1. society
2. work
3. contracts

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 SENTENCE AND CLAUSE
2.1.1
A Brief Note on Sentence
A sentence is normally defined as a word or group of words that has a subject
and a verb and must expresses a complete thought (Langan, 2003:100). The subject
includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the subject is about and what the
sentence says about the subject is called the verb (Langan, 2003:231).
Examples: Most students failed the test.
Subject Verb
The bus arrived shortly.
Subject Verb
Ninda learnt French at school.
Subject Verb
Webster (1935: 280) gives a comprehensive definition of sentences that a
sentences is a group of words so related as to convey a complete thought with the
force of asserting something or of asking, commanding, exclaiming or wishing
structurally considered as a group of words forming one or more predications (in the
latter case either linked in a series or subordinated one another). From quotation
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above, there are four kinds of sentences (Wren &Martin, 1990:1): declarative,
exclamatory, interrogative, and imperative.
2.1.1.1
Declarative or Assertive Sentence
A declarative sentence is sentence that makes a statement or assertion. The
declarative sentence ends with a period mark (.). It is the common type of sentence
used. In a declarative sentence, the subject and predicate have normal word order.
The declarative sentence can be divided into two types: affirmative and negative
sentence.
- Affirmative is a sentence which stated the positive statement.
Examples: - My best friend is a diligent student.
- The poem is very difficult.
- She has a good memory.
- Negative is the sentence which stated the denial statement.
Examples: - I can’t read them without my glasses.
- She is not a student.
- There are no pictures in this book.
2.1.1.2
Interrogative Sentence
Interrogative sentence is sentence which asks a question and it needs an
answer. The sentence ends with a question mark (?) in writing. The interrogative
sentence can be divided into two: yes/no question and informative sentence.
- Yes-No question is a question that needs an answer with yes or no..
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Examples: - Do you go to the movie?
- Did you see the movie last night?
- Informative question is a question that needs the information as the answer.
Examples: - How much does it cost?
-
2.1.1.3
Where do you live?
Imperative Sentence
Imperative sentence is a sentence which states the command or request. In
imperative sentence, only the predicate is expressed. The simple form of the verb is
used. The imperative sentence ends with a period in written language and a drop in
pitch in spoken.
Examples: - Shut the door! (command)
- Could you close the book? (request)
2.1.1.4
Exclamatory Sentence
Exclamatory sentence is a sentence which expresses a feeling of
amazement, a surprise or even a compliment of something. In written language, the
exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamatory mark (!). In spoken language, the
important word in exclamatory phrase may receive a stronger degree of stress and be
accompanied by a rise in pitch.
Example: - What a nice car!
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2.1.2
A Brief Note on Clause
A clause may be defined in the same way as a sentence; it is simply a word
having a subject and a verb (Langan, 2003:120). There are two kinds of clauses:
-
Independent clause: it has one subject part and one predicate part, it expresses a
complete thought and it can stand alone. We can say the independent clause is
also simple sentence.
Example: - My brother studies very hard.
The subject part is (my brother) and the predicate part (studies very hard).
It express a complete thought and can not stand alone.
-
Dependent clause: it is a group of words that contains a unit of subject and a
unit of verb but does not expresses a complete thought, in another word it
cannot stand alone (Miller, 1952: 255). Example:
- After the basketball game was over.
The subject part is (the basketball) and the predicate part is (was over). It can
not stand alone and it must be combined with independent clause to make a complete
thought.
Based on the number and kind of clauses within a sentence, sentences in
English are traditionally described as simple, compound, complex, or compoundcomplex (2003: 139). Each is explained below:
2.1.2.1 Simple Sentence
A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent
clauses. For example:
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- Dina fixes a camera.
2.1.2.2 Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined
by a coordinating conjunction (Laidlaw, 1987: 88). For example:
- Dina fixes her camera and she will give it to Reni.
2.1.2.3
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is made up of a simple sentence (a complete
statement) and a statement that begins with a dependent word/ dependent clause
(Langan, 2003: 142). Here is a list of common words according to Langan
(2003:142):
Dependent Words
After
if, even if
when, whenever
although, though
in order that
where, wherever
as
since
whether
because
that, so that
which, whichever
before
unless
while
even though
until
who
how
what, wherever
whose
For Example:
- Dina who fixes a camera will give it to Reni.
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2.1.2.4
Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence is made up of two (or more) simple sentences
and one (or more) dependent statements (Langan, 2003:146). For example:
- Dina fixes a camera and she will give it to Reni because her father buys
a new camera.
2.2
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A sentence will be called “compound” when it consists of two or more
independent clauses. A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two principal
or main clauses, with or without subordinate clauses (Miller, 1952: 255). It can be
said that a compound sentence is made up of two or more complete thoughts
(Langan, 2003:53). It is mostly used in reading and writing a text. For example, look
at the following sentences below:
- The man is so poor.
- He is honest.
These two simple sentences can be combined to form one compound sentence.
- The man is so poor but he is honest.
The two complete statements in a compound sentence are usually connected
by a comma plus a joining, or coordinating word (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), or
with a semicolon (;) and sometimes use subordinate conjunction.
We know that a sentence is the combination of clauses. The clauses from
simple sentences join with subordinate clauses to make compound sentence. The
dorms of compound sentences are marked with:
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2.2.1
Coordinate Conjunction
Coordinate conjunction is ways of showing the exact relationship of ideas
within a sentence. And a coordinate conjunction is a conjunction that joins sentences
of equal rank or it joins words that stand in the same relation to some other word in
the sentence (Langan, 2003:147). Put a comma plus a joining word (also known as a
coordinating conjunction), such as and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet.
A coordinate process gives the balance of writing by bringing together
related independent clauses. Each of the coordinate conjunction has a different
meaning and function. There are several conjunction according to Langan
(2003:537):
COORDINATE
MEANING
FUNCTION
CONJUNCTION
And
In addition to
To link idea
But
However
For
As a result
Nor
Negative
To reinforce negative
Or
Choice
To show possibilities
So
Therefore
To show result
Yet
However
To
To contrast ideas
To show case
show
contrast
or
difference
2.2.2
Punctuation of Semicolon
A semicolon is a comma and period combined with this mark (;). The
semicolon (;) is made up of a period above comma and sometimes called a strong
comma. The semicolon signals more of a pause than a comma alone but not quite the
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full pause of a period (Langan, 2003:126). It shows that first word in the clause after
the semicolon begins with a small later. A semicolon may appear before a coordinate
conjunction or join clauses if there is already internal punctuation within one or more
of the clauses.
A semicolon is used to do the following (Langan, 2003: 331):
- Join two complete thoughts that are not already connected by a joining word such
as and, but, for, or, and so.
Example: She lives in Malaysia; her mother lives in London.
- Join two complete thoughts that include a transitional word such as however,
moreover, therefore, furthermore, otherwise.
There is a list common transitional word (also known as Adverbial
Conjunction). Brief meanings are given for the words according to Langan (2003:
236):
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TRANSITIONAL WORD
MEANING
however
but
nevertheless
however
on the other hand
however
instead
as a substitute
meanwhile
in the intervening time
otherwise
under other conditions
indeed
in fact
in addition
also
in addition
moreover
in addition
furthermore
in addition
as a result
thus
as a result
consequently
as a result
therefore
as a result
Example: Ratna always does her homework every night; however she forgets
this night.
-
Join independent clauses when one or both clauses contain comma.
Examples: She is a lazy, dishonest girl; and we all hate her.
2.2.3
Conjunctive Adverb
Conjunctive adverb, like coordinate conjunction and punctuation of
semicolon, are used to connect basic sentence patterns and make compound
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sentence. The conjunctive adverbs which join independent clauses behave both as
conjunctions and as adverbs. As conjunctions, they have the function of connecting
grammatical structures. (Frank, 1972: 226) states that if conjunctive adverb as
adverb, it both provides transitional adverbial meanings and have the ability of
filling adverbial positions. It means that conjunctive adverb connects the structures
of independent clauses. Example:
- Nina really like mango, besides she also likes apple.
The conjunctive adverb (besides) connects the first independent clauses with
the second independent clauses. It means that conjunctive adverb explains the
independent clauses in a sentence.
Frank also states that the conjunctive adverbs are listed under the relationship
they show. Frank gives the relationship between conjunctive adverb and coordinate
conjunction (1972:227):
No
Conjunctive Adverb
Function
Corresponding
Coordinate
Conjunction
1.
Besides,
likewise,
moreover,
Addition
And
Result
So
Time
-
furthermore, and in addition
2.
Accordingly,
consequently,
hence, then, therefore, as a
result, of for the reason
3.
Then, subsequently, meanwhile,
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afterward, earlier, and later
4.
However,
nevertheless,
nonetheless,
still,
Contrast
But, yet
conversely, (concession)
otherwise, instead, in contrast, or
on the other hand.
Conjunctive adverbs joining clauses are punctuated in the same way as other
adverbs. It is a guide by whether we would pause in speech. Example:
- My house was robbed last week, as a result, I bought a watchdog.
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