitute environmental hazards/pollution. Only very few are utilized as feed materials for ruminant
animals. A novel cassava product - composite cassava meal (CCM) was developed to circumvent the
identified problems.
The composite cassava meal (CCM), made up of whole tuber, leaves and discarded stems, was assayed
for its proximate composition and true metabolizable energy (TME), as well as assessment of its
utilization by broilers, laying birds and rabbits (Ukachukwu, 2005; Ukachukwu, 2008; Okereke et al.,
2008; Ukachukwu et al., 2011).
CCM contained average of 10.40% crude protein, 23% crude fiber, and 2.20 Kcal/g TME. 60%
replacement of maize with CCM in broiler diet did not depress broiler performance. Supplementation
with palm oil and/or methionine further improved performance. Inclusion of 20% CCM in layers diet did
not depress average total egg/bird, feed conversion/dozen egg and average hen day production, while
higher inclusion levels encouraged smaller yolk size. The small yolk size is welcome since egg yolk
cholesterol is one of the most concentrated sources of dietary cholesterol. Such eggs with small-sized
37
yolk may be more desirable for people prone to arteriosclerosis or cardiac problems than eggs with
large yolks. 30% partial replacement of maize and wheat offal with CCM in weaned rabbit diets did not
depress performance. Composite cassava meal therefore, was adjudged a potential feedstuff for
monogastric animals.
We also assessed the nutritive value of Hausa potato (Solenostemon rotundifolium) meal using rabbits
(Okereke et al., 2012). It was discovered that inclusion of up to 30% of the meal in replacement for maize
did not have any deleterious effects on the growth performance of rabbits; instead there was increase in
growth of the rabbits.
1.
SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF POISONS IN THE SYSTEM AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
6.5.1
Agricultural Wastes and By-products
Some Animal Agriculture activities contribute to pollution of the environment and even the internal
system of the animal or humans. Most of the wastes and by-products of agriculture, including animal
farms, are carelessly thrown away and they constitute environmental hazards/pollution. Examples include
poultry waste, cassava peels, rice husks, wheat offal and palm kernel meal. In their natural forms, only
very little of them are made use of as feeds and manure. Others, not properly disposed, constitute
environmental hazards and pollution. However, transformation of these by-products into a friendly
material will mean adding value to otherwise waste, and saving the environment from pollution. Also, a
rational use of these by-products to formulate diets that meet nutrient specifications of farm animal
species will lead to efficient egg, meat and milk production expected to result in considerable reduction in
the current high price of livestock feed.
In consideration of the above, we fed wheat offal, rice husk and palm kernel meal to turkey poults
(Ojewola et al., 2000, Ukachukwu et al., 2003). The results showed that palm kernel meal and wheat offal
38
could be included at 20% level in the diets of turkey poults without depressive effects on their
performance. They also had cost-sparing effect on the production. Rice husk also had depressive effects
on the performance parameters.
We also tried upgrading cowpea haulm as feedstuff using pleurotus species (mushroom) for its
biodegradation (Nwokennaya et al. in press). The high lignin and fibre contents of cowpea haulm were
significantly reduced by the mushroom action, thereby improving their nutritive value for livestock
feeding.
We also assessed the utilization of brewers dried grain by pigs and concluded that the optimum inclusion
of BDG (in pig diet) that will produce no adverse effect on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention is
35% (Amaefule et al., 2003). Nutrient digestibility and N retention are strong indicators of protein and
energy utilization.
Another work was done on the influence of poultry waste-cassava peel based diets on milk yield and
composition of White Fulani cows. The conclusion is that cassava peel and poultry waste would be
effectively harnessed to provide cheap and sustainable supplement for grazing cows and other ruminants
on range in Nigeria (Ndubueze et al., 2006).
1.
Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emission
Modern animal feeding operations and management systems encourage greenhouse/toxic gases (gtg)
emissions, and hence environmental pollution. In broiler pens, gtg typified by pungent odour pose health
risks to workers and reduce animal performance. We incorporated Thais coronata, a sea food waste that
could itself constitute environmental hazard but has high adsorption property, in broiler diets to determine
its odour-reducing effect in poultry house (Ukachukwu et al., 2013). Non-activated Thais coronata at
0.05% dietary inclusion level had the highest odour reduction effect. Therefore, Thais coronata waste can
be considered as environmentally friendly feed additive for odour reduction in broiler farms.
39
Brooding and rearing of poultry birds and some livestock like pigs and rabbits involve use of fossil fuel.
The application of fossil fuel based systems such as kerosene poses problems and constitutes severe
health hazards to both attendants and chicken/livestock as a result of toxic gas emission. This contributes
highly to the loss of huge capital and high mortality rate experienced in poultry production. To get round
this problem, we compared the effect of kerosene and passive solar brooding systems on the performance
of broiler chickens (Okonkwo and Ukachukwu, 2004).
Birds under the passive solar energy brooding system performed better in terms of body weight, growth
rate and feed conversion ratio than birds in the kerosene brooding system. Kerosene-fired heaters emit
greenhouse gases, which are environmentally unacceptable, as well as gases that could cause respiratory
problems to the chicks (Oladipo, 1999, Iloeje, 2000, Obioha, 2000). Production of these gases, perhaps
was a source of discomfort and could not make for a conducive environment to encourage optimum
performance of the chicks. Passive solar energy brooding technology does not appear to be associated
with the production of any of the gases that have intrinsically hazardous effects on the birds or on the
environment (Okonkwo et al., 1992, Iloeje, 2000, Obioha 2000).
6.5.3
Mitigating Oxidative Damage
There is need to protect edible fats and oils from oxidation, which is a major factor for their quality
deterioration. Also, there is need to protect the body cells of consumers from oxidative damage by
mopping up and bonding free radicals with anti-oxidant. Monodora myristica (Ehuru, Ibo) has been
reported to have anti-oxidative property among other properties (Nakatani, 2000, Krause and Termes,
2000). We investigated the anti-oxidative properties and nutritive potential (Ukachukwu et al. 2012) of
40
the seed of Monodora. The result shows that the seed is high in fat, and oil is a very strong solvent for
important vitamins like vitamins A and E, which confers on the seed the potentials of having antioxidant
activities.
Using the oil extract of Monodora at various levels, we monitored the development of rancidity in
soyabean for 28 days (Ukachukwu et al., 2012). Deterioration due to oxidation started in all the
treatments. However, the oxidation did not reach actual rancidity level in any of the treatments until the
21st day. In the 8000 ppm treatment, rancidity was never reached even up till the 28th day. The rate of
increase of the peroxide value decreased as the concentration of Monodora myristica seed extract
increased at week one, two and on the average basis. The implication of the observed rate is that
increasing the seed extracts in a medium increases retardation of oxidation or rancidity in that medium.
This means that higher concentrations of Monodora myristica seed extract have greater ability to check or
retard rancidity of oil.
It was observed that chelating and scavenging activity as well as the reducing power of the Monodora
myristica extract increased as the concentration level increased. The scavenging, reducing and chelating
effects are the three factors that predict anti-oxidative activities.
The reduction activity implies that the test seed extract acts as an electron donor and can react with free
radicals, converting them to more stable state. The scavenging and chelating effects of the test seed
extract imply that the extract can protect the body cells of consumers from oxidative damage by mopping
up and bonding with free radicals.
It is then recommended that the use of Monodora myristica as feed additive should be encouraged since it
can protect oil rich feed from early rancidity and protect the body cells against oxidative damage.
7.0
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
41
1.
Nigeria’s population is rapidly increasing and this makes the demand for livestock products to
also rapidly increase.
2.
The increase in demand for livestock products imposes a huge demand on feed resources and calls
for sustainability of feed production systems.
3.
Feed with feeding constitutes the highest single cost input of 70 – 80% and 45 – 64% in
production of poultry, pig and other livestock, respectively.
4.
Availability of feeds and sustainability of feed production systems are challenged by scarcity and
competition for available feedstuffs by man, industry and animals.
5.
Necessity is now placed on the Animal Nutritionist to make frantic search for alternative feed
resources; and such feed resources must be of high quality and free from competition by man and
the industry.
6.
Tremendous successes have been made in this regard. Many neglected and under-utilized tropical
legumes have been investigated and methods of processing them into safe and edible forms
confirmed.
7.
However, most of the research results are yet to be transformed into physical products that can be
utilized by animal farmers and feed millers. Most of the results are in the researchers’ drawers and
laptops, while others are, at best, on the pages of journals.
8.
Governments, manufacturers and our millionaire entrepreneurs and industrialists are being looked
upon to take up the challenge of transforming these research results and prototypes into concrete
products that are consumable by animal farmers and feed millers.
9.
This will contribute to making animal products more available and affordable to meet the
increasing demand for livestock products by the increasing population.
42
10.
Affordable livestock products are needed in the diets of man for his healthy living, and, healthy
workforce is a sine qua non to national development.
8.0
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am deeply indebted to my late father, Mr. Frank Nnadi Ukachukwu and my mother, Mrs. Mercy
Chinenye Ukachukwu, who made all efforts at seeing me become educated in life. My eldest brother –
Elder Emeka Ukachukwu took up the challenge of training me when my parents got to their wits end. My
elder brother – Mr. Joseph Ugochukwu Ukachukwu (JUGOO-RANSON) came into the scene to see me
through my M.Sc. programme at a time I needed it direly. My younger sister, Mrs. Chinyere N Ekeorji is
presently taking care of my aged and sick mother and this has given me the much desired respite for
concentration on my career. The entire Ukachukwu family and my maternal family (the Nkah family),
especially Mr. Okwudiri Nkah, are fondly remembered for their cheers and warmth as I moved on the
academic ladder.
Uncle Nduchekwa Mgbeokwere and Deacon Kelechukwu Nick Madu were the only ones who
congratulated me on gaining admission and encouraged me to push on in my chosen career when every
other person jeered at me for electing to study Animal Science.
Mr Ambrose C. Anyanwu, one of the three Anyanwu’s who authored an Agricultural Text Book for
secondary school, was my mentor in this chosen profession of Animal Science. He made me feel proud
and to see a bright future in this profession.
My Supervisors at the University, Prof. F.O.I. Anugwa (for B.Agric. & M.Sc.) and Prof. F.C. Obioha (for
PhD), both of blessed memory, were professors per excellence and true fathers who steered up faith in me
and gave me direction in my career pursuit. Prof. G.C. Okeke is a motivator, a mentor/role model from a
distance. He has been a source of great inspiration to me.
As a pioneer academic staff in MOUAU, I have worked under four Vice-Chancellors and I have
benefitted from all of them.
I salute all of them, especially Prof. O.C. Onwudike who made me
43
understand that there is great gain in serving with dedication and sincerity. He is a great technocrat and
an accomplished academic.
My colleagues in the College have been great friends. The healthy competition among us has been the
source of motivation to all of us. No wonder there has been rapid growth in our career - all of us who
started together as Assistant Lecturers are now Professors.
Life was hard and the future appeared bleak for many of the first crop of lecturers that came to Umudike.
We became bonded together in suffering but shared hope in love. By so doing, we encouraged one
another and forged on to the great future that lay ahead of us, which is this present time. Worthy of
mention here are Professors J. A. Mbanasor (a hope-builder), G. I. Onwuka (an encourager), K.U.
Amaefule (a friend in need who is a friend indeed). Others are Drs. E. N. Nwachukwu (a good adviser),
S. C. Akomas (a sister and friend indeed), Prof. Gbolagunte Sunday Ojewola, and a host of others.
My Christian brethren are worthy of recognition. I have an array of them in the Chapel of Revelation,
typified by Dr. and Pastor (Mrs.) J. G. Ikeorgu, Prof. S. O. Emosairue, Dr. & Dr. Mrs. K. C. Ekwe, Prof
& Dr. Mrs. Ike M. Nwachukwu, Mr. & Mrs. Uzoije Nwandikor, Mr. & Mrs. C. C. Nwaokoro and many
others. My brethren of the Scripture Union extraction are also worthy of recognition - at Ikwuano Zone
led by Okezie Amaefule, at Umuahia Area led by Elder Okorie Kalu Oke, and at Okigwe Region led by
Engr. Dr. B. C. Okoro and Pastor John Nwaoha. Our able and amiable National Secretary – Prof. M. O.
Iwe has been a source of great inspiration. My SUCF Regional Committee members in the persons of
Prof. Mrs. J. Ogwo (the ex-chairman and my predecessor), Dr. P. Onoh, Dr. Mrs. C.A. Ekemezie, Dr.
Kingsley Obi, Sister Enyichi Nkasi and Rev. Tony Okoronkwo and the student leaders are also
acknowledged. My Church leaders of the Methodist extraction are also recognized.
Rev. Ndeke Dimanochie and Engr. & Mrs. Rich Onyeaso are true uncles and great fathers to my family.
My community leaders and colleagues here present are acknowledged. I have a plethora of graduates who
are evidence of my academic investments in human capital at PGD, B.Agric., M.Sc. and Ph.D. levels.
They should please stand up to be acknowledged.
44
Vice Chancellor Sir, kindly, permit me to acknowledge the woman of the golden voice, a woman with
impeccable English language and perfect diction – Prof. Mrs. N. Oke. Madam, “Jidekwa Nke I ji”.
I have a wonderful woman for a mother-in-law – Mrs. Chinyere N. Mgbenkemdi. Her home with her
children (my brothers- and sisters-in-law) has been a haven and a hideout in times of turbulence. My coin-laws – Mr. Sunday Nzeh, Engr. Emma Okoli and Engr. Obinna Onyekere are trustworthy, dependable
and indeed, “nwanne-di-na-mbas”. I salute all of you.
Our wonderful God took out time to create a woman of great virtue and perfect form, a chocolate beauty
and allowed her to happen on earth for me to find and cleave unto in order to find favour before God. She
is a great critic, a director, a motivator and a true support – Mrs. Obioma Grace Ukachukwu. We have
the blessings of God that make rich and add no sorrow with them as the fruit of our loins – Precious
Mmezunkwa Esther (a 4th year EE student at FUTO), Chukwuebuka Beston Ndubueze,( my CBN, a 100L
ME student at MOUAU), Joshua Chizurumoke Ndubueze, (an SS1 student of Caray College), and
Onyinyechi Pearl (the baby of the house, a primary 2 pupil at We Care Schools), and last but not the
least, my first son (an adopted son) – Mr. Izuchukwu.
Vice Chancellor Sir, ladies and gentlemen, my very essence of living derives from one source - God. He
made me what I am today. May we please give him a standing ovation as we shout Halleluiah three times
to Him: Praise the Lord! … Halleluiah! (thrice).
9.0
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