Arial Narrow 28pt. Office of Education Arial Narrow Primary Arial CareNarrow Update28pt. in Urology 28pt. Arial Narrow 28pt. Arial Narrow 28pt. Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms & Incontinence PRIMARY CARE UPDATE IN UROLOGY Primary Care Update in Urology Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS) Normal Bladder = 300 – 500 cc capacity, STORES at low pressure with appropriate outlet resistance, EMPTIES by adequate bladder contraction without outlet resistance. LUTS occur due to problems with: STORAGE or ability of the bladder to hold urine EMPTYING or ability of the bladder to void Male Bladder Female Bladder 3 Primary Care Update in Urology Incontinence Failure to Store Urge Overactive bladder Decreased bladder compliance Stress Intrinsic sphincter deficiency Pelvic floor laxity Neuropathic sphincter Acontractile bladder Prostatic, urethral obstruction Dyssynergic sphincter Overflow Total Failure to Empty Neuropathic sphincter Sphincterotomy 4 Primary Care Update in Urology Abnormal Storage Abnormal Emptying OVERACTIVE Bladder 1. Frequent voiding or small amounts with compelling need to void(Urgency) 2. If outlet resistance inadequate then urge + stress urinary incontinence NORMAL Bladder 1. Outlet obstruction (i.e. BPH, urethral stricture) = RETENTION UNDERACTIVE Bladder 1. Retention if outlet resistance high 2. Poor outlet resistance or bladder fills with pressure > outlet resistance then overflow incontinence UNDERACTIVE Bladder 1. Hypotonic bladder = RETENTION 5 Primary Care Update in Urology Evaluation of LUTS History: Qualitate the voiding by frequency day & night, urgency vs stress incontinence, hesitancy, straining to void, feeling of bladder being empty after void. In male IPSS form. Physical Exam: Assess for bladder distension, objective SUI, descent of anterior vaginal wall with straining, condition of vaginal mucosa, presence of cystocele/rectocele. Rectal exam to assess prostate size and consistency. Voiding Diary: Includes amount & type of fluid consumed, times of voiding and any associated bladder symptoms, record incontinence in relation to void times. Office assessment: Urinalysis, Urine C&S, U/S of Bladder for PVR Referral for: Urodynamics (UDS) + Cystoscopy 6 Primary Care Update in Urology Treatment Options Urge Incontinence: Determine if patient wants treatment. 1. Behavior Modification: Q2H voiding, reduced fluid intake, avoid bladder irritants, Kegel maneuvers 2. Anticholinergics: Reduce bladder contraction pressure. Side effects = retention, dry mouth/eyes, constipation, tachycardia, drowsiness, confusion. Contraindicated in acute angle glaucoma. Overflow Incontinence: Assess for obstruction TURP / urethrolysis 1. Clean intermittent catheterization (CIC) Stress Urinary Incontinence: Kegel maneuvers, alpha-agonists (e.g. pseudoephedrine) which increase BN tone, pessary Referral for surgical management of ISD vs. anatomic SUI 7 Primary Care Update in Urology Treatment Options (continued) Mixed Incontinence: Behavior modification + meds Total Incontinence: Condom catheter or artificial sphincter 8 Erectile Dysfunction & Cardiometabolic Risk PRIMARY CARE UPDATE IN UROLOGY Primary Care Update in Urology Erectile Dysfunction (ED) & Cardiometabolic Risk ED is the inability to reach or maintain erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance. Primary vascular disorder in men > 30 yrs old therefore potent predictor of cardiovascular disease (CVD). ED is associated with BP, lipidemia, DM, & depression. ED is independent predictor of CV morbidity & mortality in DM patients with silent CAD. ED precedes CVD by 2 to 5 years. ED predicts CVD in non-DM middle aged men. 10 Primary Care Update in Urology Erectile Dysfunction & Coronary Artery Disease May be different manifestations of the same underlying blunted endothelial dependent vasodilation response. Therefore, impaired vasodilation of the penile artery may be the first vascular “stress test” of a more diffuse vascular disease process. Framingham risk score (FRS) suggests ED is a potent predictor of all-cause death and the composite of CVD, myocardial infarction, stroke & heart disease.* Patients with ED should be evaluated for CVD risk factors and aggressively treated for hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes & obesity. 11 Primary Care Update in Urology Physiology of Normal Erection Nitric oxide is neurotransmitter that activates endothelial guanylyl cyclase and raises intracellular cyclic GMP which opens K+ channels resulting in relaxation of cavernosal arteries and filling of venous sinusoids. This causes constriction of subtunical venous plexus thereby reducing venous outflow = erection. 12 Primary Care Update in Urology ED Categories Disorders Problem Psychogenic Performance anxiety Depression Loss of libido, Overinhibition, Impaired NO release Neurogenic Stroke, Spinal cord injury, Diabetic retinopathy Hormonal Hypogonadism, Hyperprolactinoma Inadequate nitric oxide (NO) Release Atherosclerosis, hypertension Impaired arterial or venous flow Antihypertensives, Antidepressants, Alcohol, Cigarette use Central suppression, Vascular insufficiency Vasculogenic (arterial or venous) Medication Induced Lack of nerve impulse, or Interrupted transmission 13 Primary Care Update in Urology Treatment of ED Lifestyle changes – quit smoking, loose weight, exercise regularly Psychotherapy – for patients with performance anxiety & overinhibition. Treat depression Oral Therapy – PDE5 Inhibitors (sildenafil, vardenafil, tadalafil) Testosterone Vacuum Erection Devices Referral to Urology for: Intracavernosal Injection Therapy – papaverine, phentolamine, prostaglandin E2 (alprostadil) Intraurethral Injection Therapy – prostaglandin E2 (alprostadil) Penile Erectile Prosthesis 14 Prostate Cancer Overview PRIMARY CARE UPDATE IN UROLOGY Primary Care Update in Urology • • 2nd most common cause of cancer deaths (11%) in males, behind lung and bronchus (28%) High risk groups include men with a first-degree family member who has or had prostate cancer, African American men Prostate cancer diagnosis: Symptoms - early – often none - advanced - bone pain and constitutional symptoms (weakness and weight loss) Rectal examination - prostate nodule (hard), asymmetry; portion of gland is not compressible (more firm) Prostate specific antigen (PSA) - prostate specific , but not prostate cancer specific Benign conditionsbenign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), urinary tract infection (cystitis and prostatitis) urethral instrumentation (bladder catheterization and cystoscopy), urinary retention and recent ejaculation Prostate Cancer - LOW specificity of PSA testing for prostate cancer 15% of patients with a normal PSA level have prostate cancer 16 Primary Care Update in Urology Ways to make elevated PSA more sensitive /specific for Ca • Age-Specific reference range for serum PSA • PSA Velocity - How quickly does their PSA level go up? • PSA Density - How does the PSA value correlate with the size of their prostate? • Percent Free PSA - What is the ratio of free/total PSA? > or < 15% AUA Recommendations for PSA Screening in Prostate Cancer Detection- 2013 • Focus on men ages 55-69 • Not recommended for average-risk *men 40-54, after age 70, or for men with average life expectancy of less than 10-15 • Not recommended for men younger than 40 • Should include a thorough discussion of risks and benefits of screening between patient and physician * 40- 54 yrs old - Men at high risk - family history or African-American race should be considered for PSA testing US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) - Do not screen for prostate cancer in men 75 years or older 17 Primary Care Update in Urology US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) PSA Testing Recommendations Draft Form, Oct 7, 2011- Ann Int Med • recommends against prostate-specific antigen (PSA)-based screening for prostate cancer. This is a GRADE D* recommendation. • * Moderate or high uncertainty that the service has no net benefit or that the harms outweigh benefits 18 Primary Care Update in Urology IMPORTANT FACTS TO CONSIDER ABOUT USPSTF PSA SCREENING RECOMMENDATIONS: • • • • No Urology, Radiation or Medical oncology representative on Task Force In 1988, 19.2% of patients diagnosed with prostatic cancer already had locally advanced disease. In 1998, only 4.4% had locally advanced cancer at diagnosis. In PSA era, diagnosis of advanced CaP has decreased > 75% 19 Primary Care Update in Urology IMPORTANT FACTS TO CONSIDER ABOUT USPSTF PSA SCREENING RECOMMENDATIONS: • Prostate Cancer death rates have fallen >40% from 1993-2006 (Göteborg CaP screening study) • Statistical models suggest that 45-70% of this decrease is due to screening • Globally CaP has decreased in countries where screening is practiced; has stayed stable or increased in countries that don’t screen 20 Primary Care Update in Urology PLCO Screening Study Emphasized by USPSTF • USA - 76,000 men– No Difference FLAWED! – Extensive PSA testing before study entry – Removed many pts with life-threatening CaP from study population – Extensive screening of controls during study – Use of outdated PSA cut-off (4 ng/ml) – Failure of those in screening arm with abnormal results to undergo prompt biopsy – Premature reporting of mortality results – Shorter Follow-up (7 yrs) 21 Primary Care Update in Urology European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC) • Europe- 182,000 men randomized screening trial reduced prostate cancer deaths by 20% with 41% reduction in metastatic disease (NEJM, March 2009) • ERSPC- Follow-up to 11 years – continued reduction in risk of death from CaP (29% compared to non-screened) (NEJM, March 2011) 22 Primary Care Update in Urology OTHER IMPORTANT FACTS TO CONSIDER ABOUT PSA SCREENING RECOMMENDATIONS: • CaP arises and progresses silently • Symptoms often reflect incurable state • Every man has right to make decisions and self determination • PSA test is not perfect BUT it currently is the best we have to pick up potentially lethal CaP • Use of PSA velocity, % free PSA, PSA/Density helpful • Finding a new prostate cancer test- top research priority 23 Primary Care Update in Urology Diagnosis of Prostate Cancer Transrectal ultrasound-guided prostate biopsy Clinical Staging of Prostate Cancer • • • • • • Digital rectal exam Gleason grade PSA value Bone scan, - if PSA > 20 ng/ml Pelvic CT or endorectal MRI – if strong concern of advanced disease Pelvic lymphadenectomy – if strong evidence of locally advanced pelvic disease and adenopathy 24 Primary Care Update in Urology TREATMENT OPTIONS • • • • • Active Surveillance – watch closely with repeat PSA and prostate biopsies at regular intervals Radical Prostatectomy – potentially curative – open/laparoscopic/robotic Radiotherapy – potentially curative - external beam/brachytherapy (seeds) +/adjunctive androgen suppression Cryotherapy – not considered first line of treatment High Intensity Focused Ultrasound – not considered firstl ine treatment Rising PSA after curative therapy is most likely due to persistent or recurrent prostate cancer • Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) for advanced or metastatic prostate cancer that is sensitive to androgen-suppression • Chemotherapy (docetaxel-based) and immunotherapy (sipuleucel-T) for advanced prostate cancer that is not sensitive to androgen-suppression (“hormone resistant”) 25 Primary Care Update in Urology Prostate Cancer Prevention • • • • Selenium, Vitamin E, Cox-2 inhibitors – No level 1 evidence to support Sawpalmetto – No level 1 evidence to support Whole tomatoes, pomegranates - No level 1 evidence to support 5 alpha-reductase inhibitors (5-ARI’s) -- Dutasteride and Finasteride Yes – reduces prevalence but : Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT) • randomized 19,000 men into placebo versus finasteride • followed for seven years • 24.8% reduction in prevalence of prostate cancer in the finasteride group compared to the placebo group • prostate tumors of higher Gleason grade (7, 8, 9, or 10) were more common in the finasteride group 26 Primary Care Update in Urology Prostate Cancer Prevention (continued): Reduction by Dutasteride of Prostate Cancer Events Study (REDUCE) • 22.8% reduction in prostate cancer in the dutasteride group compared to placebo • no increase in higher Gleason grade tumors • cardiac failure seen more often in the dutasteride group compared to the placebo group • Before prescribing 5-ARI’s to prevent prostate cancer, and in patients taking 5-ARI’s for lower urinary tract symptoms, discuss the risks and benefits with the patient; communication between primary care physicians and their Urology colleagues on the use of 5-ARIs is essential 27 Interstitial Cystitis & Bladder Pain Syndrome PRIMARY CARE UPDATE IN UROLOGY Primary Care Update in Urology Interstitial Cystitis / Bladder Pain Syndrome (BPS) Symptoms: Frequency, urgency + pelvic pain & incontinence. Tends to be slowly progressive with insidious onset. Dyspareunia flares common. Often diagnosed as ‘recurrent UTI’, but by definition C&S negative Pathophysiology: Upregulated stretch (urgency) and pain fibers of the bladder. Barrier between urine metabolites and bladder interstitium abnormal. Mucous layer (normally highly anionic) on apical membrane of umbrella cells of transitional epithelium attracts H2O. K+ > 8 mEq/L will depolarize nerve & muscle cells. Prolonged depolarization results in cell death. Urine K+ levels = 30 – 120 mEq/L. So if mucosal barrier abnormal K+ from urine is absorbed and is very irritating to bladder interstitium. 29 Primary Care Update in Urology DIAGNOSIS OF IC / BPS Potassium Sensitivity Test (PST): 80% of patients tested positive after injury to mucosal layer with protamine in study of normal population, supportive of epithelial dysfunction & absorption of K+ into bladder interstitium causing BPS symptoms. Evaluation of IC Patient: Loss of Umbrella Cells Urinalysis Urine C&S – if negative then treat Normal Umbrella Cells 30 Primary Care Update in Urology TREATMENT of BPS Principles of Treatment 1. Correct epithelial dysfunction – Heparin intravesically (40,000 U heparin + 200 mg lidocaine + 2 ml of 8.4% NaHCO3) 2 – 3 treatments in 1 week instilled and left for 30 minutes. Can continue several weeks if necessary. Heparinoid – Pentosan polysulfate (PPS) 100mg TID or 200mg BID 2. Inhibit neural hyperactivity – Amitriptyline 25 – 50 mg @ HS, anticholinergics & antmuscarinics are less effective. 3. Control allergies (histamine flares, IC symptoms) – Hydroxyzine 25 mg increased to 50 – 75 mg @ HS for several weeks. 4. Advise patient to avoid bladder irritants and timed voiding. 31 Urinary Tract Infections PRIMARY CARE UPDATE IN UROLOGY Primary Care Update in Urology Estimated: 150 million UTI’s worldwide / year with $6 billion annual healthcare cost More common in females than males Of nosocomial infections UTI accounts for 40% - related to indwelling Foley catheters Causative organisms associated with common UTIs 33 Primary Care Update in Urology Source of Bacteria Organisms Bowel Perineum Vagina E coli – 80% of UTI’s Klebsiella; Enterobacter Proteus Pseudomonas Staphylococcus saprophyticus (5 – 15%) Enterococcus Candida Adenovirus type 11 34 Primary Care Update in Urology Symptoms: Lower Urinary Tract - Bacteria adhere to urothelial cells and establish an inflammatory response in the subepithelial and muscle layers of the bladder. The inflammatory response gives rise to frequency, urgency, dysuria due to the inflammation of the detrusor muscle. There may also be hematuria, foul odor to the urine, & suprapubic pain. Upper Urinary Tract - The bladder edema caused by cystitis distorts the normally anti-reflux anatomy of the intra-mural ureter allowing reflux of infected urine from the bladder to the kidney. The bacteria adhere to the upper UT urothelium and cause inflammation of the renal parenchyma. Swelling of the kidney stretches the renal capsule which has pain sensors & causes flank pain, nausea, and fever if bacteria and endotoxins enter the vascular system. 35 Primary Care Update in Urology What Evaluation is Suggestive vs Diagnostic of UTI? Urine Dipstick + Leukocyte esterase (64-90% sensitivity) Urine Microscopy Urine Culture + Nitrite (50% sensitivity) + Blood WBC > 10/hpf (95% sensitive) RBC Bacteria (>98% sensitive) Epithelial cells Organism Colony count > 100,000 36 Primary Care Update in Urology UROPATHOGENS Common Causative pathogens in Adult UTIs E. Coli (80% of outpatient UTIs) Klebsiella; Enterobacter Proteus Pseudomonas Staphylococcus saprophyticus (5 – 15%) Enterococcus Candida Adenovirus type 11 Normal perineal flora: Lactobacillus Corynebacteria Staphylococcus Streptococcus Anaerobes Other pathogens that mimic UTIs Herpes genitalis (HSV) Urethritis N. Gonorrhoeae Chlamydia Trichomonas Vaginitis Prostatitis Nephrolithiasis Trauma GU tuberculosis GU neoplasm Intra-abdominal abscess Sepsis – source other than GU system 37 Primary Care Update in Urology COMMON ANTIMICROBIALS FOR UTIS B-lactam: PCN, Cephalosporin Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis Aminoglycoside Inhibits ribosome protein synthesis Quinolones Inhibits bacterial DNA gyrase Nitrofurantoin Inhibits several bacterial enzyme systems TMP-SMX Antagonism of folate metabolism Vancomycin Inhibits cell wall synthesis 38 Primary Care Update in Urology Antibiotic Treatment Protocols Uncomplicated UTIs 3 days = 7 days TMP/SMX is 95% effective. Resistance to TMP/SMX implies resistant to Ampicillin, Cephalosporin & Tetracycline. Other uncomplicated UTIs 7 – 10 days course for sxs > 7 days, DM pts, pregnancy, age > 65, hx of pyelo or hx of resistant organism. Complicated UTI (pyelonephritis) – after C&S obtained start empiric tx with Amp + aminoglycoside or Vancomycin. Adjust antibiotic according to C&S results. Blood C&S positive in 20-40%. Treat for at least 14 days. Additional treatment information for UTI’s Post-menopausal women prone to UTIs because reduced hormone effect on urothelium. Treat with topical Premarin cream. For uncomplicated UTIs in women > 4x per year consider low dose suppressive therapy or Rx for prn use by patient. For uncomplicated UTIs related to intercourse use antibiotic with intercourse and 12 hours later. Bowel management and regular voiding regime may also be very helpful to reduce recurrent infections. 39 Primary Care Update in Urology Indications for Urology Consult & Further Radiologic Investigation History of stones Ureteral Obstruction Papillary Necrosis Poor response to antimicrobial tx Neuropathic bladder History of GU surgery Polycystic kidney Unusual infecting organism Diabetes mellitus 40 Hematuria PRIMARY CARE UPDATE IN UROLOGY Primary Care Update in Urology Hematuria Microhematuria: detected on dipstick or microscopy; >3 RBC/hpf Dipstick has 95% sensitivity & 75% specificity – confirm with Micro False positive dipstick from free Hbg, myoglobin, antiseptic solutions (povidone-iodine) Gross hematuria: visible to the patient. Patient can confuse bleeding from rectum or vagina therefore careful history important. Prevalence = 1 – 20% Risk Factors: Age > 40 years Male gender Hx cigarette smoking Hx of pelvic radiation Hx chemical exposure (cyclophosphamide, benzenes) Irritative voiding symptoms (freq, urge, dysuria) Prior urologic disease or treatment 42 Primary Care Update in Urology Hematuria ETIOLOGY – can occur anywhere along the urinary tract Glomerular- usually RBC + proteinuria (>1000 mg/24hrs) Red cell casts & dysmorphic RBC suggestive of glomerular origin. Common causes = IgA nephropathy (Berger’s disease), thin glomerular basement membrane disease, hereditary nephritis (Alport’s disease) RBCs Dysmorphic RBCs Non-glomerular RBC Casts Upper Tract (kidney & ureter) Lower Tract (bladder, prostate & urethra) 43 Primary Care Update in Urology Common Causes of Non-Glomerular Hematuria Upper Urinary Tract Urolithiasis Pyelonephritis Renal cell cancer Transitional cell carcinoma Urinary obstruction Benign hematuria Lower Urinary Tract Bacterial cystitis (UTI) Benign prostatic hyperplasia Strenuous exercise (“runner’s hematuria”) Transitional cell carcinoma Spurious hematuria (e.g. menses) Instrumentation Benign hematuria 44 Primary Care Update in Urology Evaluation of Hematuria History: patient symptoms, smoking hx, occupational exposure, hx of pelvic radiation, chemotherapy (cyclophosphamide) Physical exam: BP, edema, cardiac arrhythmias, flank tenderness, menopausal atrophic changes, vaginal exam, rectal exam & assess prostate size & consistency Gross hematuria C&S, Cytology Refer to Urology for CT Urogram Cystoscopy + anesthesia for biopsy or ureteroscopy Microhematuria C&S, Cytology U/S kidneys & bladder + CT Urogram if U/S abnormal Cystoscopy if any of above abnormal 45 Geriatric Urology: Demographics and Theories and Physiology of Aging PRIMARY CARE UPDATE IN UROLOGY Primary Care Update in Urology • Definition of Geriatrics: the study and clinical care of older adults; traditionally, this was age 65 coinciding with the onset of Medicare benefits; as people live longer, a more accurate description of the geriatric age group is older than 70 or 75 years • Increasing size of the geriatric population in the United States with 13% of the population over 65 now; in 2030, this number will increase to 20% • In the United States, the age group over 85 is growing the fastest; this is not true in less developed countries where longevity is cut short by disease • Human aging theory includes (1) evolution, an impairment in organ function due to multiple mutations over time, (2) physiology, due to errors in DNA sequencing and alterations in cellular function, and (3) modulation of the immune system 47 Primary Care Update in Urology Physiology of Aging Decline in organ system function: • Kidney - a decrease in renal blood flow, renal mass (25%), creatinine clearance (10 ml/min/decade), urine concentrating ability and renin/aldosterone production; serum creatinine may not accurately measure renal function in frail elderly patients • Bladder - a decrease in compliance (increase in collagen deposition), contractility, volume, and sensation (changes in urothelial neurotransmitter production/function) • Prostate - stromal and glandular hyperplasia (BPH); prostatitis and prostate cancer 48 Primary Care Update in Urology Physiology of Aging (continued) • Penis - changes in microvasculature and large blood vessels, and in erectile tissue of corpus cavernosum (resulting in erectile dysfunction) • Testis - a decrease in number and function of seminiferous tubules (testes are smaller and softer), and Leydig cell response to gonadotropins (fall in serum testosterone); if malignancy occurs, it is most commonly lymphoma • Frailty - a clinical entity associated with (1) a decrease in functional reserve, (2) comorbidities and (3) an impaired response to stress 49 Primary Care Update in Urology Common Clinical Conditions - Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) • Acute UTI - lethargy, anorexia and confusion are presenting symptoms; treat with antibiotics based on urine culture and susceptibility results; check for drug interactions and make dose adjustments for reduced kidney and liver function • Asymptomatic bacteriuria - in postmenopausal women (20%) and elderly men (5-10%); no treatment required in the absence of symptoms • E. coli, and Enterococcus and Enterobacter species are the most common pathogens; with recurrent infection by multiple different bacteria, suspect enterovesical fistula 50 Primary Care Update in Urology Urinary Tract Infection (continued) Prevention of UTI: • In postmenopausal women, use of topical (vaginal) estrogen acidifies the vaginal fluid leading to growth of natural host defense bacteria (Lactobacillus) • Chemicals in cranberry supplements prevent bacteria from attaching to the urothelium • With retention of urine, choose clean intermittent catheterization over an indwelling catheter to lessen the likelihood of infection, falls, and urethral and bladder neck erosion 51 Primary Care Update in Urology Common Clinical Conditions – Hematuria American Urological Association guidelines define microhematuria as the presence of greater than 3 red blood cells per high power field on at least 2 separate urine specimens Evaluation: • History - duration and frequency of bleeding, and associated pain (dysuria, back and flank pain); risk factors for underlying pathology are smoking, exposure to chemicals and analgesic abuse • Exclude malignancy (bladder, kidney, ureteral), urinary stones and UTI with (1) urine culture, (2) urine cytology, (3) cystoscopy and (4) CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis without and with intravenous contrast; in patients with renal insufficiency, avoid use of intravenous contrast by using renal ultrasound and cystoscopy with retrograde pyelograms to evaluate the renal parenchyma, ureters and bladder 52 Primary Care Update in Urology Hematuria (continued) • Evaluate microhematuria in patients taking anticoagulant medication as 1520% will have underlying urinary tract pathology • Persistent microhematuria with a negative evaluation for structural pathology, and coexisting hypertension and proteinuria, requires referral to a nephrologist to exclude medical renal disease 53 Primary Care Update in Urology Common Clinical Conditions – Nocturia • Nocturia, defined as waking from sleep to void, is associated with increased mortality and may be considered a marker of overall health • Nocturia is associated with an increased risk of accidental falls • Nocturia is a bladder symptom (overactive bladder) and is related to other conditions such as BPH, obstructive sleep apnea and congestive heart failure • Treatment of nocturia requires identification of causative conditions; in more than 50% of patients, nocturia is due to more than one cause and multiple treatments or multicomponent therapy is more effective than focusing on a single intervention – this multicomponent framework lends itself well to geriatric medicine Multicomponent therapy for nocturia: • Behavior modification - change fluid intake and sleep patterns • Treat peripheral edema • Medication - bladder relaxant and alpha-blocker 54
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