1. education
2. english as a second language

Introduction
If we accept that planet Earth is a multilingual environment where the diversity of language, culture and tradition is
highly valued by all, we must also accept that same diversity in our educational systems and in the classrooms in
which we teach.
We need to give our students a fighting chance of survival in a global marketplace - as the need to speak English has
become essential in almost every aspect of our working lives.
It’s a simple fact that many companies now use English as their first eliminator at job interviews. All applicants have
to pass a level control – just to get on to the interview list!
So where does language training fit into these rather broad and sweeping statements?
In our opinion it goes to the very heart - and to try to understand what we need to be, a number of things have to be
considered.
The “bottom line” behind our Personal Development Programmes is to help equip subject teachers in the CLIL
Project with the “nuts and bolts” of teaching in English – rather than going in “blind” because they speak English to a
predetermined level.
Speaking the language is essential, of course, but delivering the lesson requires practical ideas on how best to
implement CLIL while engaging all students. In short we need to consider, in detail, the global acronym TESOL
(Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages). Not just the Practice of TESOL in the classroom, but an
awareness of language itself, the sounds of English (phonetics), effective lesson planning and the methodologies we
can employ to bring it “altogether”.
Our objectives for this presentation are quite clear. This e-book is designed to stimulate your imagination, promote
an awareness of self and, above all, the asking of questions.
CLIL versus TESOL - an overview.
An awful lot has been written about CLIL (Content and language integrated learning) and TESOL (Teaching English to
Speakers of Other Languages) - what they are and how we should continue to develop them - but there is very little
real “hands on” practical guidance for subject teachers (and would be CLIL teachers) on how to plan and then teach
in the classroom.
Regrettably most EFL goals and objectives are neatly wrapped up in a tsunami of acronyms that mean very little to
teachers outside the ESL classroom and nothing at all to those wanting to take part in the project.
To help combat this we will try to stay within 6 broad parameters for this input - namely:

Language Awareness

The Sounds of English

The Practice of TESOL

Methodology

Use of Materials

Lesson Planning
Unfortunately the principles behind acronyms like TESOL, TEFL, TESL and ESP are many and far reaching – from
global statements like “all teachers are teachers of language” (The Bullock report – A Language for life, 1975) to wide
ranging arguments about cultural awareness, language competence and studies about “intrinsic” and “extrinsic”
motivation – in short – a minefield of “teacher jargon” for those not TESOL trained.
Before going into detail let’s consider each of the above areas in general terms.
1. Language Awareness.
In what are known as the bad old days of English Language teaching the teacher marched into the classroom and
gave such orders as, “Read the first chapter of your grammar book and answer the following questions.”
Fortunately this system has long since been abandoned in favour of a more graded approach, which places more
stress on a broadly communicative approach to language teaching – useful game-like or communicative grammar
practice procedures.
To teach the grammar (or structure) of English, we have to know it first. We must, at least, know most of it. For the
rest, you will need to get a good grammar book.
So - what will you need to know about the language you are teaching in?
You will need to be able to say what grammar is and be aware of the role and place of grammar in the teaching in
English to speakers of other languages.
You will need to be familiar with a wide range of grammatical terminology and be more aware of the kind of
grammar activities used in ESOL.
You will need to be able to develop and exploit grammar activities for the ESOL classroom.
You will also need to take into account the practice and principles of language learning itself.
A global definition of language learning principles might be thought of as “theory” derived from research, to which
we, as teachers, need to “match” classroom practices – but does this really fit in with reality?
Let’s start with our own childhood. How did we learn our own mother tongue?
The answer to this is no secret. We were simply born into it. Our native language environment was surrounded by
family, by a wide variety of adults and children - and we just “picked it up.”
Comprehension came first. With practice we soon understood what was being communicated to us and could react.
Production came next, starting with single word responses, “yes” and “no” being perhaps the first of the first.
Our understanding developed rapidly and production became more complex and sophisticated until, after just a few
short years we were fluent.
Could we read? No!
Could we write? No!
But most of us could maintain quite a sophisticated conversation by the time we were four or five years old.
Unfortunately it is virtually impossible to reproduce these conditions of “natural acquisition” in our language
classrooms.
We are forced to adopt a system of “graded exposure” to the foreign language and we have to present and explain
the rules (and systems) that are needed to communicate in it.
In short, we have to develop a syllabus.
But how close to reality is this?
Think about it. The language learning system is (through necessity) made up from a series of language learning
scenarios and activities which:
1) we break down into “chunks” (normally of equal duration – say I hour each)
2) take place at fixed times in the same locations (normally our classrooms – say 11 to 12 o’clock?)
3) follow a weekly timetable (say Mondays and Wednesdays).
In realty – nothing remotely like our own first communicative experiences – but this is where we ply our trade.
So let’s start with the word “language”. How would you define “language”?
Many think it’s all about communication, but is this enough?
Let’s look at a few different scenarios. All could be thought of as “communication” – but is it “language”. What do
you think?
Is this language? Yes / No
Examples:
1. A cat looking at a tin of cat food, miaowing. Yes / No
2. A woman reading a newspaper on a train. Yes / No
3. The African honey bird leading people to where the bees have made honey. Yes / No
4. Two deaf people signing to each other in a pub. Yes / No
5. A dog jumping up and fetching his lead when he hears the word “walkies” Yes / No
6. A parrot singing “Happy birthday to you” Yes / No
7. A two year old child saying “Daddy gone” Yes / No
8. Washoe the chimpanzee using sign-language to communicate “ball in the cup” Yes / No
2. The Sounds of English (Practical Phonetics).
Phonetics is the study and description of language. It is concerned with what we pronounce and how we pronounce
it. Written English and spoken English are clearly very different things. Writing is taken in by the eye whilst speaking
is organised sound, taken in by the ear.
So a priority task for anyone describing sounds is to decide how to represent the flow of speech. Obviously, the
conventional written forms are most unsatisfactory, since they provide little guide to pronunciation. In fact, as
Ferdinand de Saussure pointed out, “Written forms obscure our view of language. They are not so much a garment
as a disguise.”
Consider:
meat, mete and meet
cord, cawed, cored and chord
guessed and guest.
Linguists, then, when they are concerned with sounds, abandon conventional spelling for the purpose of
representing spoken utterances, and use one of many specially devised systems of notation in which one symbol
represents one sound. Perhaps the best known of these is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Language comprises three major elements:
a) Syntax (the study of the rules) whereby words or other elements of a sentence are combined to form
grammatically correct sentences – in other words the pattern of formation of sentences or phrases.
b) Phonology (or practical phonetics) – which includes pronunciation.
c) Lexis (the total stock of words in a language) – which in turn can be broken down into “lexical sets”.
Example: Question. What set of words do you think could be included in the target area “The Kitchen?”
Answer. Hundreds!
Unfortunately the teaching of these areas (and particularly that of pronunciation) is frequently neglected in the
language classroom.
We are also going to consider key terminology associated with pronunciation, stress and intonation by highlighting
the role phonology has to play in a language program and exemplifying the relationship between English “sounds”
and phonemic script.
A good TESOL programme encourages all four skills, but without a doubt speaking and listening seem to be by far the
worst areas to master when it comes to production.
Unlike (say) Spanish, where individual sounds are pure and (generally speaking) the stress is marked with an accent –
the sounds of English can present a minefield to unsuspecting students who would prefer not to open their mouths
unless they have to.
Phonology is just another word for pronunciation. In reality it means the “noises” we produce when we speak, and
includes the different rhythms and the way our voices rise and fall as well as the individual sounds that we make.
But is it important for teachers to be able to transcribe words into sounds? No!
Is it important to demonstrate those sounds to our students? Yes!
3. The Practice of TESOL.
As the name implies, the practice of TESOL embodies everything that you need to know (and do) to successfully
deliver your lesson.
Remember, you are only as good as your last lesson – so getting it right is imperative. Apart from the linguistic aim
of developing students’ communicative abilities in a Foreign Language, a second essential aim of any lesson, is the
learning of content-related knowledge through an innovative teaching approach.
Under the “umbrella” term - The Practice of TESOL - it is a good idea to consider some kind of template to plan and
implement our lessons. Depending on the group being taught learners will have different levels of language abilities
and skills.
It is important to think about your own language use in the classroom. You are a role model for the language your
students are trying to learn - so it is very important to be accurate.
You should grade or modify your language to the class level so that learners will understand the language you use to
manage the learning environment, especially in the form of instructions.
If you think about it – a language lesson (or complete course syllabus for that matter) is not a stand-alone input in
itself, neither is it a subject lesson transmitted in a foreign language.
Teaching in English to Speakers of Other Languages is very different! We need to be able to exploit communication
opportunities “and” develop language skills at the same time.
We have to match the activities we use to the needs of the student group and the demands of the syllabus.
We may have to work with toddlers in the kindergarten at one end of the scale and “A” level students for university
entrance at the other.
So how should we prepare?
What methodologies should we use?
What kind of lesson plan would best suit our objectives and bring them to life?
What materials can we use, and more to the point “exploit”
How can we measure the outcomes?
All this (and more) is the Practice of TESOL
4. Methodology.
If you are new to teaching in English it is very easy to overlook one of its most important characteristics. Language is
dynamic - it is infinite and ever changing.
We are able to produce an infinite number of utterances from a finite number of rules - so it should come as no
surprise that the best teachers are generally dynamic and ever changing themselves.
They develop, adapt, tag on and experiment with their “own” teaching methodologies.
Methodology should not be considered as a set of “standardized” and/or “acceptable” methods and techniques.
There is no one size fits all “methodology bible” for you to buy.
Unfortunately many teachers are happy to simply go from page one to page two to page three etc. and think that
they are doing their job, and yes you can find neat step by step guides telling you what to do and how to do it.
But this is a bit like reading a book on how to drive a car and then applying for your driving test without ever having
sat behind the wheel.
In reality the word “methodology” is grossly misinterpreted and misunderstood. Many think of it as an explanation
of the way a given teacher goes about his or her teaching – how he or she teaches. It is also understood by some to
mean “methods” in a very general sense, and bit by bit to encompass specific teaching techniques that seem to
qualify and give substance to the idea.
In our opinion (although it was written a long time ago) Brown’s (1994 5.1) definitions are still relevant today. He
said that we should consider the area of methodology as separate elements which when put together make up the
global “whole.”
Let’s look at some basic definitions:

Methodology. The study of pedagogical practices in general (including theoretical related research). This
basically means whatever considerations are involved in “how to teach” are methodological.

Approach. Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning,
and the applying of both in a pedagogical framework.

Method. A generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend
to be primarily concerned with teacher and student roles and secondarily with such features as linguistic and
subject-matter objectives, sequencing and materials. They are almost always thought of as being broadly
applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of contexts.

Curriculum/Syllabus. Designs for carrying out a particular language programme. Features include a primary
concern with the specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet
the needs of a designated group of learners in a defined context.

Technique. Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used in the language classroom for
realizing lesson objectives.
We are now going to (briefly) consider some of the more “well known” methodologies and then try to place them
within an English speaking CLIL environment. They are by no means exhaustive and in no particular order:
Audio-lingual method. This method is a way to teach a foreign language through intense repetitions of language
patterns.
The Communicative approach is a theory of teaching and learning foreign languages that recognizes the actual
communication as the overall goal and the medium of instruction – in short - the “purpose” of the communication. It
is based on the idea that communication alone is not simply a matter of what is said (structure/lexis) but where it is
said, by whom, when and why it is said.
English for Specific Purposes. (ESP) A communicative method used to teach a foreign language through
communication for the purpose of communication by using a set of “real life” situations or circumstances in which it
is necessary for the learner to use the language in order to achieve the desired goal. Simulation and role play is used
to replicate real world situations.
The Direct method is the way to teach a foreign language by switching over exclusively to the target language in the
classroom and intense grammar structure practicing.
The Grammar-translation method is a way to teach a foreign language with the help of contrastive native and target
grammar analysis.
The Humanistic approach is an education theory that recognizes the necessity to facilitate free and creative
development of the personality and involves the giving over of some “power” to the students by allowing for
personal creativity. In many ways we could say that this is a “Learner-centred approach” which also takes into
account individual student learning needs and objectives.
Total physical response is a way of teaching that combines language rehearsals with physical activities
From a more CLIL orientated perspective we also have:
Interactive Learning. This concept goes right to the heart of communication itself. It focuses on the negotiation
between speakers, the dual roles of “sender” and “receiver” to produce meaning. This concept demands a lot of pair
and group work in the classroom and lends itself to genuine language input from the “real world.”
Content-based learning joins language learning to content/subject matter and brings them together simultaneously.
In this approach language is seen as the vehicle or medium for acquiring knowledge about other things. An
important factor in this kind of learning is that it is the content itself that determines what language needs to be
mastered, not the other way round – an important part of a CLIL programme. Whether students are studying history,
geography, maths or science using English as the medium, they become more intrinsically motivated to learn more
of the language.
Task-based Learning equates the idea of a “learning task or situation” to a language learning technique in itself. The
task should have clear objectives, appropriate content and a set range of outcomes.
In recent years a debate has developed over which approaches to structuring, planning and implementing lessons
are more effective. We are going to consider just three.
The Present, Practice, Produce (PPP) approach.
The task-based learning approach (TBL)
Engage, study, activate (ESA). Roughly equivalent to PPP.
Most language teachers are familiar with the PPP paradigm. It has become a basic component on most teacher
training courses and, on the surface looks and sounds quite comprehensive and logical. PPP
First the teacher presents an item of language, a grammatical pattern or structure in as clear a way as possible.
During this phase the teacher is often very active and teacher talking time could take up as much as 80% of the class.
Second the students complete a controlled practice stage where they have to repeat target items in as many
different ways as is necessary to become comfortable with it. Depending on the level of the class activities can
progress from very structured (they provide little possibility of error) to less structured (as they master the material).
The teacher also dominates this phase of the lesson and can occupy up to 50% of the talking in class, but a wellbalanced lesson should aim at getting as much student talking time as possible
Finally, they move on to the production stage (sometimes called “free practice”) where they are given
communication tasks (role plays, simulations, pair and group work etc.) where they are expected to produce the
target language along with any other language that has already been learnt and is suitable for completing the task.
Ideally, students take the target language and use it to talk about themselves or their daily routines and situations
etc. Practice should involve as much as 90% of talk time if possible.
As you can see the general structure of a PPP lesson is flexible, and the moving from controlled and structured
speech to less controlled and freely used speech is crucial to success. It is also important to reduce the amount of
teacher talking time in PPP (and other methods as well) to permit and allow increased student talking time.
It is worth pointing out that one of the most common errors untrained and inexperienced teachers have is that they
talk too much. Our students get very little chance to actually use the language they learn and your classroom must
be structured to give them as much opportunity as possible.
It is a fact that the PPP model has functioned more or less effectively for generations, so why, you might ask should
we be looking at different models.
Answer. Why not?
The TBL approach.
Task based learning offers an alternative for language teachers. The lesson is based around the completion of a
central task and the language to be studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it.
A typical lesson follows six stages,
1) A pre-task. The teacher introduces the topic with clear instructions as to what they will have to do in the task
stage. This can be done in many ways. A vocabulary revision, for example, or the playing of a recording of other
students doing the task. This helps to give the students a clear model of what will be expected of them. Encourage
students to talk to each other and take notes for later.
2) The task. The students complete the task. This can be done in pairs or in small groups depending on the nature of
the task. Students use the language resources that they have while the teacher monitors and encourages.
3) Planning. Students prepare a short oral or written report to tell the class what happened during their task and
then practice what they are going to say in their groups. Again the teacher monitors, encourages and gives advice on
any difficulties or problem areas.
4) Report. The teacher chooses the order of presentations and the students report back to the class orally or read
their written report.
5) Analysis. The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for students to compare,
discuss and analyse. The teacher can also highlight some of the language that the students used themselves during
the report stage for analysis.
6) Practice. Finally, the teacher selects language areas to practice based on the needs of the students and what came
out of the task and report stages. Various practice activities can then be undertaken to increase confidence and
fluency.
A 2nd alternative to the PPP model is ESA
Engage, Study, Activate.
Roughly equivalent to PPP, ESA is slightly different in that it is designed to – and allows for – movement back and
forth between the stages. Each stage is similar to those of PPP and follows the same order, but Jeremy Harmer (its
principal advocate) in his book How to teach English (Longman 1998) uses more elicitation and stresses the
“Engagement” of students in the early stages of the lesson.
A basic ESA lesson would look something like this.
1) Engage. During the engage stage, the teacher tries to arouse the students’ interest and engage their emotions.
There are any number of ways to do this. A game perhaps, or a video or audio clip, the use of pictures or realia –
anything that will arouse interest, curiosity and attention.
2) The study phase activities focus on language (or information) and how it is constructed – and can vary from
concentration on pronunciation of a particular sound (say the 3rd person “s” or the past tense sounds of “ed”) to the
techniques that an author employs to create excitement in a reading text; from the study of a verb tense to reading
for gist or specific information.
3) Activate. This element is built around the exercises and activities which are designed to get the students talking.
They do not need to focus on language construction or practice specific language patterns – they are encouraged to
use all their language knowledge to complete the selected task or situation.
It would be logical to divide (say) a one hour lesson into three different segments. Activate would (and should ) be
the longest and in reality Study would probably be longer than Engage. In this format ESA would appear to be little
different to PPP, but nowadays more and more teacher training programs are leaning towards the ESA model,
especially those that teach only one of the approaches.
In conclusion:
It is better to consider teaching methodology as your own personal domain – a place where you can experiment and
develop your own techniques. Decide what “methods” are good for you to achieve your aims and objectives. Try to
“mix and match” them to your student/course/curriculum needs, and do not give up if your first attempts feel “soft.”
Try using various techniques in a variety of combinations until it feels “right.”
When you first start out - keep a teaching “journal.” List the techniques you have tried and grade how effective they
were. Do not be afraid to take a few risks – experiment! Accept errors as a “positive” part of the learning process
and see learning as a collective, co-operative and collaborative exercise - not a competitive one. Take responsibility
for your own learning, set your own goals and objectives and develop your own strategies to achieve them, and last
but not least, keep it simple! If you over complicate things your students will just switch off.
It is vitally important to know exactly who your students are, and why they are learning English as a Foreign
Language. Always bear in mind that “Age” should be seen as a learner variable and trying to match this or that
specific method or technique to this or that age could cause problems. Always be mindful and selective of the
techniques and materials you use.
Methodology and Age.
It is a well-known fact that most young learners have a very short attention span, orientated to “here and now” and
directly visible or perceivable. Hitting them with a host of grammatical rules and explanations will probably be lost
on them. Keep it simple and use plenty of examples and patterns to capture their imaginations and immediate
interest. They also need “sensory input” – try to stimulate some or all of their five senses at the same time.
Teenagers, on the other hand, are going through rapid transition and change, both mentally and physically. As they
develop they can be exposed to language learning techniques that require more cognitive ability – more logical
and/or abstract thinking. But remember that, although they have a better attention span than younger learners,
there are usually more distractions of an emotional nature to be considered. Ego and self-esteem are of paramount
importance to them. They are usually sensitive to the way their peers (and others) see their physical, mental and
emotional development, and errors (real or perceived) can easily shatter confidence with the inevitable negative
impact on the learning process.
Most adult learners have a longer attention span and can cope with more advanced learning strategies. They tend to
respond well to the teaching of grammatical rules and are usually able to apply L1 thinking and logic (when it
permits) to their learning abilities. Adult learners are generally intrinsically motivated and often perceive themselves
as “able to negotiate lesson needs and content.” In this way many do not “take risks” with their language abilities
until they feel confident that they can perform.
Talking time.
Pair work and group work should always be an integral part of your lesson, irrespective of the strategies and
techniques that you use. As mentioned earlier, one of the most common errors untrained and inexperienced
teachers have is that they talk too much. If conversation in a lesson is “teacher centred” - how much “talking time”
does a student actually get. Imagine you have a small class of 15 students and your lesson is of 50 minutes duration –
each student will get at most 3 minutes if they are talking only to you.
In pairs those same students could be holding a conversation with each other for as much as 24 minutes each, and in
activities designed for groups of 3 or 4 considerably more. Remember, our students get very little chance to actually
use the language they learn. Your lessons could (and should) be structured to give them as much opportunity as
possible.
Teacher language
Depending on the group you teach, your learners will have different levels of language abilities and skills. It is
important to think about your own language use in the classroom. You are a role model for the language your
students are trying to learn - so it is very important to be accurate.
You should grade or modify your language to the class level so that learners will understand the language you use to
manage the learning environment, especially in the form of instructions.
Managing the learning environment
Learners often have strong views about how they want to learn and how they want you to teach them. It is
important to listen to these views, but remember to balance them with the views of the other learners in the group
and with your own ideas and strategies. Some of the issues that may arise could be:
Pair/group work
As language is about communication, you maximize communication in the classroom by including some activities
that learners do in pairs or small groups.
You also use pair/group work to promote peer teaching, where learners help each other and reinforce their own
learning.
Some learners may be resistant to pair/group work, perhaps because they are used to a more teacher-centred
approach, where all communication is through the teacher.
They may also not want to work with certain individuals in the class or they may feel that they won't learn when they
are not talking directly to the teacher.
Learning styles
In general, we process information in three ways, in an auditory way (through hearing it), in a visual way (through
seeing it) or in a kinaesthetic way (through doing something physical with it).
Everyone has a preference for using one of these ways when learning, though we often use more than one. Your
learners will be keener to do activities that correspond to their learning style.
For example, learners who process information in a visual way will be happier working with texts and relating
language to pictures and mental pictures.
They may be less comfortable with a listening exercise.
Use of learners' first language
Many learners' previous language learning experience may have been in monolingual classes, where the teacher also
spoke the learners' first language.
Using the learners' first language can be a useful tool for teaching and learning and many course books suggest that
learners use translation.
On the other hand, it can also make the learner dependent on translation and at a loss, for example, when a
language point arises where there is not a one-to-one translation with the first language.
Also, in a multilingual classroom it would be impossible to expect the teacher to know all the languages represented!
Preparation and Planning
Preparation and planning are important parts of a teacher's role. Lessons are more likely to be effective if you have
thought everything through beforehand.
It is also important to create a written lesson plan and a running order as a guide for what is going to happen in your
lesson.
A running order is very useful for new teachers as it can be pinned on the black/white board and used to check that
you are actually doing what your lesson plan says is going to happen, in what order and for how long etc.
The lesson plan
Lesson plan formats are varied but should include:
1. Lesson aims and objectives / learning outcomes. What your students should be able to do by the end of the
lesson
2. Anticipated problems and solutions. Areas that you think may cause problems or difficulties for your learners
and your solutions
3. Sequencing / Stages. The order and parts of the lesson
4. Interaction pattern. The direction of the communication. Teacher to student, student to student, student to
teacher.
5 Stage aims. The reason for doing this stage of the overall aim/objective
Materials.
How to exploit materials.
Because of time constraints we are only going to consider 3 of the more important areas to exploit:
1) Written text
2) Visualization
3) Art and crafts
and leave the rest to your own imagination.
Written Text.
Once you have decided what text you want to use, the next question you have to ask yourself is “how do I exploit
it?”
Language teachers are in familiar territory here as they do this all the time, but subject teachers are probably less
familiar with the techniques of how to exploit a text for language.
It goes without saying that the written word is by far the most exploited form of lesson material, and a quick browse
on the internet will give you literally thousands of ideas, complete with lesson plans and teachers notes. Most course
books offer the same kind of deal, but targeting your learners with “home-made” materials can produce better
learning outcomes because it can be personalized to the specific needs of the group or individual. Unfortunately this
can be time consuming, but once you have made the materials – you have them forever, and they can be used over
and over again.
Obviously your lessons aims and objectives will determine the kind of material to be used but first you will have to
think about the target vocabulary – is there any technical or specialist vocabulary that your students “need to know”
to understand what they are doing? If this is the case then you will need to think about what activities will be best to
help pre-teach this vocabulary.
Perhaps matching words to definitions or pictures, or a gap-fill activity, even a simple word search or crossword
activity with clues in Spanish and the answers in English.
Alternatively, you could help your students discover the meanings through the text itself - helping them to
guess meaning from context.
Your main activity will probably concentrate on general comprehension of the text. You can do this with
comprehension questions, information gaps, jigsaw reading tasks, jumble tasks, etc.
Follow-up activities can work on reinforcing the vocabulary taught earlier and developing both language skills and
comprehension of the topic.
These activities can include group discussions, individual presentations, making posters and writing about the topic
(for homework or in class).
Visualization
Visualization has been widely used in sports psychology over the last 30 years to enhance all aspects of performance.
In this input we are going to look at some of the ways that it can be applied to language learning.
What is visualization?
Visualization involves the creation of real or unreal images in the mind's eye. We use it to refer to visual images,
images of sound, movement, touch, taste and smell.
Introducing Visualization to Students.
It’s an unfortunate fact of life that many of our learners are not gifted with an over active imagination and find it
very difficult to visualize things in their mind’s eye.
Many learners feel that they can't produce images that “work” or are “good enough”. We need to make them
understand that it's not necessary to produce the vivid images we get in a dream. If they can see the image and can
describe it - that's fine.
The following script is one way of introducing visualization to students who have no experience of it.
Brainstorming activity for whole class. Draw a large door on the black/white board.
Teacher. Here is a door. It opens into a room you have never been in before. Open the door and tell me what you
see. What can you hear/smell etc.
Write some (or all) student comments on the door (on the black/white board) to get the process going. This can be
quite funny.
Now draw another large door on the blackboard and say to the class:
Now I am going to open this door. I am going to describe what I see and I want you to imagine it in your head. (with
or without eyes shut – depending on age and the learners). Do not speak out loud – just imagine everything that I
say.
Note: If you would like to experience this procedure for your-self close your own eyes after each instruction and see
what you want your students to see.
I have opened the door. I’m in a study/bedroom. There is a single bed on the left and a large wooden desk and a
chair on the right. On the desk there is a computer. I want you to turn the computer on with your right hand. (Wait
10 seconds)
The screen is blue and you hear the “windows” tune as it loads the internet. (wait another 10 seconds)
You can see the “Google” screen. Now type the words “LAS PALMAS “ in the search box and click “enter” (wait 10
seconds)
You can see Canteras beach. It is very hot. The sky is blue, the sea is calm and the beach is very crowded. (Wait 10
seconds)
Now imagine that the sky is grey, the waves are very big and the beach is empty. (Wait 10 seconds)
Now turn up the volume with your right hand. You can hear the waves crashing over the reef. (Wait 10 seconds)
Now let the waves and sounds disappear and switch off the computer (Wait 10 seconds)
When you’re ready open your eyes.
If you were using this script with a class, what language would you pre-teach. Would you translate it into L1?
Guidelines for using visualization in class
If you're using visualization for the first time, don't be too adventurous. Play safe until you are confident it works for
you.
Have a clear aim for the visualization.
Using a script. When writing a script include clear open questions to help students produce different images. Use
specific verbs, for example, 'see', 'feel', 'hear', 'taste', 'smell'. It is important to include different senses as your class
will be made up of students who are predominantly visual, auditory or kinaesthetic learners.
Include suggestions in your script to help those students that don't automatically produce images. For example:
'You're reading a magazine. What kind of magazine is it? It could be a sports magazine or…..'
Mark the points where you need to pause to give students time to create images. Practise reading it aloud.
In class pre-teach any key vocabulary in the script.
Explain what visualization is and why you are going to use it.
Lead students into the visualization gently. Allow them to relax. If they don't want to close their eyes, that's fine. I
use the image of a door, but it's only one way. If you have included questions in your script, tell students that they
shouldn't answer them aloud.
Present your script repeating key elements. Don't rush it.
Bring students out of the visualization gently.
After the visualization, set up the communication / writing task.
Practical applications of visualization
Visualizations can be used for speaking practice as they create a natural information gap.
For descriptions. For example, a visualization of a student's relative, focusing on personality and physical
appearance, can be followed by students describing the relative to a partner.
Write the questions from the visualization on the board as prompts, for example, 'What's he/she like? What does he
/she look like?'
To stimulate speaking. For example, after a visualization of an airport departure lounge where students hear the
conversations of a variety of different travellers (for example, two strangers who have just met etc.), they act out the
conversations.
For narrating. For example, after a visualization of a memorable event, students ask each other about the event
using the questions from the visualization. Change the present forms into the past. So -'What's the weather like?'
becomes 'What was the weather like?'
They can be used to focus on the layout and content of letters. Students write a letter on their computer screens
based on question prompts in the script, for example. 'Who are you writing to?' 'Where are you writing the letter?'
They can be used to develop students' self-confidence. For example, a visualization of a successful learning event.
Students can also write their own scripts, for example, a virtual tour of their country, their house etc.
Why use visualization?
It can bring classroom activities to life and make them more memorable
It creates a natural information gap
It combines left- and right-brain functions (language and imagination)
It can help students to develop their ability to create different sensory images
It can add variety to your teaching
It can help students to learn to relax making them more receptive.
(adapted from TE 2003)
Art in the classroom
As the saying goes, “Art is all around us‟ and is definitely an excellent way to facilitate language learning for all ages.
Activities incorporating art are motivating for students, provide an often welcome change of pace and can stimulate
and develop creative and critical thinking skills.
Arts and crafts in the English classroom covers a wide area from simple activities such as cut and paste posters for
the younger learners to more complicated projects such as a visit to an art exhibition or an assignment that involves
research on the internet.
At all levels appropriacy, preparation and clarity of target language will ensure a successful activity and lots of fun.
For mixed age and ability classes arts and crafts activities can supplement a course book which isn't always
appropriate for all students.
Arts and crafts for younger learners.
Students can work on projects in groups with a mixture of levels. For example, if students are creating a graffiti wall,
then those with a lower level work on designing a 'tag' while higher levels write an accompanying text about the
history of graffiti tags.
Arts and crafts can be a great way to include cross-curricular activities in an English language classroom. Students
can incorporate drama skills using masks they have made for role plays. They can use their knowledge of geography
to make flag posters.
Printing images found on the Internet for displays calls on students' computer skills.
Teamwork, class cohesion and sharing are promoted if students have to work together to complete an art project
and that making something in class is a more creative and productive treat than video.
You can appeal to the competitive urge in many students by getting them to produce art work for competitions, for
example design a Christmas card or school magazine cover. This also looks good on the walls as do posters, photo
stories, papíer-mâchê or plasticine animals and all other finished products that can be displayed. Brightening up a
classroom with students' work is also something that parents appreciate on open days.
Kinaesthetic learners who learn best by moving around and Visual / Spatial learners, who love making things will find
arts and crafts activities motivating. Less academic students can shine as you don't have to know the past continuous
to be good at cutting and sticking.
Arts and crafts are very useful for recycling language. You can use a wall display to revise vocabulary as a warmer.
Students look at it for 30 seconds then try to remember what they've seen with their chairs turned round.
Arts and crafts for older learners.
All the above applies to our older learners as well and we can also:
Ask the students to choose a character from a painting or sculpture and write a mini-biography or story about that
character
Compare two pieces of art with similar subjects, practising comparative language and adjectives. Ask the students to
look at the website of a famous gallery and write a quiz about the works of art to swap with the other students to
answer
Write questions to ask an artist or a character in a painting. Then role play the interview in pairs, followed by writing
up a news article about the interview (using reported speech).
Ask the students to bring in a copy of a piece of art by an artist they particularly like. Make a gallery in the classroom
and ask the students to decide on a title for each piece of work in groups.
Ask the students to bring in a photograph they have taken and ask the other students to write a short story about
the events leading up to the moment the photograph was taken (practising past tenses) and/or what happened after
the photograph was taken. Then check with the owner whether their guess was right.
Get the students to bring in a piece of art that represents their childhood and ask the other students to form
sentences about what they “used to do‟ and/or write questions to ask the owner who brought it in.
Put the students into groups and ask them to create a piece of art using a variety of easily found materials – plastic
bags, string, tissues, cardboard boxes – whatever you have to hand! Get them to title their piece of work and judge
them according to originality, teamwork and use of materials.
Do a visualisation exercise where you get the students to imagine painting the most beautiful picture they have ever
seen. Then ask them to describe the picture to a partner who tries to draw it.
It's useful to show students an example of the end product. They will then have a clear idea of what they are going
to make, and it is always a good idea to try out the activity your-self first. Make sure that a resources book or course
book activity isn't too complicated or time consuming.
To maximize use of English elicit, pre-teach and practise the language needed for the smooth running of the activity
and for using in the production stage.
There are literally thousands upon thousands of materials on the internet, one particularly good one is Wikipedia,
where both the normal English and the “Simple English” sites offer fantastic sources for texts which can be legally
adapted and used in the classroom.
The exploitation of materials is second nature to most EFL teachers but there are a number of pitfalls to consider in
the CLIL classroom, especially if you are new to the game and are not familiar with EFL techniques.
When exploiting a text for language for example, one of the first things to think about will be the vocabulary – is
there any technical or specialist vocabulary that we need to pre-teach to help our students understand – and if so
how best can we do it?
What follow up activities can we use to reinforce this vocabulary and at the same time try to develop language skills
and comprehension of the topic? The list goes on and on.
We should always aim for communicative efficiency according to level. One particularly important thing to
remember is to work as a team.
When language teachers are working together they can help each other out, observe each other’s lessons, share and
exploit materials, find and adapt equivalents and most of all bounce ideas off each other to get the best from their
students.
Adapting material to the specific needs of a person or group can be
motivating and fun. Look at the image on the left and decide how
we could “milk” it to get as much out of it as we can.
Think outside the box and come up with as many scenarios as you
can.
How could we adapt it for (say) elementary level students? How
could we exploit this same material at upper intermediate level?
Let´s consider the image (taken from Teaching Oral English by Donn
Bryne).
If you say to your students “Describe this picture” they will have
exhausted all possibilities in moments. Learning value - Zero.
But if we say “What do you think is on the other side of the wall”
we can now exploit the image (and language) in dozens of ways.
We could, for example, have a class brain-storming activity
and your students could shout out one word ideas or even better
come out to the blackboard and write their ideas down as a list of
possibilitie - (this can be very funny).
We could then get the students to invent a dialogue between two (imaginary) people who have noticed the boys.
We could start the dialogue on the blackboard and let the students complete it.
Example:
A. Look at those boys. They´re up to no good.
B. Really. Why do you say that?
A. Well! For a start they should be at school.
B. You´re right. And I know that place. Its........
Lesson Planning
How should we organise our lessons? In a perfect world the four language skills need to be combined in the
language classroom.

Reading – using meaningful material – the major source of input

Writing – lexical activities through which grammar is recycled

Listening – an activity vital for language learning

Speaking – to focus on fluency – remember accuracy is seen as subordinate
Our lessons need to focus on content and language in equal measure, and to achieve this often follow a four (or five)
stage framework.
It goes without saying that good, solid planning is crucial if you want to achieve your objectives and the writing of
the lesson plan has three important functions:

Clearly stating your objectives, and what you intend to do to achieve those objectives, helps you to think
logically through the stages in relation to the time you have available.

Having something to refer to in the lesson helps keep you on target (although it should never prevent you
from responding to the needs of the moment, if necessary).

Suitably amended after the lesson, a lesson plan acts as a record of what the class has done and might form
the basis for a future lesson plan with a similar class.
The stages in a basic lesson plan - Questions we need to ask ourselves are:

How will I break up the lesson time into stages?

What will be the purpose of each stage?

What will be my role at each stage?

How will the stages be linked?
Stages.
1 Introduction 3 - 5 minutes
Three elements usually comprise the introduction stage:
a) Greeting.
b) Brief revision of the previous lesson's objectives linked (if appropriate) to the lesson just commencing.
c) Lead-in and pre-teaching of new lexis and concept classification (if appropriate).
2 Presentation 12 - 15 minutes
This important and complex stage – of initial language exposure and practice – requires the teacher to adopt the
roles of controller and organiser.
New language (which may be structural, functional, lexical, phonological, etc.) is presented by direct method
(using the target language), visuals, cassette, text, etc.
Comprehension checks of meaning/use are through concept questions and of language/form through student
production.
3 Controlled practice 12 - 15 minutes
Here the teacher adopts the roles of organiser, assessor and prompter. This stage is mainly one of student
production.
The new language is practised using a variety of methods which may include various pattern practice drills,
choral work, pair and group work or individual practice using visual or audial cues. Learners are using familiar
vocabulary and the new language.
They are not expected to be creative at this stage.
4 Further practice (consolidation) 10 - 12 minutes
This stage is one of student production with the teacher adopting a 'gentle correction' approach and the roles of
organiser, prompter and assessor.
The gap between drills (or non-communicative activities) and real communication is narrowed by offering the
students choices and introducing creative elements requiring the production of the new language in new and
different situations.
5 Free stage 10-15 minutes
Again, this is a student production stage. Here the teacher has a limited organisational role and becomes an
assessor, prompter, participant and/or resource.
During the free stage the teacher sets up a role-play, game or interactive activity to see whether the students
can use the new language or not.
They can be as creative as they wish at this stage and effective use is more important than accuracy.
End of e-book
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