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Handbook on the Applied Sciences and Engineering, Vol.2, 2015
ISBN : 978-969-9952-11-1
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
BOOK
2nd ISCASE-2015 Dubai
2nd International Scientific Conference on Applied Sciences and Engineering
16-17 February, 2015
Movenpick Ibn Battuta Gate Hotel, Dubai
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Handbook on the Applied Sciences and Engineering, Vol.2, 2015
ISBN : 978-969-9952-11-1
Contents
Article I.D
2nd ISCASE-432
Title
Facies Associations and Evolution Of Jurassic
Carbonate Patform, Northern Atlasic Fringe (Ne
Algerian)
Page No.
1-10
El Hadj YOUCEF BRAHIM --- Mohamed CHADI --- Rami DJEFFAL
2nd ISCASE-435
Aleppine Polychrome wooden (`ajami) Rooms in Syria
Rami Alafandi --- Asiah Abdul Rahim
2nd ISCASE-438
Modeling of the flows and solid transport in the
catchment area of meskiana- mellegue upstream (of
medjerda, confin algero-tunisien)
11-24
25-33
Moufida Belloula --- Hadda Dridi
2nd ISCASE-439
Hydrochemical characterization of alluvial aquifer of
Tebessa-Morsott. Eastern Algeria
34-40
Tarek Drias
2nd ISCASE-433
Green Building as Concept of Sustainability
Sustainable Strategy to Design Office Building
Mouhamed R.Radwan --- Abd El-Hady B. Kashyout --- Hisham G.
ELshimy --- Shimai F. Ashour
2nd ISCASE-451
The Potential of Vernacular Materials to the
Sustainable Building Design: Experience of
Construction Design with Adobe Material
41-54
55-64
Zafer KUYRUKÇU --- Emine YILDIZ KUYRUKÇU
2nd ISCASE-452
Architectural Language Based On „Place‟: The Case
of Sille
65-73
Emine YILDIZ KUYRUKÇU --- Zafer KUYRUKÇU
2nd ISCASE-476
The performing Material Used for Total Knee
Replacement
74-80
Fatiha Mezache --- Hichem Amrani --- Hammoudi Mazouz
ii
Handbook on the Applied Sciences and Engineering, Vol.2, 2015
ISBN : 978-969-9952-11-1
Scientific Committee 2nd ISCASE, 2015 Dubai
Dr. GholamReza Zandi
Dr. G S Oladipo
Dr. Pradeep Kumar Singh
Dr. Dakhil N. Taha
Dr. Abbas Abbaszadeh Shahri
Dr. batool hassan Al-Ghurabi
Dr. Saher Mahmood Jwad Aljamali
Dr. Zainab Mahmood Aljamali
Dr. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali
Dr. Amiruddin Ismail
Prof. Eman Fathi Sharaf
Tarig Hakim Merghani Hakim
Abou-Bakr H. Abdel-Monsef
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ISBN : 978-969-9952-11-1
Conference Chair
Dr. MEHBOOB UL HASSAN
MA (Japan), PhD (Japan), Post Doctorate (Japan)
Chairperson,
Department of Islamic Banking and Finance,
Al-Dar University College,
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
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Handbook on the Applied Sciences and Engineering, Vol.2, 2015
ISBN : 978-969-9952-11-1
Facies Associations and Evolution Of Jurassic
Carbonate Patform, Northern Atlasic Fringe (Ne
Algerian)
El Hadj YOUCEF BRAHIM1 --- Mohamed CHADI2 --- Rami DJEFFAL3
1
hadj Lakhdar University - Faculty of Science- Department of Earth and Universe sciences Batna. Laboratory of
Geology and Environment. Constantine -Algeria
2
Normal superior school, Laboratory of Geology and Environment. Constantine-Algeria
3
hadj Lakhdar University - Faculty of Science- Department of Earth and Universe sciences Batna, Algeria
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on an area located at the convergence of allochthonous and Atlasic
foreland of the Northern Algerian Alpine Belt. The objective of this work is to reconstruct the
drowning history of the Jurassic carbonate shelf, and discuss its relationship with the
geodynamic evolution of the Southern Tethyan margin. The identification and interpretation
of shelf drowning events can help significantly to the reconstruction of depositional, tectonics
and eustatic histories of these shelves. The stratigraphic interpretation and correlation of study
area Jurassic series from some cross-sections, have allowed the highlighting of the shelf
physiography during this geologic period and individualizing three stratigraphic units. The
synthesis of bio-sedimentological data reveals diversified facies, involving various deposits
environments ranging from supratidal to deep pelagic peleoenvironments. These facies have
evolved within subsiding carbonate ramp. Thereof has experienced drowning (Toarcian) and
filling (Tithonian, Berriasian) phases, in relation with the eustatic sea level changes at the
global scale and regional tectonics.
Keywords: Jurassic, Platform, Facies, Drowning.
1. Introduction
The present study deals with an area located at the external zones southern fringe of the
Algerian Alpin belt, more precisely at the convergence of allochtonous foreland and Atlas domain. In
this sector where Jurassic outcrops are abundant and affected by a complex fracturing.
In the study area, Jurassic assizes are formed from neritic carbonates of shallow shelf. Since
many decades, the knowledge about the Jurassic of Eastern Algeria were accumulated. We can
mention works of Ficheur (1896), Savornin (1920), Laffite (1939), Glaçon (1952), Lasnier (1965),
Guellal et al (1977), Vila (1980), Bueau (1967-1986), Kazi-Tani(1986) et Youcef Brahim (2010).
The objectives of this study are to reconstruct the sedimentary history of Jurassic carbonate
shelf and to discuss the role of faults on the repartition of sedimentation events during this period.
2. Methods and Materials
Four sections field-based were studied. Microfacies analysis, diffraction of X-rays and chemical
coloration are the principal used technics. The sampling in the field was systematically based on
facies variation. One hindered thin sections were prepared from hard samples while the
unconsolidated ones were been washed throw and sifted into three grain-size fraction, in order to
extract microfossils which will be observed and identified by using binocular magnifier. Some of
samples were analyzed by x-rays diffraction using Bruker advanced diffractometer in order to identify
mineral composition.
For chemical coloration Evamy test was realized, it aims to differentiate between dolomite and
calcite.
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2.1. Geologic and Paleogeographic Settings
The sections analyzed in present study were measured in a complex geologic sector. From north
to south, three tectonic units major scaly stacked succeed, the allochtonous South Setifian set, the
parautochtonous North Auresian and Belezma-Batna Mountains. The latters are limited by overlaps
with south convergence (Fig.1).
The studied sector belongs paleogeographically to Southern Tethyan margin. During the
Jurassic period, the area study shows differential subsidence. It was also permanently maintained
under an open sea likely in the North and which the shorelines diverge progressively to the South
(Busson, 1967, 1970).
Fig-1.A. Geologic location of the area study in the maghrebin frame
Fig-1.- b. Geological map of the area study
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- Messaouda Cross Section ( 890 m)
It encloses (Fig. 2):
Fig-2. Lithostratigraphic log of Messaouda
- 50 m: Dolomites and dolomited limestones;
- 20 m: Intercalation of yellowish marls and
chalky limestone with Pseudogrammoceras aff.
- 260 m: Dolomite bar with coarse grain,
porous, stratified in centimeter levels;
- 230 m: Micritic limestone, rarely intercalated
with bars of dolimated limestone;
- 200 m: Massive dolomites;
- 130 m: Micritic limestone, crystalline
limestone, oolitic limestone and massive
dolomites overcame by a Hard- Ground.
- Mestaoua Cross Section (1050 m)
From the base to the top, we observe (Fig.3):
Fig-3: Lithostratigraphic log of Mestaoua
- 100 m: Dolomitic limestone and clear
dolomites;
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- 80 m: Intercalation of marls, limy marls and
marly limestone with ammonites (Harpoceras,
Hildoceras and Lytoceras) and radiolarians;
- 300 m: Grey azoic dolomites;
- 350 m: Massive limestones with oolites and
algae stratified into successive bars;
- 100 m: Micritic limestone with fine grains,
with Salpingoporella sp., S. annulata
(CAROZZI), Pseudocyclamina cf. lituus
YOKOHAMA, Lenticulina sp., Milioles, Clypeina sp.,
- 120 m: Bedded oolitic limestone, overcome by gravelous massive limestone bar.
- Batna Mountains Cross Section (928 m)
It is represented by (Fig.4):
Fig-4. Lithostratigraphic log of Batna Mountains
- 140 m: Microcrystalline dolomites and dolomitic limestone with algae (Thaumatoporella);
- 110 m: Massive dolomites with grey color;
- 175 m: Carbonate series, cryptocrystalline limestone with gastropods (20m), gravelous limestone
with algae (Thaumatoporella) dolomitized at the base and middle, toward the top the limestone
contains crinoids, foraminifera (Involutina liassica) with synsedimentary landslide figures;
- 10 m: Sandy marly limestone,
glauconious overcome by reddish clayey
limestone with ammonites;
- 60 m: Clayey bedded limestone series
with filaments, to the top it contains
thin beds of flint;
- 3 m: Alternation of marls, marly
limestone and condensation intervals of
ammonites;
- 150 m: Nodular clayey purplish
limestone with ammonites, belemnites
and radiolarians;
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- 200 m: Alternation of clayey limestone
with radiolarians and ostracods and grey
marls, at the base the series provided
Ataxioceras cf. guentheri OPP. and A. striolare; overcome by limestone with ammonites, sometimes
with brecciated appearance;
- 80 m: Grey limestone with calpionellids, rarely intercalated with marls.
- Toumbait Cross Section (330 m)
Formed by (Fig.5):
Fig-5. Lithostratigraphic log of Toumbaït
- 90 m: Crystalline dolomites and dolomitized limestone, sometimes sandy with stromatolite,
overcome by brecciated limestone level;
- 70 m: Marly limestone with radiolarians and flint, overcome via a hard-ground by marls
and blue to yellowish than purplish limestone;
- 30 m: Whitish carbonate marls;
- 20 m: Yellowish marls with ostracods;
- 35 m: Massive limestone with flint,
overcome by reddish marls interval with
ammonites (10 m of thickness);
- 85 m: Alternation of yellowish marls and
micritic limy marls.
2.1. Microfacies Analysis
Detailed microfaciologic analysis of the area study, has allowed to bring out facies associations,
describing and interpreting facies environments. Also, we could individualize three microfacies
associations categorized according to bathymetric order (Fig.6,7 and 8).

Inner platform
It encloses dolomitic facies, dolomitic lithology, absence of hydrodynamic criteria and many
emersion marks suggesting very superficial environment of tidal flat.
- Microfacies association 1
It englobes characteristic microfacies of low energy marine environment, with emersive trend,
well identified by intertidal to supratidal facies (Dolomitic mudstone with birds eyes, limy-dolomitic
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mudstone with brecciated aspect sometimes with stromatolites and breccia and mudstone with
ostracods.
Fig-6. A: Marly limestone with Belemnites; B, C, and D : Nodular clayey purplish limestone with ammonites, belemnites
and radiolarians; E:Packstone with radiolarians and globuligerina, F: Packstone with Saccocoma, J: Wackestone with
radiolarians, pelagic pelecypod fragments and foraminifera; H: Apthycus sp.
 Middle platform
It is represented by coarse facies integrating different depositional environments but all have recorded
very low bathymetry: stromatolites, oobioclastic dunes and sea grass with green algae.
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- Microfacies association 2
This association present microfacies with high energy criteria attesting the installation if shoals with
oolitic grainstone and bioclastic sands.
 Open platform- basin transition
It is characterized by the Ammonitico-rosso facies type (represented by nodular limestone with
ammonites and belemnites, red clays and limestone with flint).
- Microfacies association 3
It englobes wack-packstones with radiolarians, calpionellids and sponge spicules, packstone
with filaments (Bositra buchi) and protoglobogerinids.
Diffractometric analysis of forty samples has led to conclude that the climate in Jurassic period
was temperate.
3. Results and Discussion
The lithofaciologic study of Jurassic series in the area, allows to bring out a shallow carbonate
marine series, with the development of shoal bioclastic facies, passing progressively to pelagic ones.
By extensional tectonics, subsidence of seabed and inner facies progradation, this series can be
extended over many hundreds of meters.
Fig-7. Diffraction of X-rays result (two samples)
The observation of this series allowed to distinguish three lithologic sets:
The basal set: formed by Lower Jurassic deposits characterizing a marine interval with low
energy and emersive trend, defined by interidal to supratidal facies (limy-dolomitic mudstone with
brecciated aspect, sometimes with stromatolites and breach), overcome by carbonate facies with
pelagic fauna, mudstone, of low energy characterizing the base of sequences which are deposited in
inner environment, depth of water decreases and algal mats with stromatolites are installed in the tidal
interval.
With the development of sea regression, the environment became supratidal and evaporates take
their place between carbonate particles. Continental freshwater of vadose zone invades progressively
layers already deposited and gypsum changes progressively to anhydrite. The contact of evaporitic
layers and undersaturated water causes dissolutions of these layers conducting to the formation of
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brecciated carbonate. These phenomena are well known on outcrops (Lucia, 1972; Rubin &
Friedman, 1977).
The substratum collapse followed by an important eustatic elevation, lead to the drowning of
the shelf which seems likely to be Drowned platform type. (Schlager, 1981, 1989 ; Read, 1985 in
Saïdi et al 1997).
Median set: It corresponds to Dogger-Oxfordian carbonate deposits. Thereof integer
Dj.Messaouda and Dj.Mestaoua azoic dolomites with inter-supratidal character, their equivalent is
thinner condensed marine in Batna Mountains and Dj.Toumbaït. The condensation is expressed by
reddish levels with ammonites, glauconite and hard-ground translating an important transgression.
These sedimentation and thickness differences are due to the differences of block subsidence rates.
The Specific sedimentation evolution for each massif can be linked to eustatic variations.
Fig-8.I. filaments, Bositra buchi G: oolithic grainstone with clastic fragments K: breccias with in situ fragments L: wackpack with crinoid fragment, echinoid spines, benthic forams (protopeneroplis?) and algae.
Sommital set: Characterized by different facies and deposit environment but all have recorded
shallow bathymetry with the evolution of bioclastic character and the presence of gravels and ooliths,
this, characterizes a high energy environment in Batna mountains, Dj.Messaouda and Dj.Mestaoua
during the Kimmeredgian, sedimentation rates become superior than the subsidence rates, this is
translated by reefs installation. By its position in the bloc mosaic, the Dj.Toumbaït is individualized
with deep facies enclosing mudtone with limy-marls intercalations during the upper Jurassic.
In fact, Dogger carbonate deposits are capped by condensation surface with ammonites and
belemnites, on which Oxfordian purplish clays and wavy limestone are deposited (Ammonitico
Rosso), overcome by micritic deposits of the uppermost Jurassic which drowns temporarily the
bioclastic shelf because the long-term regressive evolution (2nd order) of the eustatic chart (Haq et al.,
1988), result the slowing of this drowning. (Saïdi et al 1997).
3.1. Tectonics-Sedimentation Interaction
At the end of Domerian, a restruction of carbonate shelf and a complet reorganization of deposit
environments are carried out, at the whole area of study scale. New sedimenation environments
during the Toarcian seem to be the direct result of differential subsidence combined to brutal
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extensional tectonics. This is translated by an important transgression expressed by an incipient
drowning for the carbonate platform during this period.
The transgression is changing over time according to subsidence rates and seabed relief.
Conjunction of two paleostructural directions (N70°E and N-S), leads to the sedimentary floor
collapse in tilted blocs. The repartition in space of facies and thicknesses, is related to complex
structural legacy.
3.2. Correlations
Correlation of Jurassic series from many cross sections, allows to bring out the shelf
physiography during this geologic period, the brutal variations of facies and thicknesses (Fig.9), are
directly linked to the seabed physiography organized for the Liassic into high and low areas.
Fig-9. Thickness and lateral facies variations of different cross sections
The northern massifs (Dj.Messaouda and Dj.Mestaoua) represent from the Oxfordian a high
area (Shoal) with emersive character (azoic saccaroid dolomites) attributed by our predecessors to
upper Dogger without paleontological arguments, we attribute them to the Oxforidian ( Equivalent of
Ammonitico-rosso).
4. Conclusion
The study of different sections and their correlation reveals important lithofacies and thickness
changes between different massifs from the Upper Domerian. It seems that these phenomena are
related to shelf structuration where stability periods seems in fact very scarce.
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Sedimentological microfacies analysis reveals diversified facies applying different depositional
environments, going from inner shelf to pelagic carbonate shelf. These facies were evolved within a
carbonate shelf. The latter has known many drowning phases (Toarcian, Oxfordian).
Paleogeographic differentiation reaches its maximum during Toarcian age and evokes an introduction
to regional tilted blocs system, in relation with the existence of extensional phase.
References
Bureau, D. 1967. Description d'un chevauchement sur le flanc méridional du Dj. Tuggurt. C.R. Soc. géol. Fr., 6 : 237-240.
Bureau, D. 1970. Principaux traits de la structure des Monts du Bellezma (Algérie). Bull. Soc. géol. Fr. (7), 12, 2 : 210213.
Bureau, D. 1970. Le chevauchement au Sud du Dj. Sarif. Bull. Serv. géol. Algérie, (N.S), 45.
Bureau, D. 1971. Remarque sur le Cénomanien à proximité de Batna (Aurès). C.R. Soc. géol. Fr, 4 : 69-70.
Bureau, D. 1972. Esquisse géologique des Monts du Bellezma (Aurès, Algérie). Publ. Serv. géol. Algérie, (N.S), 45 :7392.
Bureau, D. 1986. Approche sédimentaire de la dynamique structurale: évolution mésozoïque et devenir orogénique de la
partie septentrionale du fossé saharien (Sud-Ouest Constantinois et Aurès, Algérie). Thèse d'Etat, Univ. Pierre et
Marie Curie, Paris 6: 441.
Busson, G. 1969. Le Mésozoïque saharien I. Ed. CNRS Série Géologie n0 8.
Busson, G. 1970. Le Mésozoïque saharien I. Ed. CNRS Série Géologie n0 11.
Ficheur, E.1896. Réunion extraordinaire de la Société géologique en Algérie.-Bull. Soc. géol, France, (3), 24, p.
944- 1181.
Glaçon, J. 1952. Les Monts du Hodna (partie orientale) XIXe Congr. géol. inter., Alger, Monogr. rég. 1ère sér.
Algérie, n °7.
Guellal, S et al 1973 . Permis d‟Ain Reggada, rapport interne. (BEICIP-SONATRACH), 19 fig., 27 pl. 167p.
Haq, B. U., Hardenbol, J. & Vail P. R. 1988. Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and cycles of sea level change. In
Sea level changes: an integrated approach. (eds Wilgus C.K. et al.), Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists, Special Publication 42, 71–108.
Kazi Tani, N. 1986. Evolution géodynamique de la bordure nord-africaine: le domaine intraplaque N-algérien. Approche
megaséquentielle. Thèse d'Etat, Univ. Pau 886.
Laffitte, R. 1939. Etude géologique de l'Aurès. Bull. Serv. Carte géol. Algérie (2), 15 : 484.
Lasnier, J. 1965. Contribution à l‟étude stratigraphique et micropaléontologique du Jurassique des Hautes Plaines
Algériennes (Ain Sfra, Mecheria, Nador, Hodna). Thèse 3ème cycle, Paris.
Lucia, F.J. 1972. Recognition of evaporate-carbonate shoreline sedimentation.- In: Rigby, J.K. & Hamblin, W.K. (ed.): In
recognition of ancient sedimentary environments, 161-191. Spec. Publ. Soc. Econ. Paleont. Mineral. 16, 340 p.
Read, J. F. 1985. Carbonate platform facies models. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin 69, 1–21.
Rubin, D. M & Friedman, G. M. 1977. Intermittently emergent shelf carbonates: an example from the Cambro-Ordovician of
eastern New York state. - Sediment. Geol., 19, 81-106.
Saïdi, F., Ben Ismaïl, M, H., M‟Rabet, A. 1997. Le Turonien de Tunisie cento-occidentale: faciès, paléogéographie et
stratigraphie séquentielle d‟une plate forme carbonnatée ennoyée. Cretaceous Research 18, 63–85
Savornin, J. 1920. Etude géologique de la région du Hodna et du plateau sétifien. Thèse d'Etat. Univ. Lyon : 449.
Schlager, W. 1981. The paradox of drowned reefs and carbonate platforms. Geological Society of America, Bulletin 92,
197–211.
Schlager, W. 1989. Drowning unconformities on carbonate platforms. In Controls on carbonate platform and basin
development
(eds Crevello, P. D. et al.), Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Special
Publication 44, 15–25 .
Vila, J. M. 1980. La chaîne alpine d'Algérie orientale et des confins algéro-tunisiens. Thèse d'Etat. Univ. P.et M. Curie,
Paris VI : 665.
Youcef Brahim (2010). Cadre géologique et structural des séries sud-sétifienne méridionale (région de Merouana, Algérie
orientale) .Thèse magister, Univ .Tbessa :169.
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Aleppine Polychrome Wooden (`Ajami) Rooms in
Syria
Rami Alafandi1 --- Asiah Abdul Rahim2
1,2
Department of Architecture, Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design (KAED), International Islamic
University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The objective of this paper is to show the importance of the forgotten architectural and artistic
heritage of Aleppo, particularly the polychrome wooden (`ajami) rooms. Aleppo is the second
largest city in Syria (after the capital Damascus) and is the commercial capital of Syria.
Aleppo has a long history, extending from the third millennium B.C to the Islamic era. The
remains and monuments are evidence from those great civilizations. Many pieces of literature
mention that the Amorites were the first inhabitants in Aleppo during the third millennium
BC. In 223 BC, the Greek commander (Seleucus Nikator) re-organized and planned the city.
Later, Islamic rulers made Aleppo great by re-building its walls, gates, towers and citadel. The
Muslims also built mosques, schools, houses, inns, markets, hospitals, bathrooms, and public
facilities. Consequently, Aleppo flourished and became a very important station on the Silk
Road; the third largest city in the Ottoman Empire after Istanbul and Cairo. Aleppo was part of
the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918. As part of this empire, local Aleppine craftsmen
combined their techniques and cultural heritage with Ottoman architecture and design. Due to
growth in population the Ottomans expanded the city, provided facilities, and established
neighborhoods outside of the walls. These neighborhoods outside the walls were mostly for
rich people and contained the biggest treasure of polychrome wood in Aleppo, which has
become the icon of Ottoman- Syrian art. Polychrome wood includes several geometric, floral
motifs, and inscriptions. These motifs have rich symbolic backgrounds, originating from
house owners, artists, their native culture, and religion. This research employs a historical and
descriptive approach to exploring the thought and principles exemplified in the polychrome
wooden motifs, and to analyze the connection between different types of Islamic art and
polychrome wooden motifs. In 1986, UNESCO added Old Aleppo City to the World Heritage
List. Since 2012 much of Syria‟s architectural heritage has been destroyed due to internal
war. In Aleppo, the losses in both the ancient and modern parts of the city have been
tremendous. Some traditional houses with polychrome wooden interior room have been
damaged. This paper will highlight some recommendations to protect and restore the
traditional houses in Aleppo for future use.
Keywords: Aleppo city, Aleppo Heritage, Polychrome wood, `Ajami, Islamic art.
1. Introduction
For hundreds of years, craftsmen have been producing polychrome wood (`ajami) art to
decorate the buildings in Syria, particularly the houses. Ottoman style houses contain the largest
treasure of polychrome wood (`ajami) which has become the icon of Ottoman Syrian art. Polychrome
wood includes several geometric designs, floral motifs, and inscriptions. These motifs have rich
symbolic backgrounds, originating from house owners, artists, their native culture, the environment,
and religion. Today, impressive polychrome wood (`ajami) interiors dating from the 17th to the 19th
century are preserved in Damascus, Aleppo, and Hama in Syria.
2. Aleppo Heritage
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and serves as the capital of Aleppo Governorate (Figure 1),
the most populous Syrian governorate. It is located in northwestern Syria 310 kilometres (193 miles)
from Damascus. With an official population of 2,132,100 (2004 census), it is also one of the largest
cities in the Levant. Consequently, Aleppo flourished and became a very important station on the Silk
Road; the third largest city in the Ottoman Empire after Istanbul and Cairo.
Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world; it has been inhabited
since perhaps as early as the 6th millennium BC. Excavations at Tell as-Sawda and Tell al-Ansari,
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just south of the old city of Aleppo, show that the area was occupied by at least the latter part of the
3rd millennium BC, when Aleppo was first mentioned in cuneiform tablets unearthed in Ebla and
Mesopotamia. Aleppo was noted for its commercial and military proficiency and was such a long
history, and probably due to its being such a strategic trading point midway between the
Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia1.
Figure-1. Aleppo Map 1912 (wikipedia.org)
The city's significance in history has been its location at the end of the Silk Road, which passed
through central Asia and Mesopotamia. When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, trade was
diverted to the sea, and Aleppo began its slow decline. At the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World
War I, Aleppo ceded its northern hinterland to modern Turkey, as well as the important railway
connecting it to Mosul in Iraq. Then in the 1940s it lost its main access to the sea, Antioch and
Alexandretta, also to Turkey. Finally, the isolation of Syria in the past few decades further
exacerbated the situation, although perhaps it is this very decline that has helped to preserve the old
city of Aleppo, its medieval architecture, and traditional heritage. In 1986, UNESCO added old
Aleppo city in the World Heritage List2. In 2006, Aleppo won the title of the "Islamic Capital of
Culture 2006", and also witnessed a wave of successful restorations of its historic landmarks 3. Since
2012 much of Syria‟s architectural heritage has been destroyed due to internal war. In Aleppo, the
losses in both the ancient and modern parts of the city have been tremendous.
3. Ottoman Houses in Aleppo
Muslims always tried to make their houses like a heaven, and oriental design helped them4. The
design of Islamic Syrian house depend on the description of the paradise found in the Quran: {But
those who feared their Lord will be driven to Paradise in groups until, when they reach it while its
gates have been opened and its keepers say, "Peace be upon you; you have become pure; so enter it to
abide eternally therein," [they will enter]}5, and in other verses: {Those will have gardens of
perpetual residence; beneath them rivers will flow. They will be adorned therein with bracelets of
gold and will wear green garments of fine silk and brocade, reclining therein on adorned couches.
Excellent is the reward, and good is the resting place}. 6
1- Russell, Alexander. The Natural History of Aleppo (1st ed.). London. p. 266.
2- http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/aleppo.html
3- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo
4
- Gunay, Reha (1998). Tradition of the Turkish house and Safranbolu houses. Istanbul, Turkey :YEM Yayin. P; 62
5
- The Holy Qurn, Surat Az-Zumar:73
6
- The Holy Qurn, Surat Al-Kahf:31
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Figure-2. alley, old Aleppo city
Just as the cities are surrounded by walls and gates, Syrian houses have walls and gate,
replicating the walls and gates of Heaven. When walking through the alleys (Figure 2) one sees only
simple walls and doors. But, upon entering the gate through an indirect corridor, they will reach the
courtyard, an earthly paradise, adorned with plants, trees and a water fountain7.The most important
feature of the courtyard (Figure 3) is the iwan; a room with an open wall facing the courtyard
sometimes as tall as two stories. Here the family prefers to sit for its open view of the courtyard and
its moderate temperature, especially in summer. Surrounding the courtyard are the ground rooms,
customized to receive men, sealmlik, and the upper rooms, haramlek, private for the family. All the
rooms open to the courtyard with big windows, but rarely with windows facing the outside 8. The
house also includes a kitchen, service rooms, a toilet, a cellar to save food. The house rarely includes
a bath. Because the importance of hospitality in Islamic and Arabic culture, guest rooms (qa'a) are
more carefully decorated and furnished, and consist of one or three tazar"s" (raised seating area of a
room), and one 'ataba (low entry space of room)9.
All traditional Aleppo houses are courtyard houses built of white limestone, whose color
changes over the years into light grey. The most obvious feature of the living quarters is the
windowless and undecorated appearance of the house‟s outer facade, noted by almost all the travellers
who had visited Aleppo10.
Figure-3. cortyard, Ajek-Pash
7
- Alafandi, Rami. Abdul Rahim, Asiah. (2013). Syrian Palaces In Ottoman Style. Malaysia. ICABE.P: 4.
- Same as last entry.
9
- Same as last entry.
10
- Mollenhauer, Anne; Karzon, Zouka (2001): A Survey of Manorial Residential Houses in the Bab Qinnasrin Quarter of Aleppo. In:
Chronos, Revue d‟Histoire de l‟Université de Balamand 4.
8
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4. Polychrome Wood (`Ajami) Techniques
Harris (1983) defines Polychrome as the "practice
of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a
variety of colors".
According to Kyal (2007) and Scharrahs (2013):
These Syrian wooden elements are elaborately decorated
with a particular relief technique, known as pastiglia in
Europe but called al- „polychrome wood (`ajami) in Syria.
`ajami is the Arabic adjective applied to an Ajam, a
Persian or (relative to Arabic speakers) alien. Scharrahs
used polychrome wood and polychrome wood (`ajami)
together in her dissertation.
According to Kyal (2007) There are two types of
polychrome wooden („ajami) techniques:
1. Silken: the application of natural colors directly on
the wood to produce flat motifs (Figure 4).
2. Vegetal: the application of polychrome wooden
(`ajami) paste on the wood then applied with the
natural colors on it, to produce raised motifs.
Polychrome wooden (`ajami) paste consists of animal
glue and gypsum (Figure 5).
The term al- `ajami (`ajami) is used to describe this
decorative technique as a whole as well as the raised
ornaments individually, and also provides a commonly
used name for this type of interior, termed polychrome
wood (`ajami) rooms; even though other materials and
decorative techniques are also used in the rooms (Figure
6).
Figure-4. Silken Technique, Aleppo room,
Berlin
Figure-5. `ajami Paste.
Figure-6. Vegetal Technique; al-`ajami.
5. `Ajami in Aleppine Houses
The quarters of Aljdayda district are houses to numerous 16th and 17th-century houses of the
Aleppine bourgeoisie, featuring stone engravings and 'ajami, and this paper will focus on five houses
(Ghazaleh, Kuba, Ajek-Pash, Zamria and Basil) that have 'ajami panels which ducomented in 2006 by
the first author.
5.1. Ghazaleh House
Is located in the extramural Aljdayda Quarter11and was built in 17 century12 by Khajadour Bin
Murad Bali in 1691AD/1102AH that written in northern room ceiling (Figure 7). Later the Christian
family Saba 'Aidaa lived in this house1737AD/1150AH (Figure 8), followed by the Ghazaleh
family13 (also Christian) with more than 45 people living in it in 1834AD/1250AH (Figure 9). In the
early 20th century, the house was converted into a school for Arminians.
By 2007, the Aleppo Antiquities and Museums Directorate refurbished the Ghazaleh House
transforming it into a historical museum for the City of Aleppo. In conjunction with this endeavor,
they restored its polychrome wooden panels from 2009-2011. In 2013, the polychrome wooden
panels were stolen during the war in old Aleppo city.
11
12
13
- Hajar, Abdullah. (1998). Aleppo monuments. Aleppo University. P: 121
- Sauvaget ,Jean (1941). Alep, essai sur 1e développement d'une grands ville svrienne des origines au milieu du XIX siécle, t.l, Paris. P: 51
- Algazi, Kamel. 1991. Gold River in History of Aleppo. Aleppo. Dar AlqalamAlarabi. Vol:2 . p:203
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Figure-7.
Northern room ceiling (1691AD/1102AH),
Rami, 2006
Figure-8. qa'a wall (1737AD/1150AH), Rami, 2006
Figure-9. Northern room wall cornice (1834AD/1250AH), Rami, 2006
Architectural descriptive: The current plan of the house (1000m2) contains three courtyards
surrounded by two levels of rooms (ground and upper floors) and underground facilities (Figure 10)
:cellar and cave for saving food, and the upper floor, haramlek, specified for women built later. The
size of the biggest courtyard, selamlik, is 260m2 and has an Iwan and qa'a. The second courtyard is
80m2 and was used to supply food to the kitchen. The third courtyard is 25m2 and was used to service
the bathhouse. The Ghazaleh House is the only house in old Aleppo city which has a bath.
qa'a: consists of three tazars with one 'ataba forming the shape of the letter "T". All nine walls
and three ceilings have 'ajami panels with floral and geometrical motifs and inscriptions of poetry and
proverbs. There is a fountain in the center of the 'ataba.
Iwan: located in the south part of the main courtyard. It has 'ajami ceiling with cornice.
The northern hall is a rectangular room, the walls and ceiling are covered by 'ajami panels and
these panels are dated by the name of the owners.
Figure-10. Ghazaleh plan, Burabeh
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5.2. Kuba House
Located near Farhat Square in the Aljdayda Quarter, was built in 1718AD/1130AH according to
the inscription in 'ajami on the ceiling of the upper room (Figure 11). The owner was Fateh-Allah
Kuba 14 and 2004 this house was left by the inheritor who immigrated to America.
Figure-11. inscription date, Rami, 2006
Architectural descriptive: The house contains four levels: the ground, two upper floors, and the
underground floor which has a cellar and cave. The courtyard is surrounded by an iwan with three
rooms for selamlik, reserved for men and service a kitchen and facilities (Figure 12). On the upper
floor are the haramlek and the mezzanine floor for the maids.
The decoration: there is a fabulous marble fountain in the courtyard, the iwan has a sunshade
made of 'ajami panels, and the guest room is decorated by 'ajami on the walls and ceiling. Also, there
is one room in the upper has an 'ajami ceiling.
Figure-12. Kuba plan, Burabeh
5.3. Ajek-Pash House
Located near the Jasmine gate in the
Aljdayda Quarter, and according to the
inscription (Figure 14) it was built in
1757AD/1171AH by the grandfather of YousefKaraly15 (also known as Ajek-pash). Later the
Syriac Catholic Church owned the house and
used it as hostel for the poor. In 1967, the
Figure-14 inscription date, Rami, 2006
14
- De Sallé, Eusébe (1840); Pérégrinations en Orient ou vcvage pittoresque Historique et politique en Egypte Nubie, Syrie, Turquie,
pendant les années 1837 1838 1839. Paris. P:112.
15
- De Sallé, Eusébe (1840); Pérégrinations en Orient ou vcvage pittoresque Historique et politique en Egypte Nubie, Syrie, Turquie,
pendant les années 1837 1838 1839. Paris.p:115.
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Aleppo Antiquities and Museums Directorate
transformed it into a traditional museum for
Aleppo City. In 2013, the polychrome wooden
panels were stolen during the war in old Aleppo
city.
Architectural descriptive: The house
contains five levels: the ground, mezzanine, an
upper floor, and the underground floor which
has the cellar and cave with cistern. The
courtyard is surrounded by an Iwan with four
rooms for selamlik (Figure 16) also has the
kitchen and facilities (Figure 15). On the upper
floor are the rooms for haramlek.
The decoration: European influence is
evident in this house, as many houses in Aleppo
in the 18th century; the windows are framed with
carved stone of baroque and rococo style. The
qa'a is a rectangular space with one tazar and an
'ataba decorated by ornate 'ajami panels on the
ceiling and walls (Figure 13). The other three
rooms on ground floor and iwan are also
adorned with 'ajami panels.
Figure-15. Ajek-Pash plan, Burabeh
Figure-16. qa'a of Ajek-Pash, Rami, 2006
Figure-13: qa'a ceiling of Ajek-Pash, Rami, 2006
5.4. Zamria House
It is located in Aljdayda quarter and built in
1733AD/1145AH16 by Khazdar Othmani17. In
1808AD/1223AH the Zamria family owned the
house (Figure 18). In 1997, Martini Co converted
the house into a traditional hotel and restaurant18.
Figure-18. inscription date, Rami, 2006
16
- David, Jean. claude (1975);Alep. dégadations et tentaives actuelles de réadaptation des structures urbaines traditionnelles. in bulletin
d'études orientales. XXVIII, p. 23.
17
- According to the property document; Burabeh, Latifa. 2009. Illustration of ceilings in civilian buildings during Ottoman Empire in
Algeria, Aleppo and Damascus cities, Algeria.
18
- https://www.facebook.com/pages/Dar-Zamaria-Hotel/215708538449832?sk=info&tab=page_info
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During the internal war in Syria (2012-2013) the
Zamria house was shelled many times, and the
house was partly damaged, then completely burnt
and many parts were destroyed.
Architectural descriptive: The house contains
two levels: the ground and underground floor
which has the cellar and cave with cistern. The
courtyard is square with a small fountain and is
surrounded by an iwan (Figure 20) and two rooms
with qa'a. The room on the right of iwan is for
selamlik, and the one on the left is for haramlek
(Figure 17). The ground floor also contains a
kitchen and facilities (Figure 19).
The qa'a: is rectangular space without an
'ataba and is decorated with 'ajami panels on
ceiling and walls.
The iwan's ceiling and walls are decorated by
'ajami panels with a sunshade, and also has two
rooms and a qa'a.
Figure17. haramlek ceiling, Rami, 2006
5.6. Basil House
It is located in Bahira Monk lane in the
Aljdayda Quarter and according to the inscription in
its 'ajami the house was built early in
1772AD/1186AH and decorated in 1785AD/1199AH
(Figure 22) by the Basil family19. In 2002, the house
converted into institute for languages and art20.
Architectural descriptive: The house
contains of three levels: the ground floor, the upper
floor, and the underground floor which has the cellar.
The courtyard is square with a fountain (Figure 24),
Figure-19. Zamria plan, Burabeh
Figure-20. Zamria courtyard, Rami, 2006
Figure-22. inscription date, Rami, 2006
19
- - According to the property document; Burabeh, Latifa. 2009. Illustration of ceilings in civilian buildings during Ottoman Empire in
Algeria, Aleppo and Damascus cities, Algeria.p: 24
20
- Same as last entry.
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is surrounded by an iwan, four selamlik rooms, a
qa'a, and a kitchen and facilities (Figure 23). The
upper floor contains haramlek rooms.
The qa'a: consists of three tazars with an
'ataba forming the shape of a "T". All nine walls
and three ceilings have 'ajami panels with floral and
geometrical motifs, and inscriptions of poetry, and
proverbs (Figure 21).
The ceiling and walls of the iwan and its
sunshade, the four rooms, and the qa'a are adorned
with 'ajami panels.
Figure-23. Basil plan, Burabeh
Figur-21. one of the qa'a ceiling, Rami, 2006
Figure-24. Basil courtyard, Rami, 2006
6. The Patterns of Polychrome Wood ('Ajami) in Aleppine Houses
6.1. The Floral and Vegetal Motifs
The floral and vegetal motifs were employed equally with geometrical motifs. The most
common patterns of floral and vegetal motifs in 'ajami panels in Aleppine houses include: tulips,
carnations, Pomegranate blossoms, lilies, buttercups, and acanthus leaves.
6.1.1. The Tulip
Used in 'ajami motifs in qa'a of Kuba (Figure 25), Ajek-Pash (Figure 26) and Basil house
(Figure 27).
It seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks21.
The tulip appeared on Ottoman ceramics and carpets in the 15th century22. In the 18th century the tulip
became the most popular motif in Ottoman art and that period was called "The Tulip Era", deriving
from the tulip craze among the Ottoman court society. Tulips defined nobility and privilege, both in
terms of goods and leisure time23. According to Arseven (1950) the Istanbul gardens had more than
300 types of tulips24.3
21
- Mathew, Brain. Baytop,Turhan (1984) The bulbous plants of Turkey. Frome; Batsfor. P:100.
- Same as last entry. P: 26.
- Gunay, Reha (1998). Tradition of the Turkish house and Safranbolu houses. Istanbul, Turkey :YEM Yayin. P:35.
24
- Arceveu, CE. (1950). Les arts décoratifs Turcs, Milli Egitim Basinevi Istanbul (SD). P: 84
22
23
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Figure-25. kuba, Burabeh
Figure-26.
Rami, 2006
Ajek-pash,
Figure-27. Basil, Rami, 2006
6.1.2. The Carnation
Used in 'ajami motifs in qa'a of Ghazzaleh (Figure 28),Ajek-Pash (Figure 29), and Basil house
(Figure 30).
According to Arseven (1950) the flower was named by the Turks, the origin of the carnation is
Iran or China, and the Istanbul gardens had more than 200 types of carnations25. According to the
manuscript of Ibn Khordadbeh (9th century) he mentioned the carnation as the most famous import
from Sumatra, Indonesia26.
Figure-28. Ghazzaleh, Rami, 2006
Figure-29. Ajek-Pash, Rami, 2006
Figure-30. Basil, Rami, 2006
6.1.3. The Pomegranate Blossom
Called hatayi in Turkish and Persian27, was used on most of the 'ajami panels, as in the Kuba
House (Figure 31), the Ajek-pash House (Figure 32), and the Zamaria House (Figure 33-34).
Figure-31. kuba, Rami, 2006
25
26
27
Figure-32. zamria, Rami, 2006
- Same as last entry.
- Ibn Khordadbeh. The Book of Roads and Kingdoms (Kitāb al-Masālik w’al- Mamālik) 9th-century geography manuscript.
- Azzam, Khaled (2013). Arts and crafts of the Islamic lands : principles, materials, practice. Thames & Hudson. P: 9.
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Figure-33. Ajek-pash, Rami, 2006
Figure34. Ajek-pash, Rami, 2006
6.1.4. The Lily
Is an influence from the European culture and spread in the Ottoman states especially in
Anatolia, Eyalet, and North Africa. It was used with acanthus leaves on 'ajami panels in the AjekPash House (Figure 35).
Figure-35. Ajek-pash, Burabeh
6.1.5. The Buttercup
Used in 'ajami motifs in Ajek-Pash (Figure 36-37).
Figure-36. buttercup in Ajek-pash, Rami, 2006
Figure-37. buttercup in Ajek-pash (sketch), Burabeh
6.2. The Geometrical Motifs
Geometric patterns have always had a particular appeal to Muslim designers and craftsmen.
They convey a certain aura of spirituality or at least otherworldliness, without relating to any specific
doctrine. Above all, they provide craftsmen with the opportunity to demonstrate his skill and subtlety
of workmanship, and often to dazzle and intrigue with its sheer complexity28.
Star polygon: The 'ajami panels have several types of polygons such as hexagons, octagons,
decagons, and dodecagons. In general the design of star polygon consists of three basic emblems: the
shield in the center, the almonds, four-sided polygons radiating around the shield, the Kinda, a sixnon equilateral sided polygon radiating equally around the almond. There are two types of star
polygon patterns:
1- The Carving Star Polygon: used in 'ajami panels in qa'a of Ghazzaleh House (Figure 38-39)
and the sunshade iwan of Kuba House (Figure 40-41), the iwan of the Ajek-Pash House
(Figure 42-43).
28
- Broug, Eric (8002). Islamic Geometric Patterns.Thames & Hudson. P: 21
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Figure-38. qa'a ceiling of Ghazzaleh, Rami, 2006
Figure-40. iwan sunshade of Kuba, Rami, 2006
Figure-42. iwan Ceiling of Ajek-Pash, Rami, 2006
Figure-39. qa'a ceiling of Ghazzaleh (Sketch),
Burabeh
Figure-41. iwan sunshade of Kuba (Sketch), Burabeh
Figure-43. iwan Ceiling of Ajek-Pash (Sketch),
Burabeh
2- The Carving and Polychrome Star Polygon: used in 'ajami panels in the sunshade of the iwan
of the Ajek-Pash House (Figure 44-45) and the sunshade of the iwan in the Zamria House
(Figure 46-47).
Figure-44. iwan sunshade of Ajek-pash
Figure-45. iwan sunshade of Ajek-pash (sketch), Burabeh
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Figure-46. iwan sunshade of Zamria
Figure-47. iwan sunshade of Zamria (sketch), Burabeh
6.3. The Inscriptions
The content of the inscriptions in the Ghazzaleh and Kuba houses are poetry of wisdom (Figure
48-49). On the iwan of Ajek-Pash and qa'a of Basil are common Arabic proverbs (Figure 50-51) and
poetry and in the qa'a of the Zamria house is poetry praising the Prophet Mohammed (Figure 52).
Figure-48. Ghazzleh, Rami, 2006
Figure-49. Kuba, Rami, 2006
Figure-50. Ajek-Pash, Rami, 2006
Figure-51. Basil, Rami, 2006
Figure-52. Zamria, Rami, 2006
7. The Analysis

The `ajami panels in all the fifth studied houses are dated. The oldest `ajami panels were
Ghazalyeh house (1691AD/1102AH) then Kuba (1718AD/ 1130AH), Zamria in
(1733AD/1145AH), Ajek-pash in (1757AD/1171AH), and finally Basil in
(1772AD/1186AH).
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




Ghazalyeh and Basil houses are only houses with triple qa'a; the qa'a with three tazar.
The artist who applied the motifs was impacted by the environment of Middle East, whose
artists used tulips, carnations, Pomegranate blossoms, buttercups and acanthus leaves. Some
of these motifs did not originally come from Syria, but came to the Middle East by the Silk
Road from Asia and Europe. The Ottoman adopted, developed, and used some motifs which
came from Europe, such as the lily. Ottoman art and architecture were also directly impacted
by rococo and baroque styles from Europe.
The geometrical motifs developed through the Islamic civilization and Ottoman art was the
conclusion of the development of the geometrical Islamic art. The Ottomans synthesized all
the previous skills and knowledge of craftsmen and artists from the Islamic world and other
cultures.
The inscriptions indicated that the owners were intellectuals or at least were well-enough
educated to use poetry, wisdom, and proverbs in the inscriptions to entertain the guests.
Whether the the owner was Muslim or Christian there are no differences in the polychrome
motifs especially in the houses studied above.
8. The Conclusion and Recommendations
This paper is small effort to document the forgotten Aleppine `ajami and houses. Especially, the
`ajami has been eroded and in some cases has been destroyed, particularly in the last three years
during Syria's internal war. The floral and geometrical motifs express the backgrounds and culture of
owners and artists during that period. The identification of `ajami motifs can be a guide for
craftsmen and experts who produce polychrome wood so that they can use the original motifs with a
full understanding of their significance, origin and influences.
References
The Holy Quran
Alafandi, Rami. Abdul Rahim, Asiah. (2013). Syrian Palaces In Ottoman Style. Malaysia. ICABE.
Algazi, Kamel. 1991. Gold River in History of Aleppo. Aleppo. Dar AlqalamAlarabi. Vol:2 .
Arceveu, CE. (1950). Les arts décoratifs Turcs, Milli Egitim Basinevi Istanbul (SD).
Azzam, Khaled (2013). Arts and crafts of the Islamic lands : principles, materials, practice. Thames & Hudson.
Broug, Eric (8002). Islamic Geometric Patterns.Thames & Hudson.
Burabeh, Latifa. 2009. Illustration of ceilings in civilian buildings during Ottoman Empire in Algeria, Aleppo and Damascus
cities, Algeria.
David, Jean. claude (1975);Alep. dégadations et tentaives actuelles de réadaptation des structures urbaines traditionnelles. in
bulletin d'études orientales. XXVIII.
De Sallé, Eusébe (1840); Pérégrinations en Orient ou vcvage pittoresque Historique et politique en Egypte Nubie, Syrie,
Turquie, pendant les années 1837 1838 1839. Paris.
Gunay, Reha (1998). Tradition of the Turkish house and Safranbolu houses. Istanbul, Turkey :YEM Yayin.
Hajar, Abdullah. (1998). Aleppo monuments. Aleppo University.
Ibn Khordadbeh. The Book of Roads and Kingdoms (Kitāb al-Masālik w‟al- Mamālik) 9th-century geography manuscript.
Mathew, Brain. Baytop,Turhan (1984) The bulbous plants of Turkey. Frome; Batsfor.
Mollenhauer, Anne; Karzon, Zouka (2001): A Survey of Manorial Residential Houses in the Bab Qinnasrin Quarter of
Aleppo. In: Chronos, Revue d‟Histoire de l‟Université de Balamand 4.
Russell, Alexander. The Natural History of Aleppo (1st ed.). London.
Sauvaget ,Jean (1941). Alep, essai sur 1e développement d'une grands ville svrienne des origines au milieu du XIX siécle, t.l,
Paris.
Websites:



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo
http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/aleppo.html
https://www.facebook.com/pages/Dar-Zamaria-Hotel/215708538449832?sk=info&tab=page_info
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Modeling of the Flows and Solid Transport in the
Catchment Area of Meskiana- Mellegue Upstream
(of Medjerda, Confin Algero-Tunisien)
Moufida Belloula1 --- Hadda Dridi2
1
Master Assistant. Laboratory of natural hazards and planning (LRNAT), University of Batna
Professor, laboratory of natural hazards and planning (LRNAT), University of Batna
2
ABSTRACT
This article focuses on the study of flows and sediment transport in suspension, according to a
probabilistic model flow/Erosion that is the most important modeling point. Furthermore the
absence of direct measurements on erosion for experimental stations, on based on operation
data from instantaneous sampling liquid fluxes and concentrations of sediment transported
during periods of flooding. In this regard a methodology to develop a mathematical model of
specific erosion occurs in Meskiana - Mellegue upstream watershed which is part of the great
watershed of the medjerda River (northeastern Algeria). It is home to areas vulnerable to
erosion the irregularity of precipitation and their intensity, also the remarkable influence of
climatic and topographical factors on particle detachment which mean the outbreak of the
erosion dynamics in the basin watershed.
Keywords: Modeling, Flow, Érosion, Catchment area, Medjerda.
1. Introduction
The major constraint encountered in terms of territorial action, oriented towards local
development, is the search for a just and necessary balance between the imperatives of development
and the actual skills of the middle in its physical and human component. Support for this issue is
relevant in particular in semi-arid and arid regions, where the "water resource" factor weighs all its
weight and calls for this title sound management of the resource. The choice of the oued Medjerda
including watershed Meskiana – Mellegue upstream constituting its top courses, is justified in more
than one way. Indeed the study of this watershed on contrasting physical spaces and bioclimatic
nuance very little varied, allows a homogeneous approach of rethinks the hydrology of the
impluvium. Also the cross-border nature of this court of water justified a quite fine water potential
assessment; because at the end of conflict in resources could raise a forward-looking and an
anticipated vision to the problem should then be considered at least as a preventive measure. The
approach must also incorporate solid transport assessment and modeling which constitute a major
constraint to the sustainability of the works ensuring the mobilization of this resource. The objective
assessment of flows requires an accurate analysis of the variables hydro-pluviometric and associated
space vulnerabilities, including the loss in soil. So we tried to analyze hydrologic regimes and the
modality of a space-time plane flow. We have tried to implement a constriction of mathematical
models with variable time steps and solid relationship with transport. On the other hand, the validation
of models involving a refund as faithful as possible to the reality on the ground by them.
2. Physical Study of Sub Watersheds Meskiana-Mellegue Upstream
2.1. Geographic Situation
The catchment area of Meskiana - Mellegue upstream which has the object of our study, part of
the great watershed of the Medjerda, located in the extreme eastern Algeria, limited by: the watershed
of the coastal Constantine in the north, the Sahara in the south, to the west Seybouse and Tunisia at
the east (fig.1)
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Fig-1. Geographical situation of catchment area of Medjerda.
The characteristics of the physical components and morpho-metric and their articulation in space
highly influence the hydrological response of watersheds. The watershed of Wadi Meskiana Mellegue upstream combines all the characters and abilities of a brutal flow and associated erosive
dynamics taking off morpho-metric characteristics of the latter (Tableau.1).
Table-1. Caracteristiques Morphometric And Orographical Characteristics.
Parameter
Surface
density index
Width of equivalent rectangle
Altitude :average
Density of drainage
Coefficient of torrents
Time of concentration
Units
km²
/
Km
m
/
Km/km²
h
Symbol
S
Kc
l
H mean
Dd
Ct
Tc
Mellegue upstream
1516
1.68
15.57
710
4.11
28.93
14.58
Meskiana
1854
1.61
17.64
1059
4.47
23.38
16.45
Upstream Meskiana-Mellegue watershed is drained primarily by Oued Mellegue 58 Km in
length and an area of the order of 3370 Km2, has an elongated shape, with a moderate to high
gradient.Time of concentration is estimated at 33 hours, these factors offer very favorable conditions
to the specific degradation (fig.2).The hydrographic network of the upstream - Meskiana Mellegue
watershed, has a dendritic shape and confluence points are most often with low slopes, therefore less
favoring the rapid concentration of flows.
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Fig-2. Map of the hydrographic network of catchment area of Meskiana - Mellegue upstream.
The dominance of friable geological formations (limestone friable, conglomerates and alluvial
deposits) and the degradation of plant cover (steppes, crops), promote the vulnerability of the
environment to the phenomenon of erosion (fig. 3).
Fig-3. Lithological map of catchment area of Meskiana-Mellégue Upstream
3. Hydroclimatologic Study of the Catchment Area of Meskiana – Mellegue
Upstream
3.1. The Climate
The catchment area of Meskiana - Mellegue upstream is characterized by a semi-arid
continental type (winter cold and summer hot), and reduced to its simplest expression climate.
However the orographic gradient applies strongly and sets bioclimatic separations.
3.1.1. The Rainfall Regimes
Rainfall regimes show high spatial and temporal variability. A net decrease of precipitation is
reported from west to east, but from the funds of the valleys to the heights.This variability also seems
to evolve to the rhythm of the seasons. The average annual rainfall over a period of 26 years is
estimated at 382 mm for Mellegue upstream basin and 375mm for Mekiana basin. Monthly variability
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(Cv) is more pronounced than the Interannual variability of the rainfall modules during the period
(1980-2006).
3.1.2. The Thermal Regime
The thermal regime is characterized by average annual temperatures between 15 ° c and 17 ° c
(fig.4).
Fig-4. Monthly variations of the temperatures (Station of Tébessa).
3.1.3. The Hydrology
Table-2. Summary table of the parameters of the assessment calculated by the various methods.
/
ETR
Runoff
Infiltration
Used Formula
Thornthwaite
Tixeront and Berkaloff
results
Meskiana-Mellégue Upstream
333.86 mm
32.31 mm
20.75 mm
%
86.28
8.35
5.36
The results obtained by the method of (Thornthwaite), showthat the obtained values are close to
reality, which will lead us to the calculation of the balance sheet. Annual ETR is 333.86 mm 86.28%
of precipitation for the station of Tebessa. Runoff estimated by the empirical formula of (Tixeront and
Berkaloff) should receive only 8.35% precipitation and representing 32.31 mm. Infiltration calculated
by the formula of the balance sheet would be 20.75 mm and is 5.36% of precipitation.
3.2. Hydrology
Statistical analysis of hydrological data and obtained graphics allowed us to appreciate the
spatial variations in surface runoff. The seasonal regime of the basin is mainly upland, in the form of
flood. These flows of crest allow us to highlight the reaction of the basin for a period of time in a
downpour or given rainy sequence. However the floods, less brutal in their occurrence, allow to
highlight the strong decrease in flow in the drying phase (Tableau.3).
Table-3. Annual Frequency Precipitations In (mm).
Station
Ouenza
Mdaouroch
El Aouinet
Messloula
P (dry year)
T=100years T=50years
F=0.99
F=0.98
291.91
231.43
257.41
212.18
316.04
231.04
228.68
168.25
T=10years
F=0.9
231.43
212.18
231.04
168.25
P
T=2years
F=0.5
157.35
156.8
126.95
94.25
P (damp year)
T=10years T=50years
F=0.10
F=0.02
398.41
447.5
490.60
578.48
407.71
469.12
286.59
311.36
T=100years
F=0.01
464.86
609.48
490.78
320.10
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Station
Meskiana
Rihia
A.Dhalaa
P (dry year)
T=100yrs
F=0.99
280.54
173.68
244.55
T=50yrs
F=0.98
242.85
149.51
184.18
T=10yrs
F=0.90
242.85
149.51
184.18
P
T=2yrs
F=0.5
196.72
119.91
110.26
P (damp year)
T=10yrs T=50yrs
F=0.10
F=0.02
362.78
413.41
372.08
421.56
317.85
342.31
T=100yrs
F=0.010
431.26
439.01
350.93
4. Modeling of Flow and Transport Solid
Meskiana watershed - Mellegue upstream offer very favorable conditions especially the
mobilization and the transport of materials. The results calculated by various empirical formulae
(Fournier, Tixeron, Sogreah, A.N.R.H) indicate a gap that appears and which is explained by the
different approaches used by each author. The importance of erosion or many watershed-specific
factors are overlooked by these formulas, for this reason, we will attempt to estimate of solid
transport.
4.1. The Used Method
The main purpose in our study is to achieve a binding between the hydro-climatic parameters
using a mathematical approach, according to the following steps:
4.1.1. Collection of Data Contributing to the Studied Phenomenon
The data that were used to develop our model are defined according to the following schema:
entrance=cause=>liquid flow(QI)
exit=consequence=>solid flow(QS)
(QS)=F(QI)
These data have been measured at the level of hydrometric stations: (ElAouinet: 19731984),(Ouenza:1972-2003).
A- Statistical Treatment of the Data
The points form the model are chosen according to two criteria: uniformity and stationarity Test
of "Man". Whitney" is to share the series into two representative size samples P, q with (P ≤ q), and
which are stored in ascending order where the size of the sample (N = P + p), with the constant V and
W.
(1)
(2)
R   X(3)
i . X i 1  X i . X
(3)
Statistical test (man. U Witheny) sets the min (V.W) when N > 20 and P.q > 30 variance and as
follows:
⦋
With :
⁄
⦌⦋
⦌
(4)
(5)
'j' is the number of observations having the same rank.
The normal reduced variable (Uα/2) corresponds to a probability in excess α/2. If |U| < (Uα/2)
homogeneity α %
test is accepted.
B- Independance and Stationnarity
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Test (Wold and Wilforvitz) is based on the R statistics. If R follows a normal distribution with
mean and variance representative, the elements of the sample are independent from where;
R
The quantity:
(7) U 
S
 S2
N 1
2
1

(6)
(6)
RR
Var R 
If ‫׀‬U‫ < ׀‬Uα/2 implies the assumption of independence is accepted meaning levels. Indeed the
treatment of mean solid flows in suspension by the use of software (HFA) (Hydrological Frequency
Analysis), has not given good results about the test of Man-Whitney and that of Wold and Wilforvitz
for the selection of representative samples from the values given by the ANRH therefore the selection
of the two samples was chosen by pulling suspicious values (fig.5).
Fig-5 . HFA Result for solid flow (Station of Ouenza).
C- Elaboration of Modal
From various forms of regressions conducted (fig.6), the polynomial form seems the most
acceptable, due to correlation greater than 0.75, be it daily, seasonal, or annual scaling (fig.7). This
has led to a general template form
.
Fig-6-a. Polynomial Regressions (station Ouenza)
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Fig-6-b. Polynomial Regressions (station El Aouinet)
D. Estimation of the Parameters of the Model
The method of least squares is a mathematical tool that allows to find a straight line
approaching a set of points where constants (A and B), are given by:
A
 X  X Y  Y 
 X  X 
B  Y  AX
2
(8)
(9)
Fig -7-a. Relationship liquid flows-solid flows (station of Ouenza).
Fig-7-b. Relationship liquid flows-solid flows (station of El Aouinet).
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E- Study of the System of Liquid Flow of the Watercourse by a Frequency Analysis
Fig-8-a - Curves of the classified annual liquid flows (Station El Aouinet)
Fig-8-b - Curves of the classified annual liquid flows (StationOuenza)
F- Estimation of the Mass of Sediment
It is done in several steps: calculate liquid fluxes attained or exceeded Q1 corresponding to the
median for each frequency range. Where:
K = log 2 N   1
E( I )  max  X 1   min  X 2  / K
(10)
(11)
At each flow rate Q1 we calculate the solid flow in suspension Qs, by using statistical model:
QSI  f Qi (12)
Determine the concentration mean sediments (Cs) by the average liquid flow (Ql):
Qs  C.Ql
(13)
The application of models (11 and 12), on the data from the stations of Ouenza and El Aouinet,
on the basis of a liquid flow 0.43m3/s and a 3370 Km2 area, we obtain the following results
(Tableau.5).
Table-5. Dégradations spécifiques trouvées par différentes méthodes Specific degradations found
by various methods.
Methods
The annual scale model
Seasonal scale model
Fournier
specific Degradation T/Km²/ans
Ouenza
El Aouinet
349.60
95.86
336.42
85.20
550.35
160.20
Continue
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A.N.R.H
Tixeront
Sogreah
883.15
212.2
136.12
322.86
207.51
134.25
5. Conclusion
After studying the variation of solid flow depending on the flow liquid at different scales
(annual, seasonal, daily), we can say that the coefficient of correlation on an annual scaling is
significant for either Ouenza or El Aouinet (R = 0.79, R = 0.89). At the seasonal scale, the value of
the correlation coefficient is the same for the wet season or dry season. Therefore, the relationship
between sediment discharge and liquid flow remains always significant. On the other hand, the
assessment of the amount of sediment in suspension by the use of the established model has different
scales where the values of specific degradation are almost the same.
Also, we noticed that for the model of the daily liquid-solid flows gave overestimated values.
Indeed, the values found by the model are close to those confirmed by Fournier formulas as well as
Tixeront for the station of Ouenza. On the other hand, for the station of El Aouinet, the model is
similar to that of Fournier and Sogreah, unlike A.N.R.H formula which gave overestimated
values.Used relationships can serve as a basis for the extension of the short series, to analyze and to
control all the useful comments, and the gap in information.
In this regard, we can say that the specific erosion (445.46 T/Km2/year) is in relation to solid
flow (22.24 Kg/s), which undergoes Meskiana-Mellegue watershed upstream. These results attest to
the combined role of the degraded state of vegetation with poor tender soils to average slope land,
generated in an aggressive climate atmosphere accompanied by anthropical action ill-suited to the
environmental conditions.
References
Andree D, Rene.D, 1999, Les risques naturels, 3éme édition mise à jour Juillet 2000.
Agence Des Bassins Hydrographiques, 2000, Constantinois-Seybousse-Mellegue, les cahiers De l‟agence, N=°5, Bassin des
hauts plateaux Constantinois.
Abrami G, 2004, niveaux d‟organisation dans la modélisation multi-agent pour la gestion des Ressources renouvelables.
Application à la mise en œuvre de règles collectives de gestion de l‟eau agricole dans la basse vallée de la Drôme,
ENGREF.
Allain J, 2002, relations végétation-écoulement-transport solide dans le lit des rivières. Etude De l‟ire dans le grésillant,
INPG.
Attal M, 2003, Erosion des galets des rivières de montagne au cours du transport fluvial: Etude expérimentale et application
aux réseaux hydrographiques d‟orogénies actifs, UJF, Grenoble.
Belhadj.K.Med.S, 1999, Modélisation numérique de l‟hydrologie pour l‟aide à la gestion des Bassins versants par
l‟utilisation conjointe des systèmes d‟information géographique et de la méthode des éléments finis: Un nouvel
outil pour le développement durable, SAGESS, U, Québec.
Brivois.O, 2005, contribution à la modélisation de l‟érosion de fortes pentes par un écoulement turbulent phasique, Trhèse de
doctorat, Univ, Aix-Marseille ІІ, France
Balayn.P, 2001, contribution à la modélisation numérique de l‟évolution morphologique des Cours d‟eaux aménagées lors de
crues, Lyon.
Cosandey.C- Robinson.M, 2000, Hydrologie continentale, édition Armand. Collins. France
Campy.M-Jean.J.M, 2003, Géologie de la surface. (Erosion, transfert et stockage dans les environnements continentaux, 2 ème
édition, édition Dunod, France
Cerdan.O, 2001 ,Analyse et modélisation du transfert de particules solides à l‟échelle de petits bassins versants cultivés,
Thèse de doctorat, université d‟Orléans, USA.
Demmak.A, 1982, Contribution à l‟érosion et des transports solides en Algérie septentrionale, Thèse de Docteur-Ingénieur,
Univ. Perre et Curie.M, Paris 6, France.
Kingumbi.A, 2006, Modélisation hydrologique d‟un bassin affecté par des changements d‟occupation. Cas du Merguellil en
Tunisie central ENIT, Univ de Tunis el Manar.
Kreis.N, 2004, Modélisation des crues des rivières de moyenne montagne pour la gestion intégrée du risque d‟inondation.
Application à la vallée de Thur (Haut-Rhin), thèse de doctorat, Ecole doctorale ENGREF, Paris, france.
Sari.D, 1977, l‟Erosion dans les Aurès, édition SNED, Alger.
Seltzer.P, 1949, le Climat de l‟Algérie, Alger.
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Handbook on the Applied Sciences and Engineering, Vol.2, 2015
ISBN : 978-969-9952-11-1
Hydrochemical Characterization of Alluvial Aquifer
of Tebessa-Morsott. Eastern Algeria
Tarek Drias1
1
Laboratory of mobilization and management of water resources, university of Batna, Algeria
ABSTRACT
A study of the hydrogeochemical processes in the Tebessa-Morsott aquifer was carried out
with the objective of identifying the geochemical processes and their relation with
groundwater quality as well as to get an insight into the hydrochemical evaluation of
groundwater. The high salinity coupled with groundwater level decline pose serious problems
for current irrigation and domestic water supplies as well as future exploitation. The statistical
treatment of hydrochemical data by principal component analysis revealed two components
related to salinity and pollution, The US salinity diagram illustrates that most of the
groundwater samples fall in C3S1- C4S1 quality with high salinity hazard and low sodium
hazard.
Keywords: Diapiric, ACP/PCA, Alluvial aquifer, Salinity, Tebessa, Algeria.
1. Introduction
Water quality analysis is an important issue in groundwater studies. Variation of groundwater
quality in an area is a function of physical and chemical parameters that are greatly influenced by
geological formations and anthropogenic activities. The hydrochemical study reveals the quality of
water that is suitable for drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes and helps in understanding the
change in quality due to rock–water interaction or any type of anthropogenic influence (Kelley 1940;
Wilcox 1948). The chemical parameters of groundwater play a significant role in classifying and
assessing water quality. It was observed that the criteria used in the classification of waters for a
particular purpose considering the individual concentration may not find its suitability for other
purposes and better results can be obtained only by considering the combined chemistry of all the ions
rather than individual or paired ionic characters (Handa 1964, 1965). Chemical classification also
throws light on the concentration of various predominant cations, anions and their interrelationships.
The present work had the objective of understanding the spatial distribution of hydrochemical
constituents of groundwater related to its suitability for agriculture and domestic use and application
of cluster analysis.
2. Study Area
The study area is part of the catchment area of Ksob wadi, located in the extreme Northeastern
of Algeria. The climate is semi-arid, with an average temperature of 15 ° C and an annual rainfall not
exceeding 350mm. It is drained mainly by the Wadi Kebir and Wadi Chabro.
Fig-1. Geographical situation of the study area
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The geophysical and geological survey reveals a synclinal structure filled with a very
heterogeneous alluvium of resistivity ranging from 10 to 100  .m corresponding to the alternations
of permeable sediments (sand, sandy clay, gravel and limestone), separated by watertight screens ..
These levels are based on a driver level whose resistivity varies from 2 to 8  .m corresponding to the
Dano-Montian marls.
Fig-2. Geo-electric cross section of study area (CGG,1975)
3. Material and Method
3.1. Sampling and Analysis
The hydrochemical properties of groundwater samples collected from the quaternary aquifer
system are showed in Table 1. The sites which samples were taken are shown in (Fig.3). The
experimental data, corresponding to May 2010, were obtained from field surveys and from chemical
analyses performed in the laboratory.
Portable equipment was used to obtain in situ readings of temperature, conductivity (EC). At
the same time, samples of non-acidified water in 500 ml polyethylene bottles were taken. The
measurement of HCO3 and Ca2+ was carried out in the shortest time practicable, although the field
campaigns normally took 3 or 4 days; during this period, the samples were kept at a low temperature
in a portable refrigerator. The HCO3 content was determined as the total alkalinity, by titration with
HCl 0.05 N and methyl orange as indicator. The cations were analyzed by atomic absorption
spectrometry (Ca and Mg) and by emission spectrometry (Na and K). A visible light
spectrophotometer was used to analyze SO4 by turbidimetry and the SiO2, by colorimetry. The
concentrations of Cl ions were determined by argentometric titration, using AgNO3 0.01 N and 5%
K2CrO4 as indicator.The hydrochemical calculations were performed using the DIAGRAMMES
program, which makes it possible, in a straightforward way, to use of STATISTICA (1998). The
computer processing of these hydrochemical data had a main objective to identify possible groups
and relationships among the samples analyzed based on major chemical compositions,
Fig-3. Map showing the sampling sites
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3.2. Multivariate Statistical (Principal Component Analysis PCA)
The object of PCA is to enable a multi-dimensional data visualization and the study of variables
structure. This is to provide a simple representation of the parameters analyzed on different sample
points on a graph in two dimensions. The interpretation key is simple:

Each axis results from a composition of (n) elements analyzed, and the coordinate (
X) and (Y) for each water point projected on a graph.

The Physico-chemical similarities facies will result graphically by proximity
representative of each sample points.
4. Results and Discussions
In order to know the origin, and the mechanism of the chimism to characterize the quality of the
alluvial groundwater of Tébessa-Morsott with an aim to define the origin of salinity
4.1. Groundwater Movement
Different wells have been drilled into the alluvial aquifer, supplying water mainly for irrigation,
show groundwater levels from approximately 20 to 30 m in depth. Average water level fluctuations
are not greater than 1.5 m between dry and wet seasons. The general direction of groundwater flow is
from South East- Northern west. Average permeability in the alluvial levels is around 10-3m/day
(Drias 2013).
Fig-4. Piezometric map of study area (May 2009)
4.2. Groundwater Chemistry
Table 1 presents the descriptive summary of all the parameters analyzed, along with their
corresponding WHO standard limits
Table-1. Chemical summary of alluvial aquifer in the study area
2+
Min
Max
Mean
SD
CV %
Ca
84
445.8
164.679
66.38
40.32
2+
Mg
25.25
163
75.743
33.59
44.34
Na+
38.42
391.2
147.68
77.48
52.46
K+
0.01
27.04
13.00
6.09
46.86
Cl24.5
710
266.81
161.11
60.38
SO4258
302.4
203.29
73.12
35.97
HCO375.
445.3
271.62
90.95
33.48
NO311.7
120.1
51.76
26.34
50.88
EC
538
3240
1612.61
832.20
51.60
Note: CV: coefficient of variation; SD: standard deviation.
All values are in mg/l and EC (μS/cm). WHO (2006)
The electrical conductivity of groundwater samples ranges from 538 to 3240 μS/cm with a
mean value of 1612.61 μS/cm. The salinity increases in the direction of groundwater flow from
South East to North West. Cl- and HCO3 - are the major anions and Na 2+ and Mg2+ are the major
cations in shallow groundwater in Tebessa-Morsott plain. The relative abundance of the ions was in
the order of Na2+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ >K+ (on molar basis) and Cl - > HCO3- > SO42- > NO3- (Table 1).
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The maximum Na2+ and Mg2+ concentrations of 391.2 and 163 mg/l, respectively, are however
higher than their respective WHO (2006) standards of 75 and 30 mg/l. The source of Sodium and
magnesium in the groundwater could be diapiric and dolomite in the sedimentary rocks. The presence
of bicarbonate ions HCO3- in the groundwater might have derived from carbon dioxide of the
atmosphere, soils and by dissolution of carbonate rocks. Bicarbonate ion represents the second
dominant anion in the study area. The concentration of HCO3 - in most of northern and South eastern
part of the study reaches to about 271.62 mg/l. Most Cl- in the groundwater is from two sources
including alluvium clays and diapiric rocks. The chloride value in the study area ranges between 24.5
and 710 mg/l. The occurrences of sulfate ions in the investigated water could be due to sedimentary
rocks such as gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4). Further addition of sulfates to the
groundwater might have come from fertilizers intensively used in the cultivated areas in TebassaMorsott plain.
The value of SO4 2- in the study area ranges between 58 and 302.4 mg/l. Almost 50% of the
samples exceeded the desirable limit of Cl- (250 mg/l), but only .346% of them exceeded the desirable
limit of SO42- (250 mg/l) (WHO 2006). Half samples exceeded the desirable limit of NO3 - for
drinking water (50 mg/l) (WHO 2006). In the study area, samples with high NO34.3. Classification of the Water
The different water samples have been classified according to their chemical composition using
the Piper diagram (Piper 1944). This classification is based on the concentration of the four major
anions bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride and nitrate and on the four major cations sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium. By using the software Diagrammes (Simler 2004), the waters samples of the
Tebessa-Morsott aquifer system are plotted on a Piper diagram to make a comparison between the
different water types and to show the effect of mixing between water. According to the diagram the
2most of the samples belongs to Chlored, sulphate, calcic , magnesian waters family (Cl - , SO4 ,
Na2+ , Mg2+ , Ca2+ ) however confirms in this period, the incidence of geology on the quality of
water. The sulfates and chlorides are related to the anthropic activity and the nature of the rocks.
Fig-5. Piper trilinear diagram of water chemistry in the study area
4.4. Statistical Analysis (Principal Component Analysis)
The results of the component principal analysis, reveal two factors, the first one relating to
salinity, represented by the ions (Na, Cl,HCO3, SO4 EC.), and the second one relating to pollution,
represented by the ions NO3- and K+ (Fig.6).
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Fig-6. PCA graphical representation of chemical data (May 2009). (a) Projection of variables on the factorial axis (1x2), (b)
projections of individuals on the factorial axis (1x2)
The maps of isofactors of the two principal components, reveals:
- A strong salinization ,(fig. 7 A), due to the dissolution of the evaporitic rocks of Djebissa and
Belekfif mounts and also the clays sediments in center part of the plain,
- Groundwater pollution (fig. 7 B), by worn water like by infiltration and spreading of the artificial
fertilisers, in the sector of Elmerdja and the center of the plain which is forwarded finally to the zone
of discharge system (Morsott),
Fig-7. Isofactors maps related to (A) the salinity, (B) the pollution, in study area
4.5. Irrigation Water Quality
The suitability of groundwater for agricultural purposes depends on the effect of mineral
constituents of water on both plants and soil. Effects of salts on soils causing changes in soil structure,
permeability and aeration indirectly affect plant growth. xàWilcox (1955) and US Salinity Laboratory
Staff (1954) proposed irrigation specifications for evaluating the suitability of water for irrigation use.
There is a significant relationship between sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) values for irrigation water
and the extent to which sodium is absorbed by the soils. If water used for irrigation is high in sodium
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and low in calcium, the cation exchange complex may become saturated with sodium, which can
destroy the soil structure owing to dispersion of clay particles (Singh 2002). SAR was computed using
the equation given below (Richard 1954):
The SAR and electrical conductivity values plotted on the US salinity diagram (Richards 1954)
reveal the presence of the three following classes (Table 2):
Table-02. Results obtained after interpretation of the diagrams of Richards
Class
High
Medium
low
Caracteristics
C2S1
C3S1 – C3S2
C4S1 –C4S2
Wells
C2S1(1, 4, 9, 12, 13)
C3S1 (3, 7, 16, 10, 16, 18, 19, 20,21, 25, 26)
C4 S1-C4S2 (6, 8,11,15,22, 23, 24)
water can be used without particular control for the irrigation
water appropriate for the irrigation of the tolerant crops to salt
on ground having a good permeability
water not appropriate for the irrigation
Fig-8. US salinity diagram for classification of irrigation waters
With aim to know the effect of lithology on the water quality for irrigation, we have drawing
the map of water quality to irrigation. This map revealed three class:

Good (C2S1): This class represent the weak salinity, It is located in the region of El
Hammamet and Bekkaria which results from the carbonated rocks;

Medium (C3S1): It includes, fairly mineralized water with average risks of
salinization and weak alkalization;

Low (C4S1): This class is located in the center of the plain; it is characterized by of
strong mineralizations, and presents an risks of salinization, and average alkalization.
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0Km
5Km
10Km
15Km
Fig-9. Map of suitable irrigation water according to the method of Richard, May 2010.
5. Conclusion
This study was conducted to evaluate factors regulating groundwater quality in an area with
agriculture as main use. Twenty six groundwater samples have been collected from Tebessa-Morsott
area (Algeria) for hydrochemical investigations to understand the sources of dissolved ions and assess
the chemical quality of the groundwater. Majority of the groundwater samples belongs to Chlored,
sulphate, calcic , magnesian waters family (Cl- , SO42- , Na2+ , Mg2+ , Ca2+ ) however confirms
in this period, the incidence of geology on the quality of water. The sulfates and chlorides are related
to the anthropic activity and the nature of the rocks.
Principal component analysis was applied to groundwater quality data sets, and generated two
clusters (the first one related to salinity and the second one related to pollution). The values of sodium
absorption ratio SAR and electrical conductivity of the ground water were plotted in the US salinity
laboratory diagram for irrigation water. Most of the samples fall in C3S1 and C4S1 quality with high
salinity hazard and low sodium hazard.
References
Belkhiri L ,Mouni L, (2012) : Hydrochemical analysis and evaluation of groundwater quality in El Eulma area, Algeria,
Appl Water Sci (2012) 2:127–133
CGG, Compagnie Générale de Geophysique, (1975): prospection géophysique de la plaine de Tébessa. Drias
T
2013:
Hydrogeologie du bassin versant de l‟oued ksob (Tébessa). Vulnérabilité et protection de la ressource.Thèse de
Doctorat en science. USTHB. Alger. 135P.
Dubourdieu G, Durozoy G, (1950) : Observations tectoniques dans les environs de Tébessa et Ouenza(Algérie). Bull. SGF,
Paris. Pp 257-266.
Durozoy G, (1956 ): Carte géologique au 1/50 000 de Tébessa feuille 206.
Handa BK (1964): Modified classification procedure for rating irrigation waters. Soil Sci 98:264–269
Handa BK (1965) Modified Hill-piper diagram for presentation of water analysis data. Curr Sci
34:131–314
Kelley WP (1940): Permissible composition and concentration of irrigation waters. Proc ASCE 66:607
Piper AM (1944) A graphic procedure in geochemical interpretation of water analysis. Trans Am Geophys Union 25(6):914
928
Richard LA (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. Agricultural handbook, vol
60.
USDA,Washington, DC, p 160
Simler R (2004) Logiciel d‟hydrochimie multilangage en distribution libre, Version 2. Laboratoire
d‟Hydroge´ologie,Universite´ d‟Avignon, Avignon
Singh AK (2002) Quality assessment of surface and sub-surface water of Damodar river basin, India. J Environ Health
44:41–49
STATISTICA_ 5.0 for Windows (1998) USDA , Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1999. Soil taxonomy: a basic
system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. Agriculture handbook, vol 436. StatSoft,
Inc., Tulsa, p 871
USSL (954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils, handbook, vol 60. USDA, Washington, p 147
WHO (2006) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Recommendations, vol 1, 3rd edn. Word Halth Organization, Geneva
Wilcox LV (1955) Classification and use of irrigation waters, vol 969. U.S. Department of agriculture Circular, Washington,
DC, p 19.
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Green Building as Concept of Sustainability
Sustainable Strategy to Design Office Building
Mouhamed R.Radwan1 --- Abd El-Hady B. Kashyout2 --- Hisham G. ELshimy3 --- Shimai F.
Ashour4
1
Vice Dean of Fine Arts Faculty, Alexandria university, professor at Architecture Department Fine Arts Faculty,
Alexandria University.
2
Center of Advanced and Future Studies(CAFS), Investment Zone atCity of Scientific Research and
Technological Applications (SRTACity),New Borg El-Arab City, Alexandria, Egypt.
3
Assistant Professor ,Architectural EngineeringDepartment ,Faculty of Engineering , Pharos university, M.SC,
Architecture Department Fine Arts Faculty,Alexandria UniversityAssastan Professour , Dept. of Architecture ,
Faculty of Engineering , Pharos University.
ABSTRACT
The design, construction, operation , maintenance of buildings normally requires enormous
amounts of energy, water and raw materials; generating large quantities of waste causing air
an water pollution; whereas green buildings is the only answer through creating healthier and
more resource efficient models of const, renovation , operation and maintenance. Green
Architecture and sustainable buildings are considered a modern trend in architectural thinking
which manipulates the relationship between the building and the environment. Generally
office buildings are one of the highest types of buildings in energy consumption comparing to
other buildings types. So it‟s very important for an architect to implement specific strategies in
order to decrease energy consumption especially in this type of buildings, by using renewable
energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy and other sources which contribute in
electric energy rationalization
Keywords: Sustainability, Building technology, Office buildings, Green architecture.
1. Introduction
In the “GREEN” factors an architect or designer attempts to safeguard are - air, water and land
by choosing eco-friendly building materials land air water and construction practices. [1] An architect
has the ability to change entire building process with the stroke of a pen by specifying a material with
low carbon dioxide emissions in its fabrication. (Fig 2)
Fig-1. Pie chart showing the percentage of energy consumption by different sectors[2]
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1.1. Methodology
The methodology of this research is based upon a general overview on applying “Green
Architecture “ as a concept of sustainability, specially in office building because the energy needs to
operate this type is very big ( air condition system - lighting-elevators-power – equipmentsmachines) all those system need energy so if we save any energy and get renewable energy specially
in design process and construction process. . (Fig .2)
Fig-2. Methodology of the research
1.2. Definitions of ” Green Architecture”
Green architecture , or green design , is an approach to a building that minimizes harmful
effects on human health and the environment.(1) What is “Green” Design? Design and construction
practices that significantly reduce or eliminate the negative impact of buildings on the environment
and occupants in five broad areas:(2) Sustainable site planning Safeguarding water and water
efficiency Energy efficiency and renewable energy Conservation of materials and resources Indoor
environmental quality.
Energy efficient buildings means energy savings, a better environment, more comfort, reduced
electricity bill and additional carbon revenue.
Sustainable buildings are structures that are built in an environmentally responsible manner by
maximizing use of materials, minimizing use of resources and ensuring the health and well-being of
occupants and the surrounding built environment both today and for generations to come.
1.2.1. Architects and “Green Buildings”
Architect Ken Yeang: Green Architecture should provide the present needs taking into
consideration the right of coming generations to supply their needs too.
Architect William Reed: Green buildings are just designed in a way that focuses on the
environmental factors , also he thinks that an important principle in designing a Green building is to
reduce its effect on the environment besides decreasing the construction costs.
Architect Stanley Abercrombie: There is an effective relationship between the building and the
site , as a old nations planned cities taking into consideration the south elevations – studying the sun
movement – throughout the day and year ( different seasons).
2. The Principles of Green Building Design [2]
The green building design process begins with an intimate understanding of the site in all its beauties
and complexities. An ecological approach to design aims to integrate the systems being introduced
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with the existing on-site ecological functions preformed by mother nature. These ecological functions
provide habitat, respond to the movements of the sun, purify the air as well as catch, filter and store
water. Designers can create features in their buildings that mimic the functions of particular ecosystems. Species that thrive in natural ecosystems may also utilize habitats created in man-made
structures. Creating new habitat on structures in urbanized areas is especially important to support
bio-diversity and a healthy ecosystem.
Design Considerations: Planning Reduced site disturbance Waste water management. Storm water
management. Landscape and Exterior Design to reduce heat islands. Light Pollution Reduction.
Reduced Car dependence through carparking provision. . (Fig .3).
Fig-3. Conceptual Drawing Of Green Building[2]
2.1.Water Systems
Water - often called the source of life - can be captured, stored, filtered, and reused. It provides
a valuable resource to be celebrated in the process of green building design. According to Art Ludwig
in Create an Oasis out of Grey water, only about 6% of the water we use is for drinking. There is no
need to use potable water for irrigation or sewage. The Green Building Design course introduces
methods of rainwater harvesting, grey water systems, and living pools. . . (Fig .4)
Fig-4. Conceptual Drawing Of water system in green building[2]
2.2. Atural Building
One-half of the world‟s population lives or works in buildings constructed of earth. Straw bale
construction is now gaining in popularity and Many jurisdictions in California have adopted the
Strawbale Building Code. Green Building Design favors natural building for its local availability, ease
of use, lack of toxic ingredients, increased energy efficiency, and aesthetic appeal.
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2.3. Passive Solar Design
Passive solar design refers to the use of the sun‟s energy for the heating and cooling of living
spaces. The building itself or some element of it takes advantage of natural energy characteristics in
its materials to absorb and radiate the heat created by exposure to the sun. Passive systems are simple,
have few moving parts and no mechanical systems, require minimal maintenance and can decrease, or
even eliminate, heating and cooling costs.
Solar passive features
A. Shape and form of buildings.
B. Orientation of the facades.
C. Design of Building plan and section.
D. Thermal insulation and thermal storage of roof.
E. Thermal Insulation and thermal storage of the exterior walls. . . (Fig .5)
Fig-5. Solar water heating system[2]
Solar buildings are designed to keep environment comfortable in all seasons without much
expenditure on electricity 30 to 40% savings with additional 5 to 10% cost towards passive features.
Major Components: Orientation, double glazed windows, window overhangs, thermal storage walls/
roof, roof painting, Ventilation, evaporation, day lighting , construction material etc. Designs depend
on direction & intensity of Sun & wind, ambient emp., humidity etc. Different designs for different
climatic zones
Fig-6. Solar passive features[2]
2.4. Green Building Materials
Before choosing building materials we can find out where the materials come from, how they
have been harvested, what the ingredients are, whether they are salvaged, reused or refurbished. We
can research how they will perform over their lifetime of the building
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2.5. Living Architecture
We take for granted that our environment - like our bodies - can metabolize nutrients and waste.
Living Architecture focuses on these processes, integrating ecological functions into our buildings to
catch, store, and filter water, purify air, and process other nutrients. Living Architecture also address
esbiophilia, the documented health benefits associated with being in touch with living systems in our
built environment.
Fig-7. Ecological building applications[3]
3. Lements of Green Building[2]
• Solar Water Heating Systems and use of glass panels to allow natural light inside the building
during daytime
• Rainwater Harvesting
• Environmentally friendly building materials and specifications.
• Waste minimization ensuring healthy indoor environment
• Maximizing energy use in buildings
• Water Conservation and efficient measures
• Energy efficient equipment . . (Fig . 8)
Fig-8. Elements of green building[2]
4. Advantages of Green Buildings [2]
Environmental advantages:
• Reduced operational energy
•Reduced water requirement
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• Lesser volume of waste water generation
• Resulting in lesser water pollution
• Less material usage
• Longer building life
• Lower maintenance cost
Health and safety advantages:
Enhance occupant comfort and health Community advantages:
Minimize strain on local infrastructuresand improve quality of life Economic advantages:
Integrated design allows high benefit at low cost by achieving synergies between disciplines and
between technologies
Reduce operating costs
Lower utility costs significantly
Optimize life-cycle economic performance Productivity advantages: Improve occupant performance
Estimated $29 –168 billion in national productivity losses per year
Providing a healthy workplace improves employee satisfaction Increase retail sales with day lighting.
5. Green Architecture and Sustainability Management [2]
Applying sustainability management to buildings requires work under three main headings:
construction, lifetime use and decommissioning. Throughout these stages, the three-fold objective is
to be efficient in the use of resources, protective of the occupants‟ health and well-being, and reducing
the negative impacts, such as waste and pollution. There are a number of standards, methodologies
and tools that have been put in place to assist organizations in delivering excellent environmental
performance with regard to their building stock. There are alternative offerings such as LEED, Green
Globes, Green Building (Europe), BREEAM, the International Green Construction Code, the German
Sustainable Building Council, the Green Building Council of Australia, Estidama from the UAE, and
CASBEE from Japan. Apart from design and construction, best practices are also discussed with
regard to buildings operation and maintenance, and improvements. Sustainable building refers to both
the structure and a process that is more environmentally responsible during the entire life cycle of a
building. These life cycle stages are:
1. site selection;
2. design;
3. construction;
4. operation and maintenance;
5. renovation;
6. demolition
Fig-9. Elements of sustainability[3]
Looking at it more broadly, it could possibly be combined under three main headings:
1. Construction – site selection, design, construction
2. Lifetime use – operation and maintenance
3. Decommissioning – renovation and demolition.
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New building technologies, and in particular ICT automation and new materials, are constantly
being introduced to enhance the sustainable building process with the goal of reducing the impact of
the building on the surrounding environment by:• using resources more efficiently (e.g. energy,
water);
• enhancing and protecting the health and well-being of the occupants;
• reducing negative impacts (e.g. waste, sewage, pollution).
5.1. Overview of LEEDP [4]
Sustainable buildings optimize one or all of these objectives during all phases of the life cycle.
Sustainable or “green” building codes and assessment schemes have been developed on a global basis
to give guidance on the factors to review during a building‟s life cycle that enhance sustainability and
minimize environmental impact. As an example, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) standards have seen great adoption within the North American market in particular. LEED
standards are guidelines to designing, building and operating more environmentally friendly
buildings. . . (Fig .10)
Fig-10. Process of LEED system and its inputs[2]
A final step in almost all sustainable or “green” building codes and schemes is an independent
assessment to determine whether a building has met the requirements of a scheme and a final ranking
that demonstrates how sustainable a building has been built or is being operated. . . (Fig .11)
Fig-11. Exiting System of and Developer Systems of LEED[2]
Using LEED as an example, a building can be rated as Platinum, Gold, Silver or Certified after
an assessment. Four levels of certification:
• LEED Certified 26-32 points
• Silver Level 33-38 points
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• Gold Level 39-51 points
• Platinum Level 52-69 points
• There is no Bronze level
Fig-12. Items of LEED –NC structure[5]
Fig-13. The relationship between LEED and design process[5]
Fig (13 ) explain that :
1. LEED needs to be integrated into the design process
2. Requires buy – in from entire team
3. Can be accomplished with any delivery method
There are many business benefits for deciding to pursue a strategy and process for sustainable
buildings. These benefits can be:
• lower operating costs;
• higher return on investment;
• greater tenant attraction;
• enhanced marketability;
• productivity benefits;
• reduced liability and risk,
• a healthier place to live and work;
• demonstration of a commitment to corporate social responsibility;
• future proofed assets;
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Fig-14. Uses ,consumptions and outputs of building [5]
6. The Concept of Office Buildings
office building is a building which indicated the extent of the progress of society and the office
building is an integral unit with him. Relies site office buildings on the purpose and quality that will
be used by this building, there are several types of office buildings, including buildings, professional
(private) as offices of lawyers, and engineers .. etc., and this kind of office must be located on the
main artery of transportation, nor mind being a bit far from the city center. The second type of offices:
Is the offices of public services, which occupies the center of the city to the great importance which
must be located on the major artery of the movement, as it should be these buildings close to the
parking lot, whether on the ground or in multi-storey buildings even reduce the Earth's land surface
untapped which are expensive in these locations. The types of offices that must be close to the city
center: corporate offices, government agencies, banks, banks and the stock exchange building and
also has offices Agencies and brokers offices and judicial services. The last type of office is:
management offices, factories, and offices that are located near factories that are found on the
outskirts of Cities. (Fig.15)
Fig-15. Types of office buildings[6]
6.1. Module in the Office Offices [6]
When designing office buildings must rely on the model of the projected horizontal and in the
interfaces and sectors, where chooses module that gives the best solution for the building, which put
the interior design on the basis of, and stop this module on an area of the room, which can determine
the number of working out and also the type of work they are doing , also pulls dimensions so that
they can rely on natural lighting in office lighting to a large extent, and that it can identify bodies
appropriate for each of the purposes for which they are placed, intended design Modula try to split the
total to parts of the modular design smaller called standard elements or modules, which can be easily
changed to be used. The achievement of modification and adjustments in accordance with the demand
and the need for the characteristics by Chapter / functional division) to modules (standard elements
graded and non-interconnected detachable and reusable, consisting of the elements of an independent
and separate-function self-sufficient. This fully corresponds with the function of the office Module
where they can be modified components of the work surface and chair and storage areas in terms of
height or dilation or distribution.
6.1.1. Standards and Design Principles in Office Buildings [6]
There are important criteria for the design of office buildings must be taken into account:
-site office building general outline of the city.
-Type projected horizontal (closed, open) and depending on the nature of the building
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- number of employees in various departments in the building as well as the number of users of the
building from the public.
-taking into account the presence of shops in the building, whether separate or grouped centers.
- The presence of a private garage of the building so that it can use to him based on the undecided.
- technical equipment for the building and how to manage and maintain.
-the existence of the movement battery suitable for human energy used for building.
- different services in the building (toilets, Office).
-consideration of safety in the building and that there are escape ladders to be used in case of
emergency.
6.1.2. Functional Elements in the Office Building [6]
- Office Offices: office offices are divided in terms of the projected horizontal to two) Muscat
horizontal closed, open).
battery movement: the stairs, elevators, horizontal and roads account for about 30% of the area of the
building.
services and rooms technical equipment: including toilets and control rooms, maintenance and
represent in the range of 10% of the total area.
shop business: You may be in the form of separate or grouped as centers of business and each has its
own design.
garage building: It may be in the street-level, separately or in the role of the building (the role of the
basement or loft) and represent an area of mostly about 80% of the area of the building is calculated
based on the average users of the building. Reception: be at the entrance of the main building with a
relatively large surface area ranging from 30 m2 up to 80 m2.
6.1.3. Mechanism of Energy Conservation in the Office Building
If energy consumption in the eyes of many is the biggest concern, the rationalization in the
consumption of renewable energy is the best solution and the safest in terms include the process of
rationalization of energy in buildings to choose the optimal form of energy, and use it in a timely
manner, in addition to the rational use of energy available, and more types of energy used so far in the
office buildings are solar energy, wind energy and bio-energy.
6.1.4. Study of Energy Consumption in Buildings Management
There are two factors should be taken into account when discussing the topic of energy
efficiency in buildings management:
- any form of energy will be used to service the building.
- the most effective ways to use this energy.
- The best way to save energy in the building is the design of the building so that to achieve greater
benefit from the forces of nature. Any exploitation climatic conditions available without resorting to
use mechanical methods and call it (the design negative passive system). . . (Fig .16)
Fig-16. Energy consumptions in office buildings[7]
6.1.4.1. Office Building from an Environmental Perspective
Consuming office buildings enormous energy is made of more types of buildings, damage to the
environment, and the beginning of the energy consumed in the construction and during operation and
even when it is demolished, in addition to the consumption of high-energy in the use of lifts to
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transport individuals in the realization of ventilation, lighting and heating and cooling due to the
adoption of those buildings lighting and ventilation almost entirely, along with other factors resulting
from the vertical direction of the building. And then head to think about how to reduce the large
consumption of energy for those buildings and make them environmentally friendly buildings.
Fig-17. Percentages of consumptions energy in office building[7]
6.1.4.2. Axes of Energy Consumption in Office Building
The energy consumption in office buildings in the range of the main axes and branch, include
vertical movement to move people and goods, which consume a large amount of energy per day,
followed by the energy consumed by appliances and equipment used in buildings, and then come after
the energy consumed as a result of the work of lighting, ventilation and other illustrated in the
following figure percentages for different energy consumption of the various elements of the office
building. . (Fig .18)
Fig-18. The effect of the increase in height on the rate of energy consumption per square meter [7]
6.1.5. Integrated Approach to Reduce Energy Consumption in Buildings Management [9]
Depends on the entrance of the proposed study all of the design of the building and the office
ways to reduce energy consumption in buildings management. As well as the study of the relationship
between architectural form and energy efficiency in the building. . (Fig.19)
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Fig-19. An Integrated Approach to reduce energy consumption in buildings management[10]
6.1.5.1. Integrated System Design of the Office Buildings
Next figure determines the basic structure for the design of buildings and office systems and
sub-architectural, structural, mechanical design, which Mizar aspects of energy consumption in
various design systems as a prelude to trying to reduce their energy consumption. . (Fig.20)
Fig-20. Integrated design system for the design of the office building[8]
6.1.5.2. Methods and Ways to Reduce Energy Consumption in the Office Building [11]
Can be divided into two main components, namely work on the rationalization of energy
consumption in buildings office operating through some architectural styles and treatments, as well as
the exploitation of renewable energy sources on the site of the sun and wind and other renewable
sources. . (Fig.21)
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Fig-21. Methods and ways to reduce energy consumption in buildings management [8]
7. Conclusion
1-Principles of Green Architecture are: Water Systems - Natural Building-Passive Solar DesignGreen Building Materials- Living Architecture . These principles are applied in a sustainable trend to
achieve an eco- friend building.
An architect has the ability to change entire building process with the stroke of a pen by specifying a
material with low carbon dioxide emissions in its fabrication.
Generally, there are green building standards available for almost every type of building on a global
basis and these standards are well developed and continuously being updated. These standards cover
all phases of a building‟s life cycle from design through demolition. They are also available in a
number of national standards and codes.
2-good sustainability performance is not simply about working in buildings that have been designed
to be “green”.
3- Buildings that have been designed with sustainability standards in mind need to be operated and
maintained using sustainability standards. Buildings that were not designed to meet sustainability
standards when they were built can also be upgraded to meet sustainability standards that have been
put in place for existing buildings.
Propose a strategy to reduce energy consumption in the office building on the basis of distinct
architectural examples in this field. The proposed introduction is represented on three basic themes:
4-Develop a design structure where all the architectural and structural systems and mechanical design
and is working to reduce energy consumption.
5-Methods and ways to reduce energy consumption in the office building and to achieve this goal is
the study of the form of the building and its outer shell, and interest in the provision of open
courtyards and vertical landscaping, and make full use of natural lighting and ventilation. It is worth
mentioning interest in the study means to exploit renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic
systems and the use of wind
turbines in order to reach a self-sufficient building.
6-The study of the relationship between architectural form and energy efficiency in the building is a
method to take advantage of the flow of alternative energy as wind energy and solar energy an
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important determinant for the adaptation of the building to form balanced with the direction and the
power of the energy source and multiple examples of architecture to achieve this goal
7. Acknowledgement
This work has been done under the project funded by Science and Technology Development
Fund (STDF), project ID: 5260, “Center of Excellence for Future and Advanced Studies at the City of
Scientific Research and Technological Applications”
References
[1] Thomas Rettenwender, M.A., Mag. Arch., LEED AP, Architect and Niklas Spitz Monterey Peninsula College INTD62
Spring 2009”T he Principles of Green Building Design” Spring 2009
[2] Madhumita Roy, Dept. Of architecture ,Jadavpur university, Kolkata, India. “Importance of green architecture
today”,2000.
[3] www.itu.int/ITU-T/climatechange/ess.”Go Green sustainable buildings” September, 2012
[4]Marc Giaccardo, AIA, LEED–AP, The University of Texas at San Antonio School of Architecture,” Emissions Reduction
& Energy Leadership” Be a Conservative - What‟s good for the AIR is good for America,2004
[5]Adrienne Horton, AIA, LEED AP,” Understanding Basic Principles of Green Building” ,June 2008
[6] Mohammed Majid Kholosy, ” Architectural Encyclopedia In Office Buildings”, Dar kabas for printing, publishing and
distribution December 1998
[7] Alistair Guthrie, Tall Buildings Sustainability from the bottom up, CTBUH 8th World Congress, 2008.
[8] Rasha Mahmoud Jaber, ” The Concepts Of Energy Conservation And Its Reflections On Architectural Design”, a Master
of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Assiut, 2007.
[9] Ken Shuttleworth” Form and Skin :Antidotes to Transparency in High Rise Buildings", CTBUH 8th World Congress
,2008.
[10] Peter Land, “Innovations in Sustainability at Height", CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 .
[11] Antony Wood ,"Sustainability:A New High-Rise Vernacular?",The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings
journal, 2007
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The Potential of Vernacular Materials to the
Sustainable
Building
Design:
Experience
of
Construction Design with Adobe Material
Zafer Kuyrukçu1 --- Emine Yıldız Kuyrukçu2
1,2
Research Assist, Selcuk University, Architecture Faculty, Department of Architecture, Konya, Turkey
ABSTRACT
In order to achieve sustainable architecture, cultural and sustainable design principles should
be considered in a complementary relationship. Cultural context implies a sound respect to the
traditional knowledge of place, technology and local materials. Sustainable design implies the
recycling of energy, either by the use of passive energy or renewable energy. It also requires
harmony with local economies and data supporting biological diversity. Adobe traditional
building material which is a cheap, environmentally friendly and abundant and has been used
extensively for construction around the world. For this purpose, this study promotes the use of
adobe as a sustainable material. Also this study is aimed to evaluate the progress in designing
skills of students by using adobe as a sustainable material in architectural design education
with a studio sample. The architectural design practice and use of adobe were evaluated with
all positive and negative aspects within the context of students‟ projects. These studies are an
excellent contribution for the eventual conservation of the adobe architecture and also, for the
recognition of the advantages of adobe as a building material, encouraging its use in new
architecture and architectural education.
Keywords: Energy efficiency, Sustainability, Sustainable design, Adobe, Architectural education.
1. Introduction
Sustainability is not only satisfying present needs, but also ensure future generations can
satisfy theirs. This includes socio-economic and environmental targets and is a concern to all
sectors of human activity and development and housing is one of the more energy demanding
sectors (Viviancos et al., 2009; Martin et al.,2010). Throughout a buildings lifetime (construction,
use, dismantling), it has a direct impact on the environment through resource
and
energy
consumptions. Some reasons for green building include reducing energy consumption, greenhouse
gas emissions, water use, waste production and many more. The environmental impact of a
building depends on the choices made during the different phases of a building's life, specifically;
the choice of construction materials has a strong environmental impact. As mention above,
selecting a material with a Low Life-Cycle Cost (LCC) and high technical performance reduces the
building's impact on the environment (Collet et al., 2006).
It has been observed that there is a significant shift to new building design strategies taking into
account sustainable considerations in the last twenty years. However, in most countries, sustainable
buildings are still at a nascent phase of development. The construction industry has more needed
knowledge, and industry professionals (in both the design and construction disciplines) continually
seek for best solutions in practices in order to understand of how to apply sustainable considerations to
buildings. The growing awareness of sustainable buildings potential to positively impact
environmental issues pushes knowledge to the forefront. In this respect, vernacular architecture
presents simple solutions for the sustainable issues because it has significant environmentally features
that respond to sustainability such as low-energy techniques to provide for human comfort, approaches
that are integral to the form, orientation, and materials that are obtained from local resources. Hence,
in recent years professionals have begun to rediscover vernacular architecture features due to the
increasing challenges about providing sustainability in a built environment. A review of existing
literature on vernacular architecture indicates that vernacular buildings and correspondingly
settlements have ecological implications for sustainable architecture today. Vernacular architecture
reveals the combination of local climate conditions, locally available materials, simple construction
techniques, living style, traditions and socioeconomic conditions of the region. According to
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Lawrence (2006), vernacular buildings are human constructs that are the results of relationships
among ecological, economic, material, and social factors. Due to the fact that vernacular architecture
has evolved through trial and error methods, vernacular buildings and site planning depend on
substantially experience, surrounding conditions, and local materials such as adobe, stone and timber.
Sustainable construction is achieved using natural resources, such as adobe, in such a way as to
meet economic, social and cultural needs, but not depleting or degrading these resources to such an
extent that they cannot meet these needs for future generations. Industrially-produced materials
require a high energy-intensity and have considerable environmental impacts, while natural materials
such as adobe have positive impacts in the overall life-cycle assessment.
A sustainable approach to architecture ad urban design should assume a core position in the
training of building practitioners, starting from the earliest stages of curriculum and feedings forward
unto lifelong learning. Education plays fundamental role in raising awareness amongst students and
professionals, and in giving them the knowledge and commitment to put sustainable development into
practice. For this reason this paper examines the teaching of sustainable design within adobe as a
vernacular building material. In examining the range of teaching practices in the Selcuk University
Department of Architecture it explores the experience in recent years in aligning sustainability to a
core position within the syllabus and asks how we support and nurture sustainable design practice with
adobe within architectural education?
2. Adobe as a Sustainable Material
The history of adobe, which is used as a sustainable structure material by the human being as
old as its own existence. The primitive human who first left the cave found and used the natural
materials such as stone, soil, water and wood when s/he needed to build a shelter in order to keep
his/her existence.
Adobe is a common prehistoric building material, widely distributed in arid and semi-arid
lands where other construction materials are scarce. Generally adobe is non fired sun-dried mud
bricks mixed with organic material and may be stabilized with lime or cement. A variation of
adobe is the compressed earth which consists in monolithic masonry units made with
earth and straw where consolidation is achieved by mechanic means without chemical processes
that change the material's nature (Jimenez-Delgado and Canas-Gerrero, 2006).
Commonly adobe is shaped into uniform blocks that can be stacked like bricks to form walls,
but it can also be simply piled up over time to create a structure. The best adobe soil will have
between 15% and 30% clay in it to bind the material together, with the rest being mostly sand or larger
aggregate. Too much clay will shrink and crack excessively; too little will allow fragmentation.
Sometimes adobe is stabilized with a small amount of cement or asphalt emulsion added to keep it
intact where it will be subject to excessive weather. Adobe blocks can be formed either by pouring it
into molds and allowing it to dry, or it can pressed into blocks with a hydraulic or leverage press.
Adobe can also be used for floors that have resilience and beauty, colored with a thin slip of clay and
polished with natural oil.
Adobe buildings that have substantial eaves to protect the walls and foundations to keep the
adobe off the ground will require less maintenance than if the walls are left unprotected. Some adobe
buildings have been plastered with Portland cement on the outside in an attempt to protect the adobe,
but this practice has led to failures when moisture finds a way through a crack in the cement and then
can't readily evaporate. When adobe is used as an exterior plaster it is either stabilized or replastered
on a regular basis.
Today the use of adobe as a construction material is still quite common in rural areas and people
usually construct their houses themselves as they are used to using the locally available materials.
Unfortunately the tendency is often to try and use new materials which are not necessarily better than
the old ones.
Architectural characteristics are similar in most countries: the rectangular plan, single door, and
small lateral windows are predominant. Quality of construction in urban areas is generally superior to
that in rural areas. The foundation, if present, is made of mediumto-large stones joined with mud or
coarse mortar. Walls are made with adobe blocks joined with mud mortar. Sometimes straw or wheat
husk s added to the soil used to make the blocks and mortar. The size of adobe blocks varies from
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region to region. In traditional constructions, wall thickness depends on the weather conditions of the
region. Thus, in coastal areas with a mild climate, walls are thinner than in the cold highlands or in the
hottest deserts. The roof is made of wood joists (usually from locally available tree trunks) resting
directly on the walls or supported inside indentations on top of the walls. Roof covering may be
corrugated zinc sheets or clay tiles, depending on the economic situation of the owner and the cultural
inclinations of the region.
Adobe will not permanently bond with metal, wood, or stone because it exhibits much greater
movement than these other materials, either separating, cracking, or twisting where they interface.
Yet, many of these more stable building materials such as fired brick, wood, and lime and cement
mortars are nonetheless used in adobe construction. For example, stone may be used for a building's
foundation, and wood may be used for its roof or its lintels and doorways. In the adobe building, these
materials are generally held in place by their own weight or by the compressive weight of the wall
above them. Adobe construction possibilities and variations in design have therefore been somewhat
limited by the physical constraints of the material
The Great Mosque of Djenné is a large banco or adobe building that is considered by many
architects to be one of the greatest achievements of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style. The
mosque is located in the city of Djenné, Mali, on the flood plain of the Bani River. The first mosque
on the site was built around the 13th century, but the current structure dates from 1907. As well as
being the centre of the community of Djenné, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Africa. Along
with the "Old Towns of Djenné" it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988.
San Francisco de Assisi Mission Church in Rancho de Taos, NM, was constructed of adobe
between 1772 and 1819 and, because of its distinctive sculptural quality, is one of the most famous
and frequently photographed of the mission churches. Photo: HABS Collection, NPS. (Figure 2, 3).
Adobe structures are generally self-made because the construction practice is simple and does not
require additional energy resources. Often the blocks are made from local soil in a homeowner‟s yard
or nearby. Mud mortar is typically used between the blocks. Skilled technicians (engineers and
architects) are generally not involved in this type of construction; hence the term, “nonengineered
construction,” is used to describe the result.
Figure-1. Mosque of Djenné | Mali | 1907
Figure-2. Assisi Mission Church, San Francisco | 1819
Adobe is able to absorb heat during the day keeping the house cool and then release this
stored heat at night, warming the interior of the house. Adobe material has relatively high thermal
conductivity (Alva-Balderrama, 2001;Parra-Saldivar and Batty, 2006). Another advantage of adobe is
its sound insulation. Adobe material also use in generally modern houses, there are examples in Figure
3,4.
Adobe is a material which have easily- found raw material, is recycled, economical, harmless to
the environment while being produced and provide heat isolation.
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Figure-3. Villas Jonc , Christian von Düring, Geneva |
Switzerland | 2009
Figure-4. Rammed earth house, Martin Rauch ve Roger
Boltshauser |Austria | 2008
3. Research Methodology
A sustainable approach to architecture ad urban design should assume a core position in the
training of building practitioners, starting from the earliest stages of curriculum and feedings forward
unto lifelong learning. This article proposes a design studio teaching/ learning method based on
sustainability in architecture experience, exploring the design process itself as a methodology. For this
purpose an experimental educational design problem dealing with the issue of sustainability issue with
adobe material was posed to students at Selcuk University in the 2013–2014 spring Semester 2rd Year
architectural Design Studio. Firstly a trip, study field of which was shown was organized and meetings
were performed about the structures students has researched Sarayönü vernacular architecture which
was designed within adobe sustainable building material. Sarayönü, a small town of Konya is an
important vernacular settlement that used adobe as the primary construction material. it has preserved
its original texture up to the present. So that design area for „carpet factory project‟ was given from
here. After that students were requested to be inspired from these vernacular building for their new
carpet factory designs.
4. Case Study: Use of Adobe in Architectural Education
4.1. Adobe Use in Sarayönü Vernacular Architecture
Sarayönü is a small vernacular settlement in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey, and one of
the villages of Konya (Figure 5). A continental climate pervades the village where the people are
generally engaged in agriculture and stockbreeding. Displaying a unique form of architecture in terms
of its overall planning scheme, the Sarayönü Village used adobe as the primary construction material
in houses (Figure 6). Adobe is a low cost construction material, locally available with good thermal
and acoustic properties and it is also associated to simple construction techniques. In Sarayönü the
adobe has been used in masonry walls, exterior and interior walls, mostly building on parallelepiped
rectangular adobes. The skill in building a house lay in the clever way that half adobes and third
adobes were used to close a corner, support eaves and make windows or doors in the walls (Table
1).The majority of the adobe vernacular houses are normally associated with a high quality of space
and ambiance in Sarayönü.
Figure-5. Location of Sarayönü in Konya
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Figure-6. General views from Sarayönü Village
Table-1. Adobe material use in Sarayönü vernacular architecture
There is a future for adobe vernacular architecture in Sarayönü, because the majority of the
architecture typology meet very well the actual requirements for these building typology. Only
occasionally examples of spaces/constructions do not meet these requirements, in terms of quality of
the spaces and/or structural safety. It‟s possible and viable the rehabilitation of these constructions, but
also, adobe (mechanical and industrial produced material) can be adopted in future new constructions.
Essentially, the rehabilitation of this built heritage may contribute for the reduction of the resources
consumptions associated with new edifications that frequently replace the adobe existing ones.
Vernacular architecture represents inherent, unwritten information for understanding the value
of experiences related to sustainability. Thus, vernacular buildings and correspondingly settlements
can be accepted as a knowledge source for sustainable building design ideas. Therefore, lessons
learned from vernacular architecture can help in designing of environmentally friendly built
environments.
4.2. Studio Practices with Adobe Material Context of Sustainability
Firstly students researched adobe material and sustainability for designing their project. For this
reason a trip was organized to Sarayönü where used adobe as the primary construction material in
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houses. Students analyzed the traditional texture of Sarayönü and determined the traditional houses
which used adobe (Figure 7). For this traditional texture project design area was given from Sarayönü
(Figure 8).
Figure-7. Students exploring Sarayönü traditional houses
Figure-8. Design Area
After that they started to design their own projects. The preparation during the warm-up period,
main idea and the first phase of design process was presented by the student pairs working together on
each project. In the first jury, students received comments and critique on their proposed 'carpet
factory' with sustainable material adobe arrangement and evaluation of all efforts during.
In the second jury, carpet factory projects were evaluated with respect to their sensitivity to
sustainability and a second jury grade was awarded. In the final jury, all decisions regarding about
sustainable carpet factory with adobe, construction details and the architectural draft were evaluated.
Some students alone, some students in groups of two designed a project. In Following tables, there are
student final projects (Table 2-6).
This study is significant in terms terms of giving opportunity to practice sustainable design
within adobe in the architectural education as well. The relationship between architectural design
practice and sustainable design with adobe were evaluated with all positive and negative aspects
within the context of students‟ projects.
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Table-2. Final project designed by Аскар НУРТАЗЕНОВ
Layout plan
Model photo
Ground floor plan
Model photo
First floor plan
Modelling
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Table-3. Final project designed by Güneş YORNUK & Emre ÖZALP
Layout plan
Ground floor plan
Model photo
Model photo
Table-4. Final project designed by Ayşe DEMİR
Layout plan
Ground floor plan
Model photo
Model photo
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Table-5. Final project designed by Nurefşan BALTA
Layout plan
Ground floor plan
Model photo
Model photo
Table-6. Final project designed by Sümeyye ULUDAĞ & Betül ARSLAN
Layout plan
Ground floor plan
Model photo
Model photo
5. Discussion and Conclusions
As a matter of fact, architecture is by its own definition the product of a creative process, which
measures its success by its capacity to provide an answer to economic, aesthetic, ethical, socio-cultural
and physio-psychological human needs. To promote sustainable design in the built environment,
architecture must therefore assume a further dimension, conscientiously responding to the context
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where it is built and to the environment as a whole (Olgyay, 1963). Sustainable environmental design
should be professed as a core architectural skill with the potential to deliver low carbon
emitting/energy consuming buildings, while encompassing the aesthetic, economic, social and cultural
values inherent in a responsible design process.
Taking into consideration that traditional materials are closely related to local conditions and
have significantly less environmental impacts and embodied energy than current construction
materials, their use means a potential to reduce impacts throughout the life-cycle of buildings, in
a "cradle-to-grave" approach. Thus, to achieve sustainability, architecture should seek
integration between tradition and contemporaneity, using the best of both in technologies and
materials. Beyond the environmental issues, promoting the use of local materials like adobe have a
positive impact on local social and economical developments.
Contrary to stereotypes, adobe is perfectly adaptable for use in cold, wet climates as well as hot
and dry ones, and for areas prone to earthquakes. With its efficient use of energy, natural resources for
construction, and minimal effort for long-term maintenance, it‟s clear that the adobe is an ideal option
for constructing eco-friendly structures throughout the world.
The studies briefly presented contribute for the discussion and awareness of the need for
preservation of adobe vernacular architecture, as well as to the opportunity of using adobe as a
building material for new constructions. It is important to engender a „sustainable‟ architectural
consciousness in the students who will be the next generation architects. In architectural education,
design decisions taken during the early phases of the design process play an important role in ensuring
concern for the sustainability issue. When these young designers become professionals, it will be
observed how successful this studio was by following their architectural products. This article detailed
the specific teaching/learning experience for sustainability in architecture design studio as a
methodology.
References
Alva-Balderrama, A., 2001. The conservation of earthen architecture. The Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter.
http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications/newsletters/16_1/feature.html.
Collet, F., L. Serres, J. Miriel and M. Bart, 2006. Study of thermal behaviour of clay wall facing South. Build. Environ., 41:
307-315.
Lawrence, R. J. (2006). Learning from the vernacular: Basic principles for sustaining human habitats. In: Asquith, L. and
Vellinga, M. (ed.). Vernacular architecture in the twenty-first century. Theory, education and practice. Milton
Park, Abingdon: Taylor & Francis.
Jimenez-Delgado, M.C. and I. Canas-Guerrero, 2006. Earth building in Spain. Construction Build. Mater., 20: 679-690.
Olgyay, V. (1963). Design with climate: bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Parra-Saldivar, M.L. and W. Batty, 2006. Thermal behaviour of adobe constructions. Build. Environ., 41: 1892-1904.
Viviancos, J.L., J. Soto, I. Perez, J.V. Ros-Li and R. Martinez-Manez, 2009. A new model base on experimental
results for the thermal characterization of bricks. Build. Environ, 44: 1047-1052.
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Architectural Language Based on ‘Place’: The Case
of Sille
Emine Yıldız Kuyrukçu1 ---- Zafer Kuyrukçu2
1,2
Research Assist, Selcuk University, Architecture Faculty, Department of Architecture, Konya, Turkey
ABSTRACT
The design studio is a medium of intense learning in architectural education. A learning
experiment that engages in critical practice, seeking to present values instead of mere
techniques, promoting investigative work rather than trying to bring exact definitions to what
must be, is typical of architectural studio education. The choice of a theme around which to
structure studio work is significant in this respect; themes define the trajectory and act as
filters of perception, thought and action, which the instructors and students share throughout
the design process. The theme of the studio exercise presented in this paper consists of the
comprehension of place and space qualities and proposing new design in a historic context.
While this theme directed learning of pertinent design vocabulary and concepts, it also
required that students should develop an ethical approach based on the sense of responsibility
towards delicate environments possessing cultural heritage.The aim of this study is to make
the architect candidates do the investigation related to the “place”, and live the experience of
using the properties unique for the place as design criteria. Konya-Sille, which for some
people it is a Byzantium village, for some other it is a Central Anatolian settlement dated to
very old periods, where either Byzantines or Turks, as being Orthodox Christian and Muslim,
lived together. Sille, with it‟s economic potential, has became one of the most important
economic centers of Konya and it‟s environment. Sille, which is known a very important
centre up to the end of 19 Century, fell into a declining period at the end of that century, and
accelerated its speed during the Post Exchanging period realized together with Lausanne
Agreement, and reached to the 21 Century.The design problem is determined as “cultural
center” in this area where is under conservation and has a unique traditional texture. In this
study about a studio experience; the process of the discussions on culture, history, religion,
texture, tradition, originality, continuity concepts upon context/place and new design
realization in an existing texture in the direction of these concepts are explained.
Keywords: Place, Identitiy, Architectural education, Contextual design, Cultural continuity, Sille.
1. Introduction
Originality that has begun expressing itself in architecture since 19th century and previously
covered a small intellectual area in the familiar concerns of architecture, similar to the other fields, is a
different meaning, expression, search and defines a new interpretation and a different identity.
Originality can be searched by the way of spatial features, form, material-technology and context and
evaluate in the levels of being innovative (refinement) or creative (heuristic). It can be asserted that
the most important revolutions in architecture occurs by the space being thought by means of void.
Architectural design should be thought not by means of the function or solid components of the space
but by void itself. Thinking the void in designing process can create more original results and reveals
an architecture which is not generic. The uniqueness of the form is either an important way of
originality. More, differences in using the materials and technology can reveal originalities.
Architecture, differing from other design products, exists with a constant “place” and gains meaning.
So “place” is the significant data for architecture and meanings founded in a design sensible for its
context adds dissimilar diamentions to the buildings originality.
The Norwegian architect and phenomenologist Christian Norberg-Schulz is a key theorist in
elucidating the concept of genius loci, which he explores in several works spanning three decades. In
his 1963 thesis, his original intention was to investigate the psychology of architecture (NorbergSchulz, 1963). Based on the same gestalt psychological theory employed by Kevin Lynch, NorbergSchulz (1980) explores the character of places on the ground and their meanings for people, although
Lynch (1960) ignored meanings and focused on structure and identity. Norberg-Schulz uses a concept
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of townscape (although not as Cullen defined it) to denote skyline or image. He sees the skyline of the
town and the horizontally expanded silhouette of the urban buildings as keys to the image of a place.
He promotes the traditional form of towns and buildings, which he sees as the basis for bringing about
a deeper symbolic understanding of places (Norberg-Schulz, 1985, pp. 33–35, 48). The culmination of
his examination of the genius loci concept is found in Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of
Architecture (Norberg-Schulz, 1980). Here, genius loci is described as representing the sense people
have of a place, understood as the sum of all physical as well as symbolic values in nature and the
human environment.
In Norberg-Schulz‟s description of the genius loci, as well as in his own use of the concept, four
thematic levels can be recognized: the topography of the earth‟s surface; the cosmological light
conditions and the sky as natural conditions; buildings; symbolic and existential meanings in the
cultural landscape. The natural conditions of a place are understood as being based on features in the
topographical landscape, including a cosmological and temporal perspective that includes continual
changes of light and vegetation in the annual cycle.
Place” is a complex and contested term being exposed to various theorizations and positions in
diverse fields. Conveying an understanding of “place” as an ethical component in architecture‟s
agenda, the study defines architecture as the “identification of place”, and comes up with ideas for a
conceptual framework of “gathering” insight concerning the physical location/condition, namely
“place”, through the study and understanding of its components, namely “reading” them. The
significance of defining, listening to and interpreting physical location/condition for a more “enriched
mission of architecture” within developing a notion of dialogue is addressed in this study.
“Architectural design studios are educational environments that professional education and art
education is conducted jointly. These studios are premised on a particular kind of pedagogy defined as
“learning by doing” and architectural curriculum has been based on “learning by doing” in the design
studio” (Çıkış and Çil, 2009). Traditionally, the practice of architectural design is learned through a
project-based "studio" approach. In studio, designers express and explore ideas, generate and evaluate
alternatives, and ultimately make decisions and take action. Design studio in architectural design
education is a process, built in the frame of different methods related to the aims those the studio
instructor/s wants to learn, where the knowledge gained from other lessons is synthesized. In this
process design area and design problem itself happen to be means; selected place and subject serve the
determined aims. In this study about a studio experience; the process of the discussions on culture,
history, religion, texture, tradition, originality, continuity concepts upon context/place and new design
realization in an existing texture in the direction of these concepts are explained. Context can be
defined as the components affecting the formation of something. It is possible to read the components
belonged to that context in the spaces formed by people according to their own life styles and the
geographical characteristics of the "place" they live in (Aydın, 2008).
The aim of this study is to make the architect candidates do the investigation related to the
“place”, and live the experience of using the properties unique for the place as design criteria. KonyaSille, which for some people it is a Byzantium village, for some other it is a Central Anatolian
settlement dated to very old periods, where either Byzantines or Turks, as being Orthodox Christian
and Muslim, lived together (Uysal and others, 2012). The " cultural center " design in this texture is
determined for the Selcuk University 4nd year architecture students with the aim of experiencing the
design process upon the concepts peculiar to the place.
2. Method
Different methods were used in Studio 8 cultural center project. Firstly, a trip, study field of
which was shown was organized and observations and meetings were performed about Sille for
understanding traditional texture. In the first days of the study, information about Sille was given to
the student. After that each student designed his or her own „‟cultural center project‟‟ in historical
texture of Sille.
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3. Case Study
3.1. Description of the Study Area
Sille settlement located 9 km away to the Konya city centre placed in Middle Anatolia is an area
under conservation and has a unique traditional texture (Fig1., Fig.2., Fig.3). Until the 1920s, Sille
was a Greek („Rum‟) orthodox village. In the population exchanges between Greece and Turkey
(1923), Turkey and Greece decided to exchange population based on religion. After 1924, all Greek
population had left the village.
Figure-1. Study area
Figure-2. View of Sille settlement
Figure-3. General view from Sille
Sille was one of the few villages where the Cappadocian Greek language was spoken until 1922.
It was inhabited by Greeks who had been living there in peaceful coexistence with the nearby Turks of
Konya for over 800 years. In the barren rocky neighbourhood of the village, the remains of several
medieval rock monasteries are worth visiting; they are very „Cappadocian‟ in style. The monastery
and rock churches still exist in the settlement (Figure 4). Sille being a witness of a rich history and
culture exhibits this character in spatial variety. There are stonework churches, chapels, houses, Aya
Elenia Museum (Figure 5), Tepe Chapel, mosques, baths, fountains, public laundries, public buildings,
waterways and some sort of civil architectural buildings in Sille.
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Figure-4. The rock churches
Figure-5. Aya Elenia Museum
There are two districts having different religious lives in Sille carrying valley settlement
characteristics. However as different from similar other settlements there are districts in Sille where
Muslims and non - Muslims live together. Sille brook (dried today) was a factor for the location of the
dwellings and the mountain in the south of the brook obstructed the settlement to grow towards that
direction. The original settlements under conservation form an arc in northeast - southwest direction.
There are fountains in the intersection point of some streets covered by stone. Dwellings have
generally double floors. The relationship of the dwellings located around twisted narrow streets with
the exterior is provided directly with a door opened through the street The doors and windows are
small, low and narrow in the dwellings and there are rooms, storage and kitchen in the ground floor.
On both floors the main spaces open to the sofa/transition space, there can be balconies in front of the
spaces in upstairs or it can be possible to widen the usage areas, provide visual relationship with the
outside and increase the view angle by the use of oriel. Kitchen shows generally a double space
organization in ground floor. This formation can be named as cooking section and storage section.
Storage areas generally carry appropriate conditions for food storage in rock carvings. In the scope of
the space relationship from the religion angle, although the Muslim and Christian dwellings generally
has formal similarity (material, silhouette, etc.), there are differences in the space transparency,
permeability and the way it opens to the outside and the space (Uysal and others, 2012). The Sille
andesite stone is probably the most important construction material which used in buildings (Table 1).
Table-1. Architecture of Sille settlement
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4. Studies
In this design studio it is aimed for students to design based on „place‟ in Sille. The design
problem is determined as “cultural center” in this area where is under conservation and has a unique
traditional texture. Studio 8 project was organized in in 2014-2015 fall semester in Department of
Architecture in Selcuk University with a team consisting of 11 students under the supervision of
Prof.Dr.Ahmet Alkan and Emine Yıldız Kuyrukçu. Firstly, a trip, study field of which was shown was
organized and observations and meetings were performed about the Sille architecture and history. In
the first days of the study, information about surveying was given to the student. After that each
student designed his or her own „‟cultural center project‟‟ in historical texture of Sille (Figure 6). In
the following tables there are cultural center projects which designed in the historical texture of Sille
by the students (Table 2-5).
Figure-6. Design Area
Table-2. Student Final Project 1 – Designed by R. Zehra GÜLTEKİN
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Model photo
Ground floor plan
Table-3. Student Final Project 2 – Designed by Kübra AYAN
Layout plan
Model photo
Ground floor plan
Sections
Facades
Table-4. Student Final Project 3 – Designed by Derya AKTÜRK
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Layout plan
Ground floor plan
Sections
South facade
Model photos
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Table-5. Student Final Project 4 – Designed by Duygu POLAT
Layout plan
Ground floor
plan
Sections
Model photos
4. Conclusion
In architecture, “deterritorialization” refers to the notion that an architectural product does not
belong to any geographical region, cultural structure, or intellectual system, nor to any moment in
time; it makes no difference whether it is constructed here or there, at this time or at that time. It
concerns not finding itself a place/territory and not becoming something more than a singular element.
In other words, it is the disappearance of the qualifications of the data which direct an architectural
work and which make the place itself, a decrease in the communicational power of the environment
and, in architectural theory, it is the disappearance of the integrity of the separation of concept and the
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thought. In brief, deterritorialization is a matter of breaking away from the observable context, away
from the physical environment and cultural values, away from historical periodicity and a theoretical
system. Architecture, differing from other design products, exists with a constant “place” and gains
meaning. So “place” is the significant data for architecture and meanings founded in a design sensible
for its context adds dissimilar diamentions to the buildings originality.
It is very important studying in area where is under conservation and has a unique traditional
texture for architectural design education. It is seen that in this study students evaluated Sille original
architecture, topography, traditional material (Sille stone) and socio-cultural characteristic in their
cultural center projects.
This study emphasis that 'place' is very important and significant for architecture education
context of original design that must take care topography, material and original architecture.
References
Aydın, D. (2008), Contextual Values in Rural Architecture: Kilistra (Gokyurt) Settlement / Turkey, Regional Architecture
and Identity in the Age of Globalization, Volume I, Editors; Jamal Al-Qawasmi, Abdesselem Mahmoud, Ali
Djerbi, The Second International Conference of the Center for the Study of Architecture in the Arab Region,
(CSAAR 2007), 408-417
Çıkış, Ş., & Çil, E. (2009), Problematization of assessment in the architectural design education: First year as a case study,
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, 2103–2110.
Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press).
Norberg-Schulz, C. (1963) Intentions in Architecture (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget).
Norberg-Schulz, C. (1980) Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture (New York, Rizzoli).
Norberg-Schulz, C. (1985) The Concept of Dwelling: On the Way to Figurative Architecture (New York, Electa/Rizzoli).
Uysal, M., Aydın, D., Sıramkaya, B., S., (2012), A model intended for building the design education in the context of
cultural variety and continuity: Sille design studio, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 53 – 63.
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The Performing Material Used for Total Knee
Replacement
Fatiha Mezache1 --- Hichem Amrani2 --- Hammoudi Mazouz3
1,2,3
Laboratory: laboratoire de recherché en productique (L.R.P); department of mechanic Faculty of
Technologies; University of Hadj Lakhdar Batna, Algeria
ABSTRACT
The knee, the largest joint in the human body, is a joint trochoid-trochlear. The flexing
movement consists of a rolling phase and a sliding phase. When the joint is flexed, rotational
movements are possible (such movement is automatic). In rotation, the femur and menisci
move relative to the tibia by cons in flexion and extension, the femur moves relative to the
menisci by sliding movements and rolling. Deterioration of the joint leads to the use of TKA,
the materials used are titanium, polyethylene, cobalt chrome and Oxinium, the best performing
is the Oxinium for his very high mechanical properties.
Keywords: Knee, Deterioration of the joint, Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA), Constraint von mises, Movement.
1. Introduction
A joint is where bones are connected while being able to move relative to each other in certain
directions, the knee joint is subjected to very high stresses, so it requires a lot of stability because it
has body weight and mobility to the race and adaptations of the foot to the ground. This is an unstable
joint outside the position of rectitude. The purpose of a knee replacement is an ideal way to get a
normal knee function compatible with unrestricted activity and that, for the longest time possible. So
thanks to knee replacement, many patients with advanced osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, joint
necrosis, Sports origin accident or other ... and can move again without human or mechanical
assistance.
2. Gait Analysis and Stress on the Knee[1]
Biomechanical studies have shown that the constraints on the natural knee range from 3 to 8
times the body weight during the down and climb stairs. During the walking constraints are of the
order of 3 times the body weight; during jogging are multiplied by 8, when riding a bike with 1.2,
when descending stairs by 7 and during exercises isokinetic rehabilitation at 30 ° of flexion by 12.
When these physical activities and sports, the maximum compressive and shear slip on the PE
occur when the knee is between 30 ° and 60 ° of flexion.
The PE tibial prostheses which is not congruent with the femoral condyles, and those whose
femoral trochlea does not fit or hurt the design of the ball, have a lower stress distribution and are
more exposed to wear and bone loosening.
The stresses acting on a polyethylene total knee during walking not yet determined. From
measurements made in vivo and photographic clichés, Paul Morrison and analyzed for the first time
its constraints during gait cycle of a normal joint. A later Seirge Arvika and obtained figures with a
higher stress analysis method thinner (Figure.1)
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Figure-1. Walk cycle with peaks constraints evaluated by seirge and Arvika. The cycle is defined for each percentage of
walking a maximum load value as can be seen from the diagram, the maximum attain seven times the body weight.
during walking or the rise and down of stairs, it is estimated that the constraints of the femur on the
tibia reach up to ten times the weight of the body. This is for an adult to 100 kg a stress of 10 MPa.
A. Materials[2]
The solutions adopted for the TKA are much less varied than for hip replacement, mainly
because of the overwhelmingly dominant combination of polyethylene metal to polyethylene surfaces
use.
The femoral components are made in cobalt-chromium alloy after titanium alloys have been
abandoned, even after testing a nitrided surface.
The metal parts are offered tibial cobalt chromium alloy but also titanium alloys, the prosthesis
is cemented in uncemented or methyl methacrylate.
Two exceptions in the choice of material:
Use for the femoral component of the alumina ceramic material that has long been proven in the
prosthetic hip surgery. This approach was adopted in Japan after many mechanical tested by Onishi et
al.
The use of the femur of a zircon oxide whose mechanical analyzes were published in 1994 by
Whiteside et al. This was carried out in vitro reexamine a Canadian American team with a slightly
different principle: the entire femoral component is made of zirconium alloy with oxidation on the
articular surfaces of 5μ thickness is not an additional layer and integrates directly into the underlying
alloy. Comparative tests on simulators have been much less wear of the polyethylene tibial femoral
component with a cobalt chromium
Since 2000, this principle is applicable parts femoral relating to be marketed: prosthesis profix
and genesis of Smith and nephew. Applications of technology in orthopedics OXINIUM made
improvements compared to CoCr alloy, best coefficient of friction, scratch resistance and
biocompatibility without the limitations associated with risk of fracture of ceramic The Verilast
technology combines two technologies Individual wear reduction, namely the components OXINIUM
in femoral and tibial inserts XLPE. it is currently the only comprehensive solution available to address
against wear for TKA. The resistance performance the wear Verilast technology are shown in Figure
2.
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Figure-2. Wear rate, simulator knee, verilast (oxinium on xlpe 7.5 Mrad) compared to other couples CoCr / cpe xlpe or 7.5
Mrad. , oxinium / cpe xlpe or 7.5 Mrad in microabrasion conditions.
3. Results and Interpretation
The work done is to calculate constraint Von mises applied to the prosthesis, the pressure and
the elongation, and to compare the results with those of the bone. [3]
The characteristics of our choices are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
Table-I. Mechanical Characteristics of Implant Prosthesis
materials
CrCo
OXINIUM
PEHD
Young's modulus E (MPa)
22O
150
800
Poisson coefficient ν
0.3
0.35
0.3
Table-II. Mechanical Characteristics of Bone (FEMUR/TIBIA)
bones
Femur
Tibia
Young's modulus E (MPa)
17.2
18.1
Poisson coefficient ν
0.2
0.2
The Chosen model is a prosthesis sliding in Oxinium is the most widely used model for these
benefits.
The choice of materials is:
1. The femoral part Chrome Cobalt; then Oxinium
2. The tibia part polyethylene.
The
results
obtained
after
the
finite
element
modeling,
on using ABAQUS.
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1) Couple: OXINIUM / PEHD
Figure-3. Abaqus results of the prosthesis for: OXINIUM / PEHD
a) constrains Von mises, b) pressure, c) elongation.
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2) couple: femur / Tibia
Figure-4. Abaqus results of the prosthesis for: tibia / femur
a) constrains Von misses, b) pressure, c) elongation.
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3) couple: femur / Tibia
Figure-5. Abaqus results of the the femoral insert for: tibia/femur a)
constrains Von misses, b) pressure, c) elongation.
We presented the results of the simulation of a load applied to the femoral insert into contact
with the tibial plateau, where we did two tests on two pairs of biomaterials in our research we only
interest in constraints von Mises and pressure,the results found are:
1st case:
In the first test, we choose the couple (Oxinium /PEHD)
1.
The values of Von Misses constraint:
In the prosthesis (figure 3.a) varies between:
3,177 e+01 ≥ σe (misses) ≥ 0 (N/mm2);
And comparing our constraint Von Misses with the elastic limit of the Oxinium.
[σe(prosthesis)(misses)<Re(oxinium)=380N/mm2].(S.D.M)
The resistance condition is verified.
2.
the pressure between the two inserts:
the value of the pressure: oxinium/pehd (figure: 3.b) varies between :
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-1,637e+01 ≤ P ≤ 1,115e+01 (N/mm2).
2nd case:
In the second test, the choice is (bones: femur / tibia)
A. The values of the Von mises constraint:
1)
in the prosthesis (figure 4.a) varies between:
2.637 e01 ≥ σe (put) ≥ 0 (N/mm2);
2)
in the femoral insert(Figure: 5.a); varies between:
2.637e +01 ≥ σe (put) ≥ 8.269e-01 (N/mm2).
And comparing our von Mises stress with the yield strength of the femur
[σe (prosthesis) (mises) <Re (femur) = 2.8 ± 1.6 N/mm2].
(Materials Science) The resistance condition is verified.
B. The pressure between the two inserts,
The value of the pressure of the femur / tibia
The results found: cases 1 and 2, by simulation, in remarks that: The maximum stress of Von
mises, and the maximum pressure in the contact assembly "femur / tibia" is the same value as that of
the femur, which is distinguished as the pressure and stress of Von mises are maximum at the point of
application of the load, the two inserts in contact. (Figure:4.b)varies between: -8.878 ≤ P≤1.022e+01
(N/mm2).
References
[1] book: prothèses totales de genou. 81. cahiers d‟enseignement de la sofcot. Collection dirigée par j.Duparc. R.Lemaire,
J.Witvoet. Expansion scientifique publications.
[2] Maîtrise Orthopédique n°153- avril 2006, Article les avatars de l'oxinium: des plages d'Australie à vos blocs
opératoires. Ch.Raux. Smith & Nephew. S.A.S. - 25, Bd Alexandre Oyon-72019 Le Mans Cedex 2.
[3] Maîtrise Orthopédique n°204 - mai 2011, Article.Quoi de neuf dans les couples de friction ?
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