1. No category

http://www.diva-portal.org
Preprint
This is the submitted version of a paper presented at 1st Annual Eastern Africa Business and Economic
Watch Conference, Finance and Management Research in Eastern Africa Kigali, Rwanda. 5-7 May 2015.
Citation for the original published paper:
Nshimiyimana, S., Berndt, A. (2015)
Student Satisfaction: the Case of Rwandan Higher Learning Institutions.
In:
N.B. When citing this work, cite the original published paper.
Permanent link to this version:
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-26493
Student Satisfaction: the Case of Rwandan Higher Learning Institutions1
Salomon Nshimiyimana
University of Rwanda-College of Business and Economics, Kigali-Rwanda
Prof. Adele Berndt
Jönköping University-Jönköping International Business School, Sweden
Abstract
This paper reports on an empirical study that was conducted in order to explore the nature of
student satisfaction with regards to services they are offered at different Rwandan HLIs and its
impact on the retention of the existing and recruitment of new students. Although student
satisfaction was measured using different variables, indeed; much emphasis was on both nonacademic (administrative) and academic dimensions. A survey among 8 selected institutions was
conducted and out of 240 distributed questionnaires using Likert scales 201 were returned and
used representing 83.75 of the response rate. The findings show that students in HLIs are neither
satisfied nor dissatisfied with services they are offered, they were neutral. Consequently, as the
approach of embracing and introducing a profit making motive in higher education is increasing,
the managements of HLIs need to frame strategies to increase satisfaction among consumers
(students) of their services and also understand that the later are the most important people and
reason for their institutions to exist. In this regard, HLIs have to ensure that all services offered to
students are of the high quality. However, due to the fact that this research was conducted on
handful samples of students from only 8 HLIs, its findings do not have to be generalised to a
broader population. Having said this however, the study has undoubtedly opened up a new area of
research that could induce research desire among many other scholars interested in this topic.
Key words
Student satisfaction, perceptions and expectations, HLI, service delivery, factors affecting student
satisfaction
1
Abbreviated as HLI (singular) and HLIs (plural) throughout this paper
1
1. Introduction
The number of students enrolling in Rwandan Higher Learning Institutions has increased during
the last two decades (Kebongo, 2011). This has seen a commensurate increase in the number of
universities. While since early in 1960 until the 1994 genocide, there were two universities (one
public- National University of Rwanda and the other one private (the Adventists University of
Central Africa) (Mugisha, 2012) in 2013, there were already 45 HLIs and universities including
9 universities, 14 institutes, 5 schools, 11 polytechnics and 6 colleges with a total population of
84,448 students (Higher Education Council, 2014)
The above increase in a number of higher learning institutions and mainly private ones is attributed
to many factors including the healthy competitive environment for education in Rwanda, the
introduction of the profit motive in higher education and perception that higher education is a
business service like other business (Ntagungira, 2013).
Despite the increase in HLIs the issue of satisfaction among students and their frustrations over
the services offered to them is a challenge. The fact that students are regarded as consumers
necessitates HLIs to deliver quality services that meet student needs and expectations (Finney &
Finney, 2010). However, the perception is that Rwandan HLIs do not do this. The evidence of this
is seen in declining quality standards, fiscal challenges, overcrowded lecture rooms, poor faculty
morale, outdated curricula and high levels of unemployment among graduates (Kimanuka, 2015).
Research examines relationships when it comes to the effect that satisfaction has on the retention
of existing customer and recruitment of new customer and that customer satisfaction is a key factor
in formation of customer’s desires for future purchase (Mittal & Kamakura, 2001). More
particularly, the increasingly held view among many scholars that students are service consumers
and universities as service providers necessitates the later to be more responsive to the former
(Watson, 2003). In this regard, it is argued that students who are charged tuition fees have a
different approach: they behave more like consumers and therefore expect better services.
Consequently, researchers maintain that this increasing view among many students as service
consumers of higher education services must also serve as the first reason for HLIs to place their
satisfaction at the centre of their business (Thomas & Galambos, 2004)
2
If HLIs are to reach their goals and remain competitive there is a need to place the student
satisfaction at the centre of their business through the provision of quality service. Student
satisfaction is regarded as a strategic issue to HLIs in this competitive era. Student satisfaction can
affect their loyalty and retention. Furthermore, the increase in student satisfaction can be used in
marketing and advertising the image of the institution to future potential students. Despite this,
little research has been done on student satisfaction with service delivery in Rwandan Higher
learning institutions.
2. Research purpose and objectives
Although research has been conducted and theories developed on the importance of better service
delivery and its possible linkages with customer satisfaction, their retention and recruitment of the
new potential customers (Berry, Wall, & Carbone, 2006), little research pertaining to students as
consumers of higher education services and the need for HLIs to respond to student requirements
has been documented (Thorsten, Voss, & Zikuda, 2010). Effective quality service delivery is a key
factor for customer satisfaction (Conway & Briner, 2014). Regardless of the nature of mission of
the institution, provision of better services to customers plays an important role in customer
(Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985). The reasoning behind this argument is that the more
customer’s expectations are met, the higher the customer satisfaction.
Empirical results from a report conducted in 2009 by the Institute of Policy Analysis and ResearchRwanda (IPAR) which focused on areas other than education (tourism, transportation, financial
institutions, immigration and water), found that service delivery in many private and public
institutions in Rwanda was ranked low compared to their counterparts in the East African
Community (Lwakabamba, 2009). In the case of education sector, lack of student satisfaction with
the quality of education offered (The New Times, 2011), decrease in global university ranking
(Mugisha, 2013), lack of student financial aid (Ssenyonga, 2010), issues pertaining to
accommodation and teaching facilities in HLIs have been pinpointed by many players in the sector
to be the cause for many students to cross the borders to neighbouring foreign universities looking
for a quality, more satisfying and affordable higher education. While student satisfaction might
sometimes be overlooked as an issue, it is necessary for Rwandan HLIs.
This study sets out to explore the nature of student satisfaction with regards to services offered by
Rwandan HLIs and its impact on student retention and recruitment.
3
3. Literature review
3.1. Nature of Higher learning institutions in Rwanda
The nature of education sector in Rwanda mainly higher education may be looked at using different
approaches and perspectives. For the case of this study, a review from the post-colonial (first and
second republic) and the post genocide period has been preferred.

Higher education during the first and second republic
Rwandan higher education during the first republic (1961-1973) and the second republic (19731994) could not be compared to the education of the post genocide against the Tutsi era. Inherited
from the Belgium systems, the higher education systems of the pre-genocide against the Tutsi were
mainly characterised by all anti-educational traits-divisionism, segregation based on ethnicity and
marginalization based on gender, regions, religious denominations and social class (Obura, 2003).
During that period less than 2000 students graduated from the former National University of
Rwanda. However, the same university graduated four times the number of students in 2006 it
graduated in 36 years (Asiimwe, 2009).
Access to higher education during this period was controlled by the government which perceived
university communities as a political threat rather than an engine for social-economic development
(Samoff & Bidemi, 2004). Furthermore, in addition to criteria for admission that were beyond
educational purpose and suitability and which hampered many aspiring students to pursue higher
education, private institutions were not a consideration by the stakeholders. The only private
institution was the Adventists University of Central Africa (Abura, 2003).

Higher education during the aftermath of the 1994 genocide
The radical changes in the Rwandan education sector and mainly higher education was
documented earlier after the 1994 genocide. The government of Unity and Reconciliation created
the opportunity for many new students to be admitted into higher learning institutions were opened
without favouritism. It was however clear that the former National University of Rwanda (NUR),
the then only public institution, could not afford the increasing number of those who wished to
pursue higher education. In this regard, the Government opened new other institutes of higher
education including the School of Finance and Banking (SFB), Kigali Institute of Education (KIE),
4
Kigali Health Institute (KHI) and Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) as a
temporary solution. Students from poor and marginalized communities, but who fulfilled all
academic requirements for public higher education, were supported by many well-wishers and
governments funds like Survivors’ fund (FARG) and Student Financing Agency (SFAR).
Despite the increase in HLIs, access to higher education was still very low compared to the need
of skilled graduates to fill the employment gaps in many sectors. To address this shortage of
graduates, the government encouraged private business firms and individuals to invest in higher
education sector. As soon as the first private institutions were accredited by the government of
Rwanda (Ssuuna & Kagabo, 2007) it did not take long for others to follow. This environment for
higher education in Rwanda has continued and has attracted many other foreign universities.
Details on these institutions appear in Appendix 1 and all data are taken from the various websites.
3.2. Introducing the profit motive in Rwandan HLIs
The introduction of a profit motive into higher education continues to be a debatable issue among
scholars, government policy makers, donors and investors in many countries. Those who side with
the profit motive in higher education argue that in order to face the new challenges of this dynamic
healthy environment, HLIs need to be profit driven and introduce an entrepreneurial approach by
focusing more on student satisfaction as their service consumers (Kruss, 2004).
In the context of Rwanda, there are public schools in all corners of the country in which students
are enrolled free of charge from kindergarten to secondary schools (Ministry of Education, 2013).
Furthermore, access to higher education was also free from the early 1963 when the National
University was founded till the recent decision of the government to share the cost of education
with parents in higher education as the budget for higher education has been becoming a burden
to the government (Ntirenganya, 2014). In addition, turning to the private sector and encouraging
the profit motive in Rwandan HLIs is also motivated by the fact that private sector is able to boost
university facilities such as accommodations and laboratories that the public institutions are unable
to have using the government funds alone (The New Times, 2009). This has placed the focus on
student satisfaction and improved service delivery.
5
3.3. Student satisfaction
Customer satisfaction has gained much attention in the marketing literature (Churchill &
Surprenant, 1982). Scholars opine that in an educational institution, students are the main
customers of the organization. In this regard, they argue that student satisfaction should always be
considered by the institutions due to the remarkable rising competitions in the education sector,
higher expectation of stakeholders towards services offered by HLIs and the introduction of profit
motive in higher education (Dejaeger, Goethals, Giangreco, Mola, & Baesens, 2011). The
widespread view of a student as a consumer has made students search for institutions that will
provide them with unique, memorable and better services (Sudharani & Kalpana, 2012).This
section discusses the importance of student satisfaction and some key factors that are likely to
affect student satisfaction in tertiary education and then argues how student perceptions and
expectations play a big role to their satisfaction with the services offered by their universities.
3.3.1. The importance of student satisfaction
With the increased number of HLIs and the introducing of profit motive in education, there has
been an increase in competition and an excellent service can serve as a basis for increased
satisfaction. There are numerous benefits for customer (student) satisfaction. It promotes the brand
image of the institution to other potential customers, increase market share and product places it
at a competitive advantage in the market (Arambewela & Hall, 2009).
Students and parents’ demands of higher education has compelled HLIs to consider student
satisfaction a priority. Available research on student satisfaction has shown that student
satisfaction correlates with their retention and affects the process of recruiting new students.
Consequently, it was found that universities that maximise their student satisfaction through
provision of quality services that meet student expectation have better chances of reducing students
drop out rates while attracting many other new students (Elliot & Dooyoung, 2002).
Other studies however found that student satisfaction is a difficult topic, confusing and multifaceted. This is due to the fact that measurement of student’s satisfaction was dependent upon
different individual factors and expectations. Some students were basing their satisfaction
judgement on the tangible factors while others were judging with much focus on the outcomes
(Beverly, Kaldenberg, & Browne, 2008).
6
3.3.2. Factors affecting student satisfaction
There are several factors affecting student satisfaction. These can come from the administrative
side of the institution such as registration processes, student’s routine services such as food and
accommodation, entertainment, transportation. They can also come from academic side such
nature and duration of the program, equipment and library resources and teaching staff (Kotler &
Karen, 1995). Studies have identified many factors affecting student satisfaction and the findings
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Factors affecting student satisfaction
Authors
Year
Factors
Navarro,
2005
Teaching staff and their teaching methodology together with
Iglesias,
&
the course administration
Torres
Sohail & Shaik
2004
Contact personnel, physical facilities, access to facilities and
cost of courses offered
Elliot and Shin
2002
The teaching and delivery aspects of education
Palacio,
2002
Reputation of the university
Menesse,
&
Perez,
Mario
Rapso 1998
Helena Alves
Noel Levitz
Learning and career, reputation and facilities of the universities
and availability and sympathy of the staff
2009
Academic advising effectiveness, campus support services,
campus life, responsiveness to diverse population, safety and
security, campus climate, financial aid effectiveness, service
excellence, concern for the individual, campus climate,
instructional effectiveness, registration effectiveness
Athiyaman
1997
Teaching students well, availability of staff for student
consultation, library service, computing facilities, recreational
7
facilities, class sizes, level and difficult of subject content,
student workload
Coates
and 1996
Koerner
Darling
Efficiency of the course administration, performance and
punctuality of lecturers, adequacy of library materials
and 1988
Country of origin
and 1981
Course suitability ,university location, academic reputation,
Alnold
Hooley
Lynch
distance from home, type of the university and advice from
parents
Evans
1972
Educational quality, social life, student living and working
conditions, compensation (study pressure), recognition
From table 1, it can be deduced that there are common factors affecting student satisfaction and
which can ultimately be the pre-cursor factors determining student choice for a particular
university. These include: The reputation of the university, student living and working conditions,
educational quality and instructional effectiveness, country of origin, safety and security, teaching
and learning facilities, recreational facilities, employability chances after graduation, cost of
studies, geographical location and accessibility of financial aid.
The effects of the above factors are numerous and Bitner opines that they have influence on the
overall students’ perceived service quality and ultimately their satisfaction with services offered
to them by HLIs (Bitner, 1990). More particularly, the above issues have effects on the recruitment
of new students. Scholars argue that a prospective student gets to know about the quality of
services he/she should expect to get from a HLI from others who have attended or are attending
the institution, parents, friends, relatives and staff to name but a few (Cook & Zallocco, 1983).
Several other consequences have also been discussed by a number of scholars. On the top of the
list comes student retention and loyalty of the existing student. Other studies have also shown that
such factors affect the student performance (Bean & Bradley, 1986) and once such factors are
minimized, it might help a university to be more competitive and attract new students (Lee, Jolly,
Kench, & Gelonesi, 2000).
8
In view of the above discussion, it is vital to conduct an empirical analysis of the above factors in
the eyes of academic and non-academic (administrative) determinants. By academic, it is meant
those independent variables for the overall students’ perceived teaching quality which might
include instructional effectiveness, duration of the program, academic reputation of the university,
teaching facilities, cost of courses. However, administrative factors will include variables such as
registration process, food and drinks, accommodation and transport, recreational facilities,
politeness and respect shown by the administrators and staff, attention and sympathy shown by
lecturers and maintenance of records by the administrators (Sohail & Shaik, 2004).
Figure 1 Factors affecting student satisfaction
Reputation of the University
Teaching facilities
Academic factors
Cost of courses
Quality of education
Instructional effectivenesss
Student
satisfaction
Duration of the program
Registration process
Food and drinks
Accomodation
Administrative factors
Transport
Recreational facilities
Source: Adapted from (Coates & Koerner, 1996, Navarro, Iglesias& Torres, 2005, Levitz, 2009)
3.3.3. Students perceptions and expectations
Schools of thought on the correlation between consumer expectation and quality service delivery
have been developed. The gap is likely to emerge when organizations fail to understand the
consumers’ needs and expectations (Klose & Finkle, 1995). In fact, the accurate and successful
management of customer expectations are the key to providing excellent quality service.
9
Research that have been conducted have identified various benefits of successful management of
student expectations. Student expectations are a valuable source of information and once HLIs are
able to fully understand of those expectations they should be in a better position to interpret them
and respond them with effectiveness and efficiency (Sander, Stevenson, Malcolm, & Coates,
2000). More particularly, valuing student expectations when dealing with new students is
necessary. This due to the fact that such students have different expectations gained from different
sources and which might not necessarily be reliable. It would this be an opportunity for the
management to clean the distorted image while promoting their good values among those new
students (Hill, 1995).
Other studies stress the importance of perceptions and expectation with regard to customer
satisfaction and argue that both terms are like twin sisters. Oxford Learner’s dictionary defines
perception as an idea, image or a belief you have as a result of how you see or understand
something. This might thus be interpreted in this context as the consumer’s judgement or appraisal
of service. It has thus been demonstrated that if customer perception is higher than the his/her
expectation, the customer shall have higher perceived quality (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry,
1994)
4. Research methodology
The study took a descriptive approach and used primary data to explore the nature of student
satisfaction. The use of a structured questionnaire while collecting data was much preferred due to
the nature and context of the study. The questionnaire had two parts of which the first part focused
on the demographic characteristics of the study participants while the second part emphasized on
the academic and non-academic factors affecting student satisfaction and quality service delivery
in Rwandan HLIs.
The first part of the questionnaire was developed for this study but also adopting the standardised
questionnaire format used by other scholars (Likert, 1932), (Bitner J. M., 1990), (Sangeeta,
Banwet, & Karunes, 2006) while the second part was developed using a multiple five-point Likert
type scales i.e. 1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree) to measure student satisfaction with factors
under study.
10
The study targeted as population all students of selected HLIs in Rwanda and the sample for the
study comprised of the eight universities which were randomly selected on basis of type (private
and public) and their location (urban and rural). To qualify as study participants, the students had
to be registered student of respective HLI during the academic year of 2014-2015. By the use of a
survey therefore proportionate stratified simple random sampling technique was used to choose
the participants from the above number of universities. For each university a total number of 30
questionnaires was distributed and therefore making the sample of 240. Before distributing the
questionnaires, the researcher sought permission from all the concerned institutions and discussed
with researcher administrators and participants themselves the intention, purpose and importance
of the study.
4.
Analysis and Findings
Out of 240 distributed questionnaires, 201 were returned and usable for analysis. Table 1 on the
demographics show that the majority (60.4%) of the students (respondents) were male and
female comprised the rest. With regards to the age of the respondents the majority were in their
20s (51.1%). With regards to the year of the study, the vast majority were in year two (49%) and
concerning the nature of the program the majority were day students (84.9%) and as far as
accommodation is concerned the majority live outside the campus (72.4%). With regard to
student sponsorship, it was noticed that the vast majority were government sponsored (38.5%).
Table 2: Demographic profile
Variable
Value Label
Age
Gender
Percentage %
younger than 20
18
between 20-24
51.1
between 25-29
10.8
between 30-34
10.8
between 34-59
7.2
older than 60
2.1
Male
34.5
Female
65.5
11
Year of study
Accommodation
Sponsorship
Nature of studies
Ownership
Year 1
9.2
Year 2
49
Year 3
27.6
Year 4
12.2
Year 5
2
Inside the campus
27.6
Outside the campus
72.4
Government
38.5
Self-sponsored
29
Other sponsors
32.5
Day
84.1
Evening
11.1
Weekend
4
Public
57.2
Private
44.2
Reliability of the instrument
The instrument which was designed specifically to measure the student satisfaction with services
offered by Rwandan HLIs was highly reliable. This is justified by the fact the obtained
Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.909 and which indicates large reliability (Pallant, 2007).
Table 3: Reliability statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on
N of Items
Standardized Items
,909
,913
23
Descriptive analysis of the statements regarding student satisfaction
For each statement, a mean and a standard deviation was calculated and these appears in Table 4.
The mean for almost all statements was less than 3 but also greater than 1 which implies
undecided neutral situation in which students are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. In exceptional
way however, students’ loyalty characteristics to their respective universities i.e. I am proud to
be a student at this university (A14; Mean=1.62), I don’t plan to leave my university until I
12
graduate (A21; Mean =1.68), I would recommend this university to others (A22; Mean =1.87)
had the highest mean of quality factors. The least satisfactory areas are I am satisfied with the
quality of food and drinks in the university’s restaurant/canteen (A9; Mean=3.51) followed by
my university promotes recreational activities (football, music, choir, drama, etc) (A10;
Mean=3.07).
Table 4: Mean and standard deviations for the items
Statement
Mean
Standard
Deviation
I am satisfied with the university’s facilities (library, computer lab etc)
2.35
1.03
Lecturers at my institution teach well (A2)
2.23
0.94
Students at my institution can meet lecturers for further consultation
2.38
1.01
2.44
1.24
2.50
1.12
2.25
1.09
We have a good teaching faculty staff who motivate students (A7)
2.37
1.04
Management of the university usually hold general meetings with all
2.95
1.32
3.51
1.30
3.07
1.41
2.73
1.18
Transport to and from the campus is not a challenge to me (A12)
2.66
1.30
I believe I pay a fair amount for my tuition (A13)
2.53
1.27
(A1)
about a given course (A3)
The class size (number of students attending a course) at this university
is fair (A4)
The contents of the subjects taught in my program are not too difficult
(A5)
I am satisfied with the teaching and assessment (CATs, assignments and
exams) methodology of my university (A6)
students (A8)
I am satisfied with the quality of food and drinks in the university’s
restaurant/canteen (A9)
My university promotes recreational activities (football, music, choir,
drama, etc) (A10)
My university places the interests of students above making a profit
(A11)
13
I am proud to be a student at this university (A14)
1.62
0.87
I believe students who graduate here have better chances for getting jobs
2.13
1.06
2.13
1.03
2.29
1.15
There is a friendly feeling between the teaching staff and students (A18)
2.60
1.14
I am satisfied with the reputation of my university (A19)
2.08
1.01
I wish to continue my Master’s/PhD program at this university (A20)
2.41
1.30
I don’t plan to leave my university until I graduate (A21)
1.68
1.09
I would recommend this university to others (A22)
1.87
1.03
I am satisfied with all services offered by this university (A23)
2.54
1.13
than other universities (A15)
I believe that my university offers the best education than any other
university in Rwanda (A16)
I will join the alumni association of this university after my graduation
(A17)
Overall satisfaction score
The mean for all statements of administrative and academic scores combined of 2.41 implies neutral
position of satisfaction with services students are being offered at the Rwandan HLIs. Statistics analysis
(t-test and ANOVAs) did not indicate any statistically significant differences between the groups with
regard to their total satisfaction.
Table 5 :Average satisfaction
Mean
2.4141
Standard deviation
.64839
Satisfaction score with administrative and academic aspects
The data were further formed into administrative and academic dimensions to compare and
contrast student satisfaction with respect to these aspects. The mean scores reflect that students
are more satisfied with academic factors, but the standard deviation suggests a high level
agreement among the respondents.
14
Table 6: Satisfaction with administration and academic dimensions
Ave Academic Factor
Ave Admin Factor
Mean
2,24
2,56
Std Deviation
,691
,709
An independent samples t-test was used to identify whether there were any significant
differences of satisfaction with service delivery among public and private students. A significant
difference between satisfaction among private and public students with respect to the factors
were identified (Refer Table 7).
The relationship between the administrative and acadenic factors were investigated using Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no
violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was a strong,
positive correlation between the two variables [ r=.776, n=175, p<.000], with high positive
evaluation of academic factors being associated with high levels of satisfaction with administrative
factors. The details are presented in Table 7.
Table 7: Correlation Statisctics between academic and administrative
Ave Academic Factor
Ave Academic Factor
Sig
Ave Admin Factor
Ave Admin Factor
1
0.776**
0.000
0.776**
0.000
1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Discussions, managerial implications and research limitations
The purpose of the study was to explore the nature of student satisfaction among selected
Rwandan HLIs and how their satisfaction influences their loyalty and recruitment of the new
students. The study was able to access students from different public and private Rwandan HLIs.
With regard to student satisfaction with the services offered, the study shows a neutral position
and this means that students are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with the services Rwandan HLIs
offer to them. No significant differences were found between satisfaction level among private
and public students. Similarly to this, the study did not document any significant differences with
regard to gender, age, nature of the program and whether a student is self-sponsored or gets
sponsorship from the government or other organisations.
15
The results of the study has several managerial implications on education sector but more
especially on administration of HLIs in Rwanda. As the idea of relying on the government
support for higher education is increasingly being discouraged while promoting a profit making
motive for higher education, whether in public and private HLIs, there is need to frame tangible
strategies to improve student satisfaction with the services offered to them. In this regard, the
decline in government funding and increasing competitions in higher education services require
the administrators of HLIs to become more market oriented in designing new course, improving
their reputation and become more student focused. Failure to do so and by the help of the
increase of education services providers there is no doubt that students will make decisions and
opt for those meeting their satisfaction and with good reputation, flexibility of programs, quality
of education and word-of-mouth recommendations (Cuthbert, 1996).
The study has also provided a basis for further deeper exploration of the role that student
satisfaction, as consumer of higher education services, can play towards the success of
universities that have introduced a profit motive approach in their mandates. It is thus
recommended that more and rigorous qualitative research can be conducted to fill the gaps left
by a mere quantitative study approach.
The study has thus various limitations and its findings cannot be generalized to the broader
population. This is because this study was only conducted among respondents from 8 HLIs while
there are currently 45 of HLIs in Rwanda. Future research may therefore redress this limitation
by involving more respondents from a reasonable number of HLIs to investigate whether there
are significant differences. Future research might also use a qualitative approach to conduct
deeper analysis and thus be able to interpret meanings behind respondents’ statements. In this
regard, preference would be the use of focus group of students who can identify other
dimensions of satisfaction that were not covered by the study.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore the nature of student satisfaction in Rwandan HLIs with
regard various academic and non-academic (administrative) services and further how student
satisfaction with those services might affect, positively or negatively, their retention and
recruitment of new students. This was done using a quantitative methodology, and the results
16
show a neutral position among many students with regard to their satisfaction with the services
offered by different Rwandan HLIs. This entails much work to be done by the management of
universities, policy makers and educationalist s to understand and address those dimensions
which affect the most student satisfaction. This can be thoroughly achieved through the creation
of an enabling environment for the students as consumers of higher education services. This will
increase student satisfaction with offered services and therefore place the Rwandan HLIs at the
vintage position to resist against competitors and market threats.
17
References
Abura, A. (2003). Never Again:education reconstruction in Rwanda. International Insitutute for
Educational Planning, 115. Retrieved February 07, 2015, from
http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/Rwanda_Neveragain.pdf
Arambewela, R., & Hall, J. (2009). An empirical model of international student satisfaction. Asia Pacific
Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 24(4), 559-569.
Asiimwe, B. (2009, August 19). Are you young and Jobless?what are the options? The New Times.
Retrieved February 09, 2015, from http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2009-0819/10136/
Bean, J., & Bradley, R. (1986). Untangling the satisfaction performance relationship for college students.
Journal of Higher Education, 57(4), 393.
Berry, L. L., Wall, E. A., & Carbone, L. P. (2006, May). Service Clues and Customer Assessment of the
Service Experience:Lessons from Marketing. Academy of Mnagement Perspectives, 20(2), 43-57.
Beverly, B. A., Kaldenberg, D. O., & Browne, W. G. (2008). Student as Customer:Factors Affecting
Satisfaction and Assessment of Institutional Quality. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,
2-4. Retrieved February 08, 2015, from
http://www.tandfonline.com.bibl.proxy.hj.se/doi/pdf/10.1300/J050v08n03_01
Bitner, J. M. (1990). Evaluating Service enounters:the effects of physical surroundings and employee
responses. Jouranl of Marketing, 69-82.
Bitner, M. J. (1990). Evaluating service encounters :the Effects of Physical surroundings and employee
responses. Journal of Marketing, 69-82.
Churchill, O. A., & Surprenant, C. (1982). An investigation into the determinants of customer satisfaction.
Journal of Marketing Research, 19(4), 491-504.
Conway, N., & Briner, R. B. (2014). Unit-level linkages between employee commitment to the
organization,customer service delivery and customer satisfaction. The International Journal of
Human Ressources Management, 3-25. Retrieved February 07, 2015, from
http://www.tandfonline.com.bibl.proxy.hj.se/doi/pdf/10.1080/09585192.2014.971848
Cook, R. W., & Zallocco, R. L. (1983). Predicting universities preference and attendance :applied
marketing in higher education administration. Research in Higher Education, 19(2), 197-211.
Cuthbert, F. P. (1996). Managing Service Quality in HE:is SERVQUAL the answer?Part 1. Managing
Service Quality, 6(2), 11-16.
Dejaeger, K., Goethals, F., Giangreco, A., Mola, L., & Baesens, B. (2011). Gianing insight into student
satisfaction using comprehensive data mining techniques. Europeuan Journal of Operational
Research, 545-562. Retrieved February 12, 2015, from http://ac.elscdn.com/S0377221711010137/1-s2.0-S0377221711010137-main.pdf?_tid=11828b74-b29c11e4-905e-00000aacb361&acdnat=1423734590_74aed2acff7a054dbad98ca1de610c34
18
Elliot, K. M., & Dooyoung, S. (2002). Student satisfcation:An alternative approach to assessing this
concept. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 22(2).
Emery, C., Kramer, T., & Tian, R. (2001). Customers vs.Products:Adopting an Effective Approach to
Business Students. Quality Assurance in Education, 9(2), 110-115. Retrieved February 07, 2015,
from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com.bibl.proxy.hj.se/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/09684880110389681
Finney, T., & Finney, R. (2010). Are students their universities' customers?an Exploratory study.
Education and Training, 52(4), 276-291.
Higher Education Council. (2014). HES 2012-2013 statistics. Kigali: Ministry of Education.
Hill, F. M. (1995). Managing service quality in higher education:The role of student as primary consumer.
Qual Assur Educ, 3(3), 10-21.
Kebongo, S. (2011, May 12). Economic Growth,development:A humanistic perspective. The new times.
Retrieved February 08, 2015, from http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2011-0512/31092/
Khosravi, A. A., Poushaneh, K., Roozegar, A., & Sohrabifard, N. (2013). Determination of factors affecting
student satisfaction of islamic Azad University. Procedia Socail and Behavioral Science, 579-583.
Retrieved February 08, 2015, from http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877042813016819/1-s2.0S1877042813016819-main.pdf?_tid=b5fc45b4-afbd-11e4-afa200000aacb35f&acdnat=1423419186_e5b488071c7a045eb150abd913c6477c
Kimanuka, O. (2015, January 23). Rescue,restore EAC's education might. The New Times. Retrieved from
http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-01-23/185242/
Klose, A., & Finkle, T. (1995). Perceptions and customer expectations:The case of Electic Utility.
Psychology and Marketing, 12(7), 637-649. Retrieved February 08, 2015, from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.bibl.proxy.hj.se/doi/10.1002/mar.4220120706/pdf
Kotler, P., & Karen, F. F. (1995). Strategic Marketing for Educational Institutions. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Kruss, G. (2004). Chasing Credentials and Mobility:Private Higher Education in South Africa. Cape Town:
HSRC Press.
Lee, G., Jolly, N., Kench, P., & Gelonesi, B. (2000). Factors related to student satisfaction with university.
4th Pacific Rim-first year in higher education conference:Creating futures for a new millenium.
Brisbane.
Likert, R. (1932). A Technique for the measurement of attitudes. New York: Archives of Psychology.
Lwakabamba, G. (2009). Poor customer service and its impact on the Rwandan economy. Kigali: Insititute
of Policy Analysis and Research-Rwanda.
Ministry of Education. (2013). Education Sector Strategic Plan 2013/14-2017/18. Kigali: Ministry of
Education. Retrieved February 08, 2015, from
19
http://www.mineduc.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/Education_Sector_Strategic_Plan_2013__2018.pdf
Ministry of Education, Science,Technology and Scientific Research. (2013). Education Sector Policy.
Kigali: Ministry of Education, Science,Technology and Scientific Research. Retrieved February 07,
2015, from http://www.mineduc.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/EDUCATION_POLICY.pdf
Mittal, V., & Kamakura, W. A. (2001). Satisfaction,Repurchase Intent,and Repurchase
Behaviour:Investigating the Moderating Effect of Customer Characteristics. Journal of Marketing
Research, 38(1), 131-142.
Mugisha. (2012). Upgrading quality of Rwandan graduates. Upgrading quality of Rwandan graduates.
Mugisha, S. (2013). Webometrics:who takes the blame for the poor ranking? The new times. Retrieved
February 12, 2015, from http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2013-08-12/68275/
Mugisha, S. (2013). Webometrics:Who takes the blame for the poor rankings. Retrieved February 12,
2015, from http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2013-08-12/68275/
Mugisha, S. (n.d.). Webometrics:who takes the blame for the poor ranking? The new times.
Navarro, M., Iglesias, P., & Torres, R. (2005). A new management element for universities:Satisfaction
with the offered courses. International Journal of Educational Management, 19(6), 505-526.
Retrieved February 08, 2015, from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com.bibl.proxy.hj.se/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/09513540510617454
Ntagungira, G. (2013). Kigali get top foreign varsities. The Independent. Retrieved February 2015, from
http://www.independent.co.ug/rwanda-ed/rwanda/8048-kigali-gets-top-foreign-varsities
Ntirenganya, E. (2014, December 02). UR eases payment terms for students who lost scholarship. The
New Times. Retrieved February 08, 2015, from
http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-12-02/183630/
Nuwagaba, A. (2013). Evaluation of the current higher education funding model in Rwanda using Higher
Education Students'Loans Department(HESLD-REB) as case study. Journal of Economics and
International Finance, 74-76. Retrieved February 07, 2015, from
http://academicjournals.org/article/article1380792329_Nuwagaba.pdf
Obura, A. (2003). Never again:educational reconstruction in Rwanda. International Institute for
Education Planning, 17. Retrieved February 07, 2015, from
http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/Rwanda_Neveragain.pdf
Palacio, A., Menesse, G., & Perez, P. (2002). The configuration of the university image and its
relationship with the satisfaction students. Jouranl of the Educational Administration, 40(5),
486-505.
Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS:A Step by Step guide to Data Analysis Using SPSS for Windows (Version 16). Crows
Nest: NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). A conceptual model of service quality and its
implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 41-50.
20
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1994). Alternatives scales for measuring service quality:A
comparative assessment based on psychometric and diagnostic creteria. Jouranal of Retailing,
20(3), 201-230.
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V., & Berry, L. (1985). A conceptual model of service quality and its
implications for future research. Journal of Marketing.
Rwanda Development Board. (2013). National Customer Satisfaction Survey,2013. Kigali: RDB. Retrieved
February 07, 2015, from http://www.nayombi.rw/index.php/publications/reports-1/2-2013-928-rdb-nss-report/file
Samoff, J., & Bidemi, C. (2004). Conditions,Coalitions and Influence:The World Bank and Higher
Education in Africa. Stanford University. Retrieved February 07, 2015, from
http://www.eldis.org/vfile/upload/1/document/0708/DOC17679.pdf
Sandel, M. (2012). What money can't buy:The moral limits markets. New York: Farrar,Straus and Giroux.
Sandel, M. (2012). What money can't buy:The moral limits of markets. New York: Farrar,Straus and
Giroux.
Sander, P., Stevenson, K., Malcolm, K., & Coates, D. (2000). University Students' expectations of
teaching. Stud High Educ, 25(3), 309-323.
Sangeeta, S., Banwet, D. K., & Karunes, S. (2006). An Integrated Framework for Quality in
Education:Application of Quality Function Deployment . Interpretive Structural Modelling and
Path Analysis,Total Quality Management, 265-285.
Schwartzman, R. (2013). Consequences of commodifying education. Academic Exchange Quaterly, 17(3),
41-46. Retrieved February 08, 2015, from
http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/R_Schwartzman_Consequences_2013.PDF
Sohail, M. S., & Shaik, N. M. (2004). Quest for excellent in business education:a study of student
impressions of service quality. The International Journal of Educational Management, 18(1), 5865.
Ssenyonga, A. B. (2010). Bursary cancellation is a necessary evil. The new times. Retrieved February 12,
2015, from http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-10-13/95652/
Ssuuna, I., & Kagabo, F. (2007, December 15). Unaccredited varsities under probe face sanctions. The
new times. Retrieved February 09, 2015, from
http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2007-12-15/78373/
Sudharani, R. D., & Kalpana, M. (2012). Students' Expectation,Perception and Satisfaction towards the
Management Educational Institutions. Elsevier, 401.
The New Times. (2009, October 23). The challenges of university require many players. The New Times.
Retrieved February 08, 2015, from http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2009-1031/80152/
The New Times. (2011, September 28). Amazing university news. The New Times. Retrieved February 12,
2015, from http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2011-09-28/98418/
21
Thomas, E. H., & Galambos, N. (2004). What satisfies students?Mining student-opinion data with
regression and decision tree analysis. Research in Higher Education, 45(03), 251-269.
Thorsten, S. G., Voss, R. F., & Zikuda, G. M. (2010). Examining student satisfacion with higher education
services. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 23(2), 105-123.
Watson, S. (2003). Closing the feedback loop:ensuring effective action from student feedback. Tertiary
Education and Management, 09, 145-157.
22
APPENDIX 1: The status and locations of Higher Learning Institutions
PUBLIC HLIs
No
1
Names of HLIs
Acronyms
Province
District
Sector
Cell
School Of Finance And Banking
SFB
KIGALI
Kicukiro
Gikondo
Kinunga
Nyagatare
CITY
2
Umutara Polytechnic
UP
EAST
Nyagatare
Nyagatare
3
Higher Institute Of Agriculture And Animal
ISAE
NORTH
Musanze
Busogo
Busasamana
Nyanza
Gasabo
Kimironko
Nyagatovu
Nyarugenge
Nyarugenge
Kiyovu
Husbandry
4
Institute Of Legal Practice And Development
ILPD
SOUTH
Nyanza
5
Kigali Health Institute
KHI
KIGALI
Nyarugenge
CITY
6
Kigali Institute Of Education
KIE
KIGALI
CITY
7
Kigali Institute Of Science And Technology
KIST
KIGALI
CITY
8
National University Of Rwanda
NUR
SOUTH
Huye
Ngoma
Mamba
9
Kavumu College Of Education
KCE
SOUTH
Muhanga
Nyamabuye
Gahogo
10
Rukara College Of Education
RCoE
EAST
Kayonza
Gahini
Urugarama
11
Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center Kicukiro
IPRC
KIGALI
Kicukiro
Niboye
Gatare
KIGALI
CITY
23
12
Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center North
IPRC
NORTH
Rulindo
Bushoki
Kayenzi
NORTH
13
Kabgayi School Of Nursing And Midwifery
KaSNM
SOUTH
Muhanga
Nyamabuye
Gahogo
14
Rwamagana School Of Nursing And Midwifery
RSNM
EAST
Rwamagana
Kigabiro
Nyagasenyi
15
Byumba School Of Nursing And Midwifery
BSNM
NORTH
Gicumbi
Byumba
Nyarutarama
16
Kibungo School Of Nursing And Midwifery
KiSNM
EASTERN
Ngoma
Kibungo
Karenge
17
Nyagatare School Of Nursing And Midwifery
NSNM
EASTERN
Nyagatare
Nyagatare
18
Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center South
IPRC
South
Huye
Ngoma
Butare
SOUTH
19
Gishari Integrated Polytechnic
GIP
EAST
Rwamagana
Gishari
Gishari
20
Kitabi College of Conservation and Environmental
KCCM
SOUTH
Nyamagabe
Kitabi
Kintobo
Management
PRIVATE HLIs
No
Names of HLIs
Acronyms
Province
District
Sector
Cell
1
Catholic University of Rwanda
CUR
SOUTH
Huye
Ngoma
Butare
2
Protestant Institute Of Arts And Social Sciences
PIASS
SOUTH
Huye
Ngoma
Butare
3
Institut Supérieur Pédagogique De Gitwe
ISPG
SOUTH
Ruhango
Bweramana
Murama
District
Byumba
Nyamabuye
4
Gicumbi
Institut Polytechnique De Byumba
IPB
NORTH
5
6
KIGALI
Kigali Independent University
ULK
CITY
Gasabo
Gisozi
Ruhango
Catholic Institute Of Kabgayi
ICK
SOUTH
Muhanga
Nyamabuye
Gahogo
24
7
Institute Of Agriculture, Technology And
Education Of Kibungo
INATEK
8
INILAK
CITY
9
KIM
CITY
10
Karenge
Gasabo
Remera
Rukili1
Kicukiro
Nyarugunga
Rwimbogo
KIGALI
Rwanda Tourism University College
RTC
CITY
Kicukiro
Niboye
Niboye
Institut D’Enseignement Supérieur De Ruhengeri
INES
NORTH
Musanze
Musanze
Rwambogo
12
KIGALI
Adventist University Of Central Africa
AUCA
CITY
Gasabo
Ndera
Masoro
Grand Séminaire De Nyakibanda
GSN
SOUTH
Huye
Gishamvu
Nyakibanda
Nyarugenge
Gitenga
Kiyovu
Kacyiru
Kacyiru
14
KIGALI
Mount Kenya University
MKU
CITY
15
16
Kibungo
KIGALI
Kigali Institute Of Management
13
Ngoma
KIGALI
Independent Institute Of Lay Adventist Of Kigali
11
EAST
KIGALI
Carnegy Mellon
CMU
CITY
Gasabo
Kibogora poltechnic
KP
WEST
Nyamasheke Kanjongo
17
Kibogora
KIGALI
St Joseph Integrated technical college
STJOSEPH CITY
18
Nyarugenge
Rwezamenyo Rwezamenyo
Gasabo
Kimironko
KIGALI
Akhilan Institute of women
AIW
CITY
25
Kibagabaga
Total students in 2013
Total
84,448
Students in Private HLIs
43,717
52%
Students In Public HLIs
40,731
48%
Male students
47,220
56%
Female students
37,228
44%
Male students in private
20,381
47%
Female students in private
23,336
53%
Male students in public
26,839
66%
Female students in public
13,892
34%
Enrolment for postgraduate students
Total postgraduate students
3,645
Males
2,478
68%
Females
1,167
32%
Source: Higher Education Statistics for the 2012/2013 academic year
26