SOCIOLOGY “THE BARE BONES” “must haves” for EVERY STUDENT!!! CHAPTER 1 THE SOCIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW Sociology: the social science that studies human society & social behavior How does Sociology compare/contrast with other Social Sciences? • Anthropology: the comparative study of past & present cultures – leans to past/uncivilized instead of present/advanced • Psychology: behavior & thinking of organisms – individual behavior over group behavior • Social Psychology: study of how social environments affect individual’s behavior/personality • Economics: study of how people make efforts to satisfy needs & wants – leans towards impersonal data • Political Science: examination of the organization/operation of governments – Sociology leans towards effects of governments on people • History: study of past events – past overall instead of past’s effects on people The Founders of Sociology (Quick History!) • Auguste Conte: founder of sociology (coined term) – applied methods of physical science towards study of social life • Herbert Spencer: applied teachings of Charles Darwin towards society • Social Darwinism: “survival of the fittest” amongst societies over time • Karl Marx: society’s structure directly defined by the economy – bourgeoisie: capitalists – proletariat: workers • eventually, workers will rise up & create classless society • Emile’ Durkheim: the observation of society based purely on observable data/statistical analysis • Max Weber: understand individual by putting them into the group – Verstehen: puts oneself in the shoes of another – Ideal Type: the combination of society’s ideal characteristics CHAPTER 2 CULTURAL DIVERSITY Culture: all the shared products of human groups Material Culture: physical objects that people create & use Examples: automobiles, books, buildings, clothing, computers & cooking Nonmaterial Culture: abstract human creations Examples: beliefs, family patterns, ideas, language, political & economic systems & rules Components of Culture • technology: culture’s physical objects & rules to use • symbols: represents something else • language: organization of written or spoken symbols into standardized system • values: shared beliefs about right/wrong, good/bad, desirable/undesirable • norms: shared rules of conduct in specific situations Examining Culture • culture traits: individual tool, act or belief related to particular situation/need • culture complexes: cluster of interrelated traits • culture patterns: combination of a number of culture complexes into interrelated whole Cultural Universals: features common to all cultures that must be met to ensure fulfillment George Murdock (1940s): 65 cultural universals • body adornment, cooking, dancing, family, feasting, forms of greeting, funeral ceremonies, gift giving, housing, language, medicine, myths/folklore, religion, sports, toolmaking Ethnocentrism the tendency to view one’s own culture & group as superior to other different cultures Examples vary: labeling another culture as inferior based on technology Cultural Relativism belief that a culture should be judged by its own standards rather than by those of a different culture Examples vary: examining how another society views its dress or diet Culture Subculture groups that share values, norms & behaviors not shared by entire population ---age, gender, ethnic, religious, political, geographic, social-class, occupational Counterculture group rejecting mainstream values, norms & practices & adapting a new set of beliefs ---cyberpunk movement, anarchists, organized crime families, hippie movements of the 1960s CHAPTER 3 CULTURAL CONFORMITY & ADAPTATION Robin Williams: Traditional American Values • personal achievement • individualism • work • morality & humanitarianism • efficiency & practicality • progress & material comfort • equality & democracy • freedom – nationalism & patriotism – science & rationality – racial & group superiority Enforcement of Social Norms Internalization how a norm becomes a part of a person’s personality, thus conditioning the person to conform to society’s expectations Positive action that rewards a particular kind of behavior Formal reward or punishment by a formal organization or regulatory agency, such as government Source of Social Change Example • • • • • • Sanctions rewards or punishments used to enforce conformity to norms Negative punishment or the threat of punishment to enforce conformity Informal spontaneous expression of disapproval or disapproval by an individual or group Social Consequences values & beliefs technology population diffusion physical environment wars & conquests CHAPTER 4 SOCIAL STRUCTURE social structure: the network of interrelated statuses & roles that guide human interaction status: a socially defined position in a group or in a society role: the behavior (the rights & obligations) expected of someone occupying a particular status Status Examples of Roles Examples of Conflict/Strain_______ firefighter putting out fires, saving lives, voluntarily puts self in danger but wearing a uniform has loved ones who need him or her mother providing food & shelter, work fatigue & long shifts make nurturing family, disciplining household tasks & interactions children difficult P.T.A. president running meetings, recruiting has trouble getting members to new members, planning attend & follow through on promises activities Reciprocity Exchange Theory Types of Social Interaction: 1) exchange 2) competition 3) conflict 4) cooperation 5) accommodation group: a set of people who interact on the basis of shared expectations & who possess some degree of common identity subsistence strategies: the way a society uses technology to provide for the needs of its members Types of Societies: Preindustrial: hunting & gathering; pastoral; horticultural; mechanical solidarity → agricultural Industrial: manufacturing → urban; technology; organic solidarity Postindustrial: information; provision of services The Continuum of Primary-Secondary Relationships Primary Group Relationships Secondary Group Relationships family groups of friends school club classroom job Group Functions: 1) define boundaries 3) set goals 5) make decisions 2) select leaders 4) assign tasks 6) control members’ behavior formal organization: a large, complex secondary group that has been established to achieve specific goals bureaucracy: ranked authority structure that operates according to specific rules & procedures rationality: subjecting every feature of human behavior to calculation, measurement & control SAMPLE BEAUCRATIC HEIRARCHY Head of the Bureaucracy (CEO, superintendent, president, etc.) ↓ VP/department head ↓ ↓ (subordinates) ↓ ↓ VP/department head ↓ ↓ ↓ CHAPTER 5 SOCIALIZING THE INDIVIDUAL personality: the sum total of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs & values that are characteristic of an individual Factors That Shape Individual Personality Development heredity birth order ____________ physical traits, aptitudes, inherited if they have siblings & if so, order of birth characteristics, biological drives compared to him or her parents cultural environment_________________ parental characteristics: such as age, determines the basic personality types education, religion & economic status found in society ??? NATURE vs. NURTURE ??? socialization: the interactive process through which people learn the basic skills, values, beliefs & behavior patterns of a society Name Process of Socialization Theory _____ John Locke Tabula Rasa: each person is a blank slate at birth, with no personality People develop personality as a result of their social experiences. Moreover, infants can be molded into any type of person. Charles Horton Looking Glass Self: infants have no sense of person or place. Cooley Children develop an image of themselves based on how others see them. Other people act as a mirror, reflecting back the image a child projects through their reactions to the child’s behavior. George Herbert Role Taking: people not only come to see themselves as others see them but also take on or pretend to take on the roles of others through imitation, play & games. This process enables people to anticipate what others expect of them. agents of socialization: the specific individuals, groups & institutions that enable socialization to take place i.e. the family, the peer group, the school, the mass media Mass Media as a Socialization Agent:  mass media includes books, films, the Internet, magazines, newspapers, radio & television  television probably as the most influence on children  the effect of television on children is an ongoing debate CHAPTER 6 THE ADOLESCENT IN SOCIETY adolescence: the period between the normal onset of puberty & the beginning of adulthood puberty: the physical maturing that makes an individual capable of sexual reproduction Prior to 1860s adolescence did not exist as a separate life stage. children were treated as small adults. Education Work Courts children stay in school laws restricted child juvenile-justice longer; extended period labor, also increasing system legally of dependence length of dependency distinguished b/w youth & adults Effect development of adolescence as a distinct life stage b/w childhood & adulthood Characteristics of Adolescence: • biological growth & development • undefined status • increased decision making • increased pressure • the search for self dating: the meeting of people as a romantic engagement (in societies that allow individuals to choose their own marriage partners) courtship: express purpose is eventual marriage →dating may lead to marriage, but casually for, entertainment & amusement Cause Effect Industrial Revolution people moved from the farms to the cities, where young adults could gain more economic freedom & their own homes. as a result, parental control over young adults & courtship decreased Public Education by the 1900s, most secondary-school students attended coeducational public schools, which increased interaction between boys & girls Automobile young adults had more freedom of movement away from parents Telephone young adults could more easily talk to members of the opposite sex Equality of Women more women entered the workforce & took on more active community roles, which increased the interaction b/w single adult men & women Problem Causes Teenage Sexual Behavior loosening of norms concerning sexuality; low-income, one-parent families Teenage Drug Use Teenage Suicide Consequences________ teenage pregnancy; exposure to or acquiring STDs such as syphilis or AIDS dropping out of school; having increase in the use friends who use drugs; social & of some drugs academic adjustment problems; among teens; hostile & rejecting family settings increase in drugrelated violence alcohol or drug use; triggering death; possible cluster events such as family crisis or effects leading to other trials of adolescence; teenage suicides; rise being female; social isolation; in U.S. teenage living in an underpopulated area; bad family suicide rate; teen environment; cluster effect suicide rate now from publicized suicides exceeds that for adults CHAPTER 7 THE ADULT IN SOCIETY life structure: the combination of statuses of roles, activities, goals, values, beliefs & life circumstances that characterize an individual Ages: Early Adulthood Era 17-22 Early Adult Transition – Entering the Adult World – Age 30 Transition – Settling Down Period Middle Adulthood Era 40-44 Midlife Transition – Entering Middle Adulthood – Age 50 Transition – Culmination of Middle Adulthood Late Adulthood Era 60-64 Late Adult Transition 65-75+ Late Adult Transition Phases of Adult Female Development Phase 1: Leaving the Family characteristics: young women leave home, break from their parents & form a life plan with an emphasis on marriage over establishing a career Phase 2: Entering the Adult World characteristics: many women, often in their 20s, marry & have children. More than ½ combine work & motherhood. Others leave work, which limits later job opportunities Phase 3: Entering the Adult World Again characteristics: many women, often in their early 30s, return to work after their children start school. They then pursue their career goals, similar to men in their 20s Percentage Distribution of Working Women by Marital Status, 2000 • 53% Married • 27% Single • 20% Widowed, Divorced or Separated CHAPTER 8 DEVIANCE & SOCIAL CONTROL deviance: behavior that violates significant social norms stigma: mark of social disgrace that sets the deviant apart from the rest of society Perspective Functionalist Theory Questions _____ Strain how do individuals respond to culturally approved goals & the legitimate means of achieving them? (conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion) Conflict Conflict what is the result of competition & social inequality? (deviance) who decides what is deviant? (ruling classes) Interactionist Control why do people conform to norms? (the strength of social ties determines conformity) Cultural how do people learn conformity or deviance? (through Transmission socialization, or interaction with others) where does this learning mainly occur? (primary groups) Labeling how do people become identified as deviant? (through secondary deviance, or labeled as deviant) crime: any act that is labeled as such by those in authority, is prohibited by law & is punishable by the government. American Criminal-Justice System Police have the most control over who is arrested for crimes; use police discretion, which has raised the controversial issue of racial profiling Corrections includes probation, imprisonment, parole; serves 4 functions: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation & social protection Courts determines the accused’s guilt or innocence in a court trial & then assigns a punishment; actually settles 90% of cases through plea bargaining Juvenile-Justice System applies to offenders younger than 18; guarantees juvenile defendants the same legal rights & privileges as adults; often provides more services CHAPTER 9 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION social stratification: the division of society into categories, ranks, or classes social inequality: the unequal sharing of scarce resources & social rewards The Caste System in India Caste Brahmans Kshatriyas Vaisyas Sudras Harijans Occupations priests, scholars rulers, nobles, soldiers merchants, bankers, businesspeople laborers, artisans outcastes, limited to the most undesirable tasks Theory Functionalist Cause of Stratification stratification is needed to help society function smoothly by ensuring that specific roles are performed. higher rewards guarantee that important roles that require more skill are filled Conflict: ---Marxists ---American Theorists ---the bourgeoisie exploit & control the proletariat to maintain wealth & power ---groups compete for scarce resources. those w/ power use it to maintain their position Criticisms of Theory ---society does not provide equal access to education & jobs ---rewards do not always reflect the social values of roles it fails to recognize that unequal rewards are based in part on differences in talents, skills & desires among people AMERICAN CLASS SYSTEM Upper Class 1%; prestigious schools; heirs, investors, large business owners & top executives Upper Middle Class Lower Middle Class 14%; college or university business executives 30%; high school or college; lower-level & professionals managers, skilled craftworkers, supervisors Working Poor 22%; some high school; laborers, service workers: gardeners, house cleaners, etc. Working Class 30%; high school; factory & clerical workers, lower level salespeople, some craftworkers Underclass 3%; some high school; undesirable low-paying jobs, unemployed, or on welfare for some time poverty: the standard of living that is below the minimum level considered adequate by society Characteristics of Poor Americans Sex: Age: ---women are the largest segment (57 %) ---children are the largest group (37%) ---female-headed households account for about ½ of all poor families ---3X more African-American & Hispanic children are poor than white children Race & Ethnicity: ---African-Americans & Hispanics are far more likely than white Americans to be poor Poverty Level by Family Size, 2000 1 person (<65 years) $8,794 2 persons (<65 years) $11,590 3 persons $13,738 4 persons $17,603 5 persons $20,819 6 persons $23,528 7 persons $26,754 8 persons $29,701 CHAPTER 10 RACIAL & ETHNIC RELATIONS race: category of people who share inherited physical characteristics & whom others see as being a distinct group ethnicity: the set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes 1 group from another group minority group: group of people who b/c of their physical characteristics or cultural practices are singled out & unequally treated (Louis Wirth) Prejudice →unsupported generalization about a category of people Discrimination →denial of equal treatment based on group membership →can be individual or societal →involves attitudes →involves behaviors →sociological, psychological →can be in favor of a group ____________ No Discrimination Yes Merton’s Patterns of Prejudice & Discrimination Prejudice Yes No Timid Bigot All-Weather Liberal prejudiced person who nonprejudiced person does not discriminate who does not discriminate ____________________________________________________________________ Active Bigot Fair-Weather Liberal prejudiced person who nonprejudiced person discriminates who discriminates A Continuum of Intergroup Relations Acceptance Rejection Cultural→Assimilation→Legal→Segregation→Subjagation→Population→Extermination Pluralism Minority Groups African-Americans Hispanics/Latinos Asian-Americans Native Americans White Ethnics Protection Transfer Conditions/Concerns making gains towards equality, but statistics still show members are lagging in education, employment & income; becoming more politically active rapidly growing population; trailing in income & education; diverse population contrast b/w 1st-generation immigrants, who are often poor, & 2nd generation, many of whom succeed educationally & financially; viewed as a “model minority,” although this term is resented often live on reservations; high poverty & poor education; encouraged to assimilated; taking steps to establish sources of income & better schools includes some who assimilate quickly & others who remain victims of prejudice & discrimination; making gains in religious tolerance; good education level CHAPTER 11 GENDER, AGE & HEALTH gender: the behavioral & psychological traits considered appropriate for men & women (sex = the biological identity of that person) gender roles: the specific behaviors & attitudes that society establishes for men & women The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy of Sexism • people who see women as incapable of holding positions of power make choices based on this belief • men who see women as inferior oppose women entering powerful positions • women who accept an inferior role do not pursue traditionally male roles • thus, not enough women are in positions of power to push for greater success • the fact that few women hold positions of power is used to justify the opinion that women must be incapable of holding such positions ageism: the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category “the graying of America”: 2000: 12%, 2010: 12%, 2025: 19%, 2050: 20% Effects of an Aging Population on American Society • Economic Effects → rising cost of health care; cost of Social Security; burden to family & younger workers; living longer in retirement • Political Effects → becoming a stronger political force; organized voting bloc (AARP, etc.) focusing on health care, retirement & Social Security Medicare: the government-sponsored health-insurance plan for elderly Americans & Americans with disabilities Medicaid: the state & federally funded health-insurance program for low-income individuals Segment of Society Special Health-Care Concerns poor people often not insured; have difficulty accessing & paying for care; cannot afford prescription drugs; have few doctors in poor communities elderly individuals need more care than general population; often poor or on strict budgets; sometimes refused insurance coverage due to pre-existing conditions AIDS sufferers need constant care in advanced stages; sometimes refused care by caregivers because of fear of infection; often not covered by insurance people suffering from often refused insurance coverage due to pre-existing conditions; chronic illnesses life-long care of illness is often extremely expensive alternative medicine: treating illness with unconventional methods such as acupuncture, acupressure, biofeedback, massage, meditation, yoga, herbal remedies & relaxation techniques CHAPTER 12 THE FAMILY family: a group of people who are related by marriage, blood or adoption & who often live together & share economic resources nuclear family: consists of one or both parents & their children – family of orientation – family of procreation extended family: consists of 2 or more generations kinship: a network of people who are related by marriage, birth or adoption Marriage-Partner Patterns 1. monogamy 2. polygamy a. polygyny b. polyandry Descent Patterns 1. patrilineal descent 2. matrilineal descent 3. bilateral descent Residential Patterns 1. patrilocality 2. matrilocality 3. bilocality 4. neolocality Authority Patterns 1. patriarchy 2. matriarchy 3. egalitarian Functions of the Family: • regulation of sexual activity • reproduction • socialization • economic & emotional security homogamy: marriage between individuals who have similar social characteristics heterogamy: marriage between individuals who have different social characteristics Trends in American Family Life: • delayed marriage • childlessness • dual-earner marriages • delayed childbearing • remarriage • one-parent families CHAPTER 13 THE ECONOMY & POLITICS economic institution: to satisfy people’s needs & wants, every society develops a system of roles & norms that governs the production, distribution & consumption of goods & services factors of production: 1) land 2) labor 3) capital 4) entrepreneurship Economic Models Capitalism 1. factors of production owned by individuals 2. forces of profit & competition regulate economic activity 3. minimum government interference 1. industrial & postindustrial 2. “pure” forms are ideal types Socialism 1. factors of production owned by the government 2. economic activity regulated by the government 3. pure form is communism power: the ability to control the behavior of others with or without their consent →the primary political authority in society = the state political institution: the system of roles & norms that governs the distribution & exercise of power in society legitimacy: whether those in power are viewed as having the right to control/govern others yes? Authority 1) traditional authority 2) rational-legal authority 3) charismatic authority no? Coercion Types of Governments Democratic systems Authoritarian systems 1) democracy 2) monarchy 3) constitutional monarchy 4) democratic socialism 1) authoritarianism 2) absolute monarchy 3) dictatorship 4) junta 5) totalitarianism Major Characteristics of the U.S. Political System • dominated by 2 major political parties: Democrats & Republicans • consists of 3 branches of government: the executive, legislative & judicial • includes interest groups & PACs, which help groups with minority views influence government decisions • includes public participation, although voter participation varies & is relatively low overall • has proportional representation, but debate exists over who holds power CHAPTER 14 EDUCATION & RELIGION education: the roles & norms that ensure the transmission of knowledge, values & patterns of behavior from one generation to the next schooling: formal education, which involves instruction by specifically trained teachers who follow officially recognized policies • The Functionalist Perspective on Education • The Conflict Perspective on Education • The Interactionist Perspective on Education ---Teaching Knowledge & Skills ---Transmission of Culture ---Social Integration ---Occupational Placement ---Social Control ---Tracking ---Education & Socioeconomic Status Current Issues in American Education • educational reform → to address a decline in the level of the quality of education; has led to some improvements • educational alternatives → provides school choice through vouchers, charter schools & options such as homeschooling • violence in the schools → has led to the use of security measures, zero tolerance policies & conflict-resolution programs • bilingual education → controversial, particularly in states with many Hispanics; has led to “English Only” movement sacred: anything that is considered to be part of the supernatural world & that inspires awe, respect & reverence profane: anything considered to be part of the ordinary world & thus, commonplace & familiar religion: a system of roles & norms that is organized around the sacred realm & that binds people together in social groups ANIMISM: spirits active in influencing human life but not worshiped. Rituals thank or win spirits’ good will. Shamanism: spirits communicate with one person (shaman). Shamans can heal sick, predict future. Totemism: kinship between humans & animals/natural objects: totems THEISM: belief in god or gods. God is divine power worthy of worship. Monotheism: belief in one god Examples: Judaism, Islam, Christianity ---organized structure, priesthood, rituals Polytheism: multiple gods Example: Hinduism ---usually one powerful god & lesser gods ETHICALISM: based on set of moral principles with sacred quality Examples: Buddhism, Shintoism, Confucianism ---involve meditation & purity of thought & action CHAPTER 15 SCIENCE & THE MASS MEDIA science: the pursuit of knowledge through systematic methods sociology of science: the sociological investigation of how scientific knowledge develops scientific method: an objective & systematic way of collecting information & arriving @ conclusions Norms of Scientific Research • universalism • organized skepticism • communalism • disinterestedness • counter-norms Although many scientists try to or would like to Merton’s norms, reality often falls short of this ideal. Realities of Scientific Research {} fraud {} competition {} Matthew effect {} conflicting views of reality mass media: instruments of communication that reach large audiences w/ no personal contact b/w those sending the information & those receiving it information society: a community in which the exchange of information is the main social & economic activity Print Media; Audio Media; Visual Media; Online Media; Convergence Contemporary Mass-Media Issues • children watching too much television • violence on television • ratings systems & parental controls • advertising targeting children • disengagement from direct social contact • decline in social capital • Internet causing decline in face-to-face relationships • the power of the media; agenda-setting • • • • • • TV-Y: children of all ages TV-Y7: children, ages 7 & older TV-G: all ages TV-PG: parental guidance suggested TV-14: ages 14 & older TV-MA: adults only CHAPTER 16 POPULATION & URBANIZATION population: the # of people living in an area @ a particular time demography: the area of sociology devoted to the study of human populations Birthrate = live births X 1000 total population Death rate = deaths X 1000 total population Infant = deaths among infants X 1000 mortality rate total live births Region North South East West RATES OF POPULATION CHANGE Total Population Live Births Deaths Birthrate Death Rate Growth Rate (%) 443,592 10,983 5,940 25 13 1.2 373,022 5,842 2,957 16 8 0.8 672,184 13,401 8,022 20 12 0.8 801,835 27,477 10,026 34 13 2.1 Malthusian Theory {vs.} Demographic Transition Theory →the population would soon reach →population patterns are tied to society’s astronomical numbers level of technological development Stage 1 = HIGH birthrate + HIGH death rate = SLOW population growth Stage 2 = HIGH birthrate + LOW death rate = RAPID population growth Stage 3 = LOW birthrate + LOW death rate = SLOW population growth urbanization: the concentration of the population in cities city: a permanent concentration of a relatively large number of people who are engaged mainly in non-farming activities over-urbanization: a situation in which more people live in a city than can be supported in terms of jobs & facilities MODELS 1) Concentric Zone → city spreads outward from center, resulting of circles, or zones 2) Sector → city grows in wedge-shaped sectors center to edges of city 3) Multiple-Nuclei → city develops around several centers of devoted to specialized land use THEORIES 1) Anomie → city is anonymous & unfriendly in a series carries negative consequences for residents 2) Compositional → greater diversity of city outward from residents leads to greater variety of lifestyles 3) Subcultural →people can find activity, or “nuclei,” others with similar interests in diverse cities; some people form close ties CHAPTER 17 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR & SOCIAL MOVEMENTS collective behavior: the relatively spontaneous social behavior that occurs when people try to develop common solutions to unclear situations collectivity: gathering of people who have limited interaction, unclear norms & limited unity Types of Collective Behavior: 1. crowds (casual, conventional, expressive, acting) 2. mass hysteria 3. fashions 4. fads 5. rumors 6. urban legends 7. public opinion (propaganda) 8. panics (moral panics) 9. riots 10. mobs • Gustave LeBon (contagion theory): the hypnotic power of a crowd encourages people to give up their individuality to the stronger pull of the group • Ralph Turner & Lewis Killian (emergent-norm theory): the people in a crowd are often faced with a situation in which traditional norms of behavior do not apply • Niel Smelser (value-added theory): predicting the direction of collective behavior, by steps Type Reactionary Conservative Revisionary Revolutionary SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Description & Example try to prevent a type of social change & return society to a past way of being; often use fear & violence example: Ku Klux Klan try to protect prevailing values from what are seen as threats to those values example: the religious right try to improve some part of society through social change; usually use legal methods & focus on a single issue example: women’s suffrage movement seek a total radical change of existing social structure, overthrow existing government & replace it with their own version; often involve violent or illegal methods example: the American Revolution Life Cycle: Agitation → Legitimation → Bureaucratization → Institutionalization • relative deprivation theory: people join social movements because they feel deprived relative to other people or groups with whom they identify • resource-mobilization theory: not even the most ill-treated group with the most just cause will be able to bring about change without resources CHAPTER 18 SOCIAL CHANGE & MODERNIZATION social change: alterations in various aspects of a society over time THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE Theory Cyclical Evolutionary Equilibrium Conflict Description Criticisms → Spengler: 4 stages (childhood, → focused on describing what is, youth, adulthood, old age) instead of why things happen → Sorokin: fluctuation between ideational culture (spiritual) & sensate culture (scientific) with idealistic culture in the middle → early: the progress through distinct → biased toward the West; does not stages toward complexity explain why change occurs → modern: tendency to go along many → does not explain short-term changes paths toward increasing complexity or wars → Parsons: occurs as society adapts to → does not explain widespread social maintain stability after a change in 1 change within or between societies area; involves differentiation & integration → Marx: results from class conflict & → does not always lead to revolution revolution → Dahrendorf: results from social → does not explain change without conflicts of all forms conflict modernization: the process by which society’s social institutions become increasingly complex as the society moves toward industrialization Characteristics of Modernized & Non-modernized Societies Characteristics Non-modernized Societies Modernized Societies family extended nuclear family size larger smaller population rural urban life expectancy lower higher infant mortality higher lower religious orientation more less formal education little widespread technology simple complex division of labor simple complex statuses mostly ascribed mostly achieved social stratification rigid more open social change gradual rapid Effects of Modernization Positive → increase in standard of living → longer life expectancies → lower birthrates → higher rates of literacy → decrease in economic & social inequality → more personal comforts → improved infrastructure → electricity & communication technology → establishment of educational institutions Negative → loss of some traditional authority for the family & religion → weaker social relationships & increased feelings of social isolation → moral & ethical questions → some environmental problems → some health problems