1. education

European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 7(2), 2014
ISSN 1943-2577
© 2014 Ozean Publication
JOHN DEWEY’S IMPACTS ON THE 1924 TURKISH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
CURRICULUM: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
EMIN KILINC*, NIYAZI ERDOGAN**, BAKI CAVLAZOGLU*** & LYNN M. BURLBAW***
*Department of Primary Education,Dumlupınar University, Kutahya, Turkey
**Department of Elementary Science Education,Balıkesir University, Balıkesir, Turkey
***Department of Teaching, Learning and Culture,A&M University, College Station, USA
*E-mail address for correspondence:[email protected]
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:The purpose of this paper is to highlight the impacts of John Dewey’s ideas on Turkish elementary school
curriculum in the first years of the Republic of Turkey. After the World War I and the Ottoman Empire’s
demolishment, the Turkish Great National Assembly (TGNA) was established on April 23, 1920. Then, only nine
days later, the TGNA was founded as a main organization of education, MaarifVekaleti (Ministry of National
Education). Moreover, after the foundation of the Ministry of Education, the new curriculum was published which
aimed to educate Turkish students as citizens of the Republic of Turkey and make them recognize the new regime,
republic. The new curriculum also indicates the importance of patriotism and modernity. Through these
explanations, the authors aim to show westernization of Turkish education and what kind of impacts John Dewey
had on Turkish elementary schools. The sources of data for this paper include: Commentary and books written by
Dewey such as Democracy and Education, The School and Society, The Republic of Turkish Curriculum in 1924,
and the Turkish textbooks from first and fourth grade from 1924. The 1924 Turkish elementary school curriculum
and textbooks were scanned and analyzed by using the conceptual content analysis technique (Holsti, 1969;
Krippendorf, 1980) to determine if they contained the ideas of progressivism and John Dewey. Also, this paper uses
these available materials, as well as the writings of Dewey, to explain the connections between Deweyian
Progressivism and the Turkish curriculum
Key words: John Dewey, progressivism, Elementary school curriculum, Turkish education
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
INTRODUCTION
John Dewey’s Impacts On the 1924 Turkish Elementary School Curriculum: A Content Analysis
John Dewey is one of the most influential philosophers for his educational and philosophical thought on education
in the 20th century and his ideas had tremendous effects on Turkish education, as well as other countries’ education.
John Dewey’s impact on Turkish education has been studied extensively in Turkey in the past decades. In his article,
Ata (2000) discussed the influence of Dewey’s visit to Turkey and his report on the Turkish educational system.
Also, other studies (Bal, 1991; Büyükdüvenci, 1995;Tarman, 2011;Gazo, 1996) examined how Dewey’s report had
impacts on the Turkish educational practice. While there have been several researches on John Dewey’s visit to
Turkey and his report to improve Turkish educational system, there is a lack of focus on John Dewey’s effects on
1924 elementary school curriculum, which is the first curriculum of the republic. The purpose of this paper is to
examine how widely John Dewey’s educational ideas affected the 1924 Turkish elementary school curriculum.
The following research question provided the focus for the study: To what extent did Deweyian ideas place on 1924
Turkish elementary school curriculum and further educational practices?
Theoretical Framework
Primary School Education in Ottoman Empire
Ottoman primary school education was based on the religion like other Islamic states. These primary schools were
opened in every village and district because did not require much expense or space (Ihsanoğlu, 2004;
Kılınç&Burlbaw, 2011). These primary schools were called “mektep”, where students learn writing (Brunot, 1988),
reading, and basic premises of Islam (Akyüz, 2001; Gelişli, 2002; Kılınç, 2008). These schools were established and
operated through a charitable foundation system (Vakıflar) and could be co-educational or in separate buildings for
girls and boys according to deeds of trust (vakfiyye). Although there was no standard form of working principles or
educational activities, they conformed to their traditions (Ihsanoglu, 2004). Before the first important reform in
education, mektep education was three years and not compulsory.
Ottoman Reforms on Education
At the beginning of the 18th century, Ottoman Empire started to lose its territories in the European peninsula and
lost its superiority (Demirel, 2009). The statesmen started some reforms movement to stop these crises. Even
though, Ottoman statesmen did not take an example by Europe at the beginning of the reform movements, they
started to take an example by Europe in 19th century. Mahmud II (1808-1839) and Abdulhamid II (1876-1909) were
two of the most important Ottoman Emperors for westernization of the state and educational reforms in the 19th
century. Mektep transmitted the values of Ottoman Islamic society to the young; therefore, Mahmud II considered
that education was the main tool of accomplishing the aims of Westernization (Kazamias, 1966). During the era of
Mahmud II (1809-1839), some modernizations were made in the system of education, as well as other institutions.
Sultan Mahmud II declared that primary education was compulsory and under the responsibility of state (Ayas,
1948). During the era of Abdulhamid II, the Constitution of 1876 declared that all schools should be under
government supervision and primary education should be compulsory (Kazamias, 1966). Young Turks regime
(1908-1917) also, attempted to make some reforms on elementary school education. For these reforms, new
educational boards were instituted and some superintendents were assigned to find problems of education all over
the state. During this time period, some courses such as physical education, music, handcraft, art, and theatre were
seen in the elementary school curriculum (Batir, 2010). The new law Tedrisat-iIbtidaiyyeKanunu (The Law of
Elementary School) passed in 1913 (Gözütok, 2003). According to this law, elementary school instruction period
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European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
was increased to six years and the curriculum was rearranged. School term became 42 weeks. Arts and crafts,
painting, physical education, agriculture, housekeeping, and sewing were added the elementary school curriculum
(MaarifiUmumiyeNezareti, 1913).
Education in the Republic of Turkey Era
After the World War I and the demolishment of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish Great National Assembly
(TBMM) was established on April 23, 1920. Only nine days later, TBMM founded the main organization of
education, MaarifVekaleti (National Education Ministry). The fact that the foundation was established in only nine
days, as the Turkish Independence War continued within the country, demonstrated the importance the new regime
placed on education.
After the announcement of the new republic, new innovations were made in the field of education (Şahin, 2009).
Through the new law, Tevhid-iTedrisatKanunu (The Law of Common Education) in 1924, the Turkish government
collected all educational institutions under the Ministry of National Education. After this law, new Turkish
government closed all Ottoman educational institutions, mekteps and Madrasahs and opened new and modern
schools in the Turkish territory. This law also provided the ministry to regulate the curriculum and implement in the
schools (Gözütok, 2003). The first curriculum announced in 1924, which aimed to nurture students as citizens of the
Republic of Turkey and recognition of the new regime, republic.
Characteristics of 1924 Curriculum
The new curriculum mentioned the importance of patriotism and modernity. The Turkish Curriculum in 1924 was
designed with two formats, for male and for female, as a result of separated classes by students’ gender. Elementary
school curriculum for males had 17 courses while the curriculum for females had 19 courses. Total hours of courses
were 26 hours per week for both male and female elementary schools. The female elementary school has the courses
which titled housekeeping and embroidery - sewing. Other remaining courses were same with the male elementary
school courses (MaarifVekaleti, 1924).
The art classes had 2 hours per week for 1st through 5th grade both male and female elementary schools. Also, the
handicraft courses had two hours per week until 5th grade for male elementary schools, while it had two hours per
week just 1st and 2nd grade for female elementary schools. Fourth graders also had 1-hour geometry course per
week. This curriculum included both indoor and outdoor activities, such as paper cutting, sticks, and teaching
geometrical concepts that were quite similar with Froebel’s gifts and occupations.
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European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
0
0
0
12
Alphabet
2
2
3
4
0
Reading
1
1
2
2
0
Dictation
2
2
2
1
0
Writing
1
1
0
0
0
Grammar
1
1
1
2
0
Calligraphy
2
2
2
2
0
Holy Quran and religion
2
3
3
3
2
Mathematics
2
1
0
0
0
Geometry
2
2
1
0
0
History
2
2
1
0
0
Geography
2
2
2
3
3
Science
1
1
1
1
1
Citizenship
2
2
2
2
2
Painting
0
2
2
2
2
Hand craft
1
1
2
2
2
Music
1
1
2
2
2
Physical Education
24
26
26
26
26
Total
Courses
30
Turkish
First grade
Fourth grade
0
Third grade
Fifth grade
Second grade
Table 1:Curriculum for Males
European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
Fifth grade
Fourth grade
Third grade
Second grade
First grade
Table 2:Curriculum for Females
0
0
0
0
12
Alphabet
2
2
3
4
0
Reading
1
1
1
2
0
Dictation
1
2
2
1
0
Writing
1
1
0
0
0
Grammar
1
1
2
2
0
Calligraphy
2
2
2
2
0
Holy Quran and religion
2
3
3
3
2
Mathematics
2
1
0
0
0
Geometry
2
2
1
0
0
History
2
2
1
0
0
Geography
2
2
2
3
3
Science
1
0
0
0
0
House keeping
1
1
1
1
1
Citizenship
2
2
2
2
2
Painting
0
0
0
2
2
Hand craft
1
1
2
2
2
Music
1
1
2
2
2
Physical Education
2
2
2
0
0
Sewing, fresco
26
26
26
26
26
Total
Turkish
Courses
John Dewey and His Philosophy of Education
John Dewey was one of the most influential philosophers in the light of shaping many philosophies in the first half
of the 20thcentury (Cochran). During his life (1859-1952), he had a big impact on American education philosophy
and also other countries’ education understanding as well. Cochran (2010) states that Dewey’s philosophy also has
affected many other disciplines such as cognitive science, moral philosophy, democratic political and international
theory, religion, art, and many other disciplines. He began to construct his philosophy with instrumentalism, using
scientific theory as an instrument in order to understand the world, and continued his philosophy on American
pragmatism. Although he was known as an instrumentalist, his influence on American pragmatism was much bigger
that Dewey is considered one of the three American pragmatists along with Charles Peirce and William James
(Good, 2006).
Dewey grew up in an old rural life and his education philosophy was shaped with experiencing key features of
learning situations in this lifestyle (Peter, 2010). During his time, the industrial society was developing and a new
educational concept appeared because of the industrialization. His first trainings with the new schooling as a teacher
were not very successful due to irrelevant learning environment for him.
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European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
As Dewey was gaining experience in the education area, he recognizedthat there was a core problem in education, a
need of philosophy. He pointed out that “the central problem of an education based upon experience is to select the
kind of present experiences that live fruitfully and creatively in subsequent experiences” (Dewey, 1938, p. 27). Also,
Dewey insisted, “the solution of this problem requires a well thought-out philosophy of the social factors that
operate in the constitution of individual experience” (Dewey, 1938, p. 21). Then, his philosophy of education
appeared as education must be well designed as a continuum reconstruction of experience the process (Ansbacher,
2000). Peter (2010) states that John Dewey’s philosophy “was an attempt to introduce into this new situation the
problem-solving, do-it-yourself method of the learning of his boyhood, together with the close link between learning
and living and sense of contributing to a social whole permitted by shared experiences” (p.65). Hickman and
Alexander (1998) considered that pragmatism had big influence on Dewey’s educational philosophy. When he
interacted with some biologists, he increased his idea to emphasize on scientific method and seemed that he saw the
importance of experiencing the natural world within problem solving context.
In his book, Democracy and Education, Dewey (1916) states that in education we need to reconstruct or re-organize
some meaningful experiences in order to enhance students’ abilities to deal with future situations. In the learning
process, when students connect their learned knowledge with their real life situations, learning with deep
understanding occurs (Goldman, Petrosino, & Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1999). Therefore, it
is important to design meaningful experiences for students.
According to Dewey, it is also crucial to make learners more social because it results with increased students’
cooperative skills (Peter, 2010) and also collaboratively involved students. This is because cooperative and
collaborative problem solving experiences makes more sense with learners’ physical and social interactions in their
environments. Even today many new cognitive approaches emphasize the necessity of socially interaction of
students that helps to let students understand meaningfully (National Research Council, 2000).
In addition, teaching methods are important for effective education that should be student centered (Dewey, 1938).
According to Dewey, teachers should know details of teaching methods, implementation of varied individuals, and
suitable teaching materials for students (Peter, 2010). The role of the teachers in classroom management changed
within his philosophy of education as Dewey (1938) emphasized in his book, Experience and Education, that “the
teacher loses the position of external boss or dictator but takes on that of leader of group activities” (p. 59). This is
because “when education is based upon experience and educative experience is seen to be a social process, the
situation changes radically” (Dewey, 1938, p. 59).
Curriculum is another crucial component in education that should be socially relevant according to Dewey (Peter,
2010). In Dewey’s thinking, the curriculum should embody the sociological and psychological principals such as
culture of community, students’ habits, values, individual needs, interests, and problems. Also, he points out that the
practical activities are important such as sewing, cooking, weaving, carpentry, and metalwork; because, in the light
of sociological principals it is necessary to include part of cultural heritage into education (Dewey, 1938). According
to him, these practical activities help to relate everyday activities with the subjects in the curriculum. In this regard,
science classes are particularly important because the science subjects allow students to practice the everyday
experience and science should be taught as continuing agency in action for opening up new learning opportunities
(Dewey, 1938). In addition, in the John Dewey’s ideal curriculum, communication skills such as writing, reading,
mathematics, and foreign languages should be placed (Peter, 2010). This is because these communication skills help
students to share their experience with others and also improve their interaction.
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted by using content analysis technique. Content analysis is one of the numerous approaches
for analyzing qualitative data. Content analysis is described as a “research technique for making replicable and valid
inferences from texts to the contexts of their use” (Krippendorff, 2003, p. 18). According to Weber (1990) content
analysis is a “research method that uses a set of procedures to make valid inferences from text” (p. 9). It is also
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known as a method of analyzing documents. Content analysis allows the researcher to test theoretical issues to
enhance understanding of the data (Elo&Kyngas, 2008).
In this research, the authors applied a deductive approach. A deductive approach is based on an earlier theory or
model and therefore it moves from the general to specific (Burns & Grove, 2005; Elo&Kyngas, 2008). According to
Catanzaro (1988) deductive content analysis can be used in cases where the researcher wants to retest existing data
in a new context.
The authors used the hardcopy of 1924 Turkish Elementary School Curriculum. The curriculum was requested from
Princeton University library. The 1924 Elementary School curriculum was written in Ottoman language. One
researcher, who has profession on reading Ottoman language, has translated the curriculum to Turkish. Thus, all
three researchers can understand the curriculum. The authors then structured a matrix, which included John Dewey’s
educational ideas. Then they scanned and analyzed using the conceptual content analysis technique to determine if
they contained the ideas of John Dewey (Holsti, 1969; Krippendorf, 1980; Weber, 1990). The authors independently
analyzed the entire curriculum. This classification process was separately conducted by three different researchers in
the field of education in order to attain inter-coder reliability. There is a growing acknowledgement in the research
literature that the establishment of inter-coder reliability is essential (Neunendorf, 2002).
In order to provide the trustworthiness of this study, each author as inter-coder analyzed the curriculum text
independently. The authors among themselves discussed the possible themes emerged from their analysis. Based
upon the emerging themes, the authors designed a rubric to explore and analyze the potential themes in the
curriculum. To estimate the consistency of each author’s analyses, the authors computed the percentage of
agreement. The authors used percent agreement (crude agreement) way to calculate simple agreement. Simple
agreement is a simple percentage, representing number of agreements divided by total number of measures
(Neunendorf, 2002).Consistency for categorization of John Dewey’s ideas in the 1924 Turkish Elementary School
curriculum was 87% agreement between the authors. The authors resolved all disagreements by discussion until
100% agreement was reached.
RESULTS
Problem Solving Context
One of the concrete evidence to Deweyian ideas in the curriculum of 1924 is its objective. Curriculum designers
thought that the students should be ready for the life after graduation because they knew that the students most likely
would not continue their education after elementary school. Here is the word-by-word translation of one of the
objectives.
A large proportion of students who will graduate from the elementary school will not continue to their education.
Upon graduating, these kids should be able to give a certain direction to their actions when they encounter
situations that they did not learn in school, or different incidents, problems, and situations that they did not deal
with in their childhood era.
Hands-on Activities
As stated in the theoretical framework, one of the most influential Deweyian ideas is the hands-on activities. Dewey
believed that the most permanent learning comes from first hand experiences. Hence, curriculum designers in 1924
took this idea into account and placed hands-on activities in some of the units instead of solely describing the
phenomena. Below is an excerpt taken from the 1924 curriculum.
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European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
In the geometry class, the teacher will not waste time with solely describing a set of terminology. Instead, teacher
will grab students’ attention about properties of geometrical shapes and enhance their observation, comparison,
and attention skills by making them do some basic geometrical shapes from cardboard, or making them construct
geometrical shapes in the playground.
Connection to Real Life
The most important feature of a curriculum that John Dewey put special emphasis on and which was lacking in
previous curricula is the connection to real life. Unless students cannot establish a connection between what they
learn in school and what they live outside of the school, the learning is not going to be meaningful. Therefore,
students will not be fully motivated to learn. Below statement is another excerpt taken from the 1924 curriculum.
The aim of science classes is to analyze animals and plants, which are placed in their natural habitat and related to
our food, clothes, housing, and life, with phases of their life. The plants, which will be analyzed, should be cultivated
in the school’s garden as much as possible, or students should be taken to the place where these plants were
cultivated.
Another example is provided below to exhibit the connection between the curriculum objectives and the real life.
To demonstrate fractions, students will write the currency units and addition and subtraction of fractions will be
demonstrated.
Physical and Social Interaction with Environment
Another important component of John Dewey’s philosophy was the sense of contributing to the social whole by
shared experiences that appeared in the 1924 curriculum. This is important because social interaction increases the
cooperative and collaborative problem solving skills. In addition, social interaction leads to a meaningful learning.
Another example below demonstrates how we arrived to this conclusion.
Involving kids to the general life in school from the first grade, assigning little missions considering their grade
levels, and working on how to use library, in-class museum, collections, and playground will serve to the
development and consolidation of ethic and social skills such as being organized, active, cooperative, and
responsive.
Teacher should provide opportunities for kids to involve to the discussions about social life of school, to be part of
missions considering their grade levels and skills, and to improve their characters and identity.
Geography has a significant role in Deweyian education. Dewey (2009) stated that geography has its educative
influence in a counterpart connection of natural facts with social events and their consequences. He wrote “while
local or home geography is the natural starting point in the reconstructive development of the natural environment, it
is an intellectual starting point for moving into the unknown, not an end in itself” (Dewey, 2009, p.173). The
statement below shows how this idea took place in the 1924 Turkish elementary school curriculum.
In the geography class, teacher will not waste time with solely describing a set of terminology. Instead, teacher will
grab students’ attention about geographic properties of their place, characteristics of the citizens of their neighbor,
and economic activities of that place. Also, geography courses should explain the economic expedience of students’
village, city and other neighbor cities. In addition, students should be encouraged to make observations about the
characteristics of their city’s clothing, food, house, transportation, physical features, and commerce.
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European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
Collaboration and Communication Skills
In Dewey’s philosophy of education, it important to get students involved in social life environment in order to
improve students socials skills such as communication, collaboration. We found several related objectives in the
1924 Turkish elementary school curriculum as following:
Involving kids the general life in school from the first grade, assigning little missions considering their grade levels,
and working on how to use library, in-class museum, collections, and playground will serve to development and
consolidation of ethic and social skills such as being organized, active, cooperative, and responsive.
As one of teacher responsibilities, it is crucial to provide students some social skill opportunities that have impact on
collaborative and communication skills that we took into account as following:
Teacher should provide opportunities for kids to involve to the discussions about social life of school, to be part of
missions considering their grade levels and skills, and to improve their characters and identity.
Students’ Cultural Heritage
As mentioned before, according to sociological principals, this is necessary to include part of cultural heritage into
education (Dewey, 1938) because students’ practical activities from their culture has an important role to connect
their knowledge with the school subjects while they involve in their culture. In this regard, the 1924 Turkish
elementary school curriculum had several related components as following:
The aim of science classes is to analyze animals and plants, which are placed in their natural habitat and related to
our food, clothes, housing, and life, with phases of their life.
Students Centered
In terms of teacher roles, Dewey philosophy of education purposes that the teacher should be a leader of student
centered group activities rather than external boss or dictator. At that point, we found parallel points from the 1924
Turkish elementary school curriculum that aimed student centered teaching. The following excerpt would be a good
example in this regard.
Flowers are grown and nurtured by children and they should enable the students to learn how they would protect
the flowers in different seasons. And also, the students are supposed to understand the relationship between flowers
and insects.
Some kinds of plants and animals should be collected by childrenon their own and their suitable ones (plants and
animals) should be kept in the school’s museum.
Taking these two excerpts from the 1924 Turkish elementary school curriculum into account, we would see that
some activities in the curriculum were student centered and they aimed to increase teacher centered teaching
approaches.
CONCLUSION
The Republic of Turkey aimed to become a modern country by modeling western countries during the establishment
process. This modernization was explicitly seen in the education as industrialization. As a matter of fact, this
modernization can be dated at the late 19th century. During the era of Sultan Abdulhamid II, several Turkish
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European Journal of Applied Sciences 7(2), 2014
students have been sent to the Europe for higher education purposes in which they would learn new philosophies
and techniques. As a result,the newborn country’s, Turkey, first curriculum showed some influences of western
philosophers, such as Pestalozzi, Froebel, and John Dewey.
John Dewey’s seven ideas: problem solving context, hands-on activities, connection to real life, physical and social
interaction with environment, collaboration and communication skills, students’ cultural heritage, and students
centered education were observedin the 1924 Turkish curriculum and showed how Deweyian ideas enormously
effected Turkish education before John Dewey’s visit to Turkey. It can be concluded that Deweyian ideas first
became well known in Europe and Turkish educators became acquainted with Deweyian ideas through their
European colleagues.
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